854:"The Chinese, having conquered Choson, set up four administrative units called commanderies. The Lelang commandery was located along the Ch'ongch'on and Taedong rivers from the coast to the interior highlands. Three other commanderies were organized: Xuantu, Lintun, and Zhenfan. Lintun and originally Xuantu were centered on the east coast of northern Korea. Zhenfan was probably located in the region south of Lelang, although there is some uncertainty about this. After Emperor Wu's death in 87 BCE a retrenchment began under his successor, Emperor Chao (87-74 BCE). In 82 BCE Lintun was merged into Xuantu, and Zhenfan into Lelang. Around 75 BCE Xuantu was relocated most probably in the Tonghua region of Manchuria and parts of old Lintun merged into Lelang. Later a Daifang commandery was created south of Lelang in what was later Hwanghae Province in northern Korea. Lelang was the more populous and prosperous outpost of Chinese civilization."
616:"Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing."
25:
726:"Despite recent suggestions by North Korean scholars that Lelang was not a Chinese commandery, the traditional view will be adhered to here. Lelang was one of four commanderies newly instituted by the Han Dynasty in 108 BC in the former region of Chaoxian. Of these four commanderies, only two (Lelang and Xuantu) survived successive reorganizations; and it seems that even these had their headquarters relocated once or twice."
770:"North Korean scholars, however, admit that a small number of items in these tombs resemble those found in the archaeological sites of Han China. These items, they insist, must have been introduced into Korea through trade or other international contacts and "should not by any means be construed as a basis to deny the Korean characteristics of the artifacts" found in the P'yongyang area."
1060:"North Korean historiography from the 1970s onward has stressed the unique, even sui generis, nature of Korean civilization going back to Old Chosön, whose capital, Wanggömsöng, is now located in the Liao River basin in Manchuria rather than near Pyongyang. Nangnang, then, was not a Chinese commandery but a Korean kingdom, based in the area of Pyongyang."
226:
798:"Chinese forces subsequently conquered the eastern half of the peninsula and made lolang, near modern Pyongyang, the chief base for Chinese rule. Chinese sources recall how China used not only military force but also assassination and divide-and-conquer tactics to subdue Chosŏn and divide the territory into four commanderies."
1144:"He then divided the country into military districts, of which the most important was that of Lolang, or Laklang, with headquarters near the modern Pyongyang. Tomb excavations in this area have produced much evidence of the influence of Han civilization in northern Korea."
504:
academic community, the Han dynasty's annexation of the Korean peninsula have been denied. Proponents of this revisionist theory claim that the Four
Commanderies of Han actually existed outside of the Korean peninsula, and place them somewhere in
1256:"In the corridor between the peninsula and northeast China, the Chinese Han dynasty established four “commanderies” that ruled over parts of the peninsula and Manchuria, much as modern imperial powers governed their colonies."
1018:"Nangnang commandery centered around Pyeong'yang was established when Emperor Wu of Han China attacked Gojoseon in 108 BC and was under the rule of Wei from 238. Wei is the country that destroyed the Later Han dynasty."
698:"But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China."
826:"The way of life maintained by the elite at the capital in the P'yongyang area, which is known from the tombs and scattered archaeological remains, evinces a prosperous, refined, and very Chinese culture."
936:"The Wei Ji (compiled 233–97) places the Yemaek in the Korean peninsula at the time of the Han commanderies in the first century BC, giving them a specifically Korean identity at least by that time."
1116:"The Chinese commanderies did not extend to the southern half of the peninsula, stretching perhaps as far south as the Han river at the greatest extent, but they did reach the northeast coast."
1172:"Under Emperor Wu-ti, Han China extended her influence into Korea, and in 108 B.C., the peninsula became a part of the Chinese Empire, with four dependent provinces under the Chinese charge."
524:" in the academic community of North Korea, which is supported by the amateur historical enthusiasts in South Korea, but this theory is not recognized at all in the academic circles of the
882:"Han China resumes its effort to subdue Korea, launching two military expeditions that bring much of the peninsula under Chinese control; it sets up four commanderies in conquered Korea."
908:"The latter, associated with Han China, are important, as their discovery permits us to infer the existence of relations between the Han commanderies and the Samhan societies."
670:"Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria."
1381:
1374:
1348:
1322:
925:
1200:"In southern Manchuria, and northern and central Korea, the Chinese established four commanderies, which were subdivided into prefectures."
1025:
46:
642:"They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de- emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history."
1279:
1245:
1217:
1189:
1161:
1133:
1077:
1007:
979:
951:
897:
871:
843:
815:
787:
715:
687:
659:
631:
605:
1454:
1367:
1105:
68:
1449:
467:
447:
407:
387:
366:
346:
188:
990:"Northeastwards Emperor Wu's forces conquered northern Korea in 108 b.c. and established four command headquarters there."
962:"In 108 B.C. most of the Korean peninsula was divided into four Han commanderies, the most important of which was Lelang."
281:
1290:"The territorial extent of the Four Chinese Commanderies seems to have been limited to the area north of the Han River."
39:
33:
509:, China instead. According to this theory, the Lintun Commandery was said to be located in the southern part of
50:
1390:
545:
253:
280:
by Han dynasty. This commandery was formed by 15 prefectures and its border is almost the same as the current
463:
427:
1088:"108 BC: Han armies invade Wiman Choson; Chinese commanderies are set up across the north of the peninsula"
202:
514:
506:
915:
1426:
1048:
757:
749:
572:
567:
560:
510:
265:
241:
230:
1418:
1402:
1344:
1318:
1275:
1241:
1213:
1185:
1179:
1157:
1129:
1101:
1095:
1073:
1003:
975:
947:
921:
893:
867:
839:
811:
783:
711:
683:
677:
655:
627:
601:
555:
550:
301:
296:. In 82 BC, 9 prefectures out of 15 had been abolished and 7 prefectures including Fuzu/Bujo (
261:
257:
1207:
1151:
1123:
1067:
997:
969:
861:
833:
805:
777:
705:
649:
372:
After incorporation into Lelang
Commandery, main office moved from former Dongyi prefecture.
1235:
1040:
741:
595:
245:
121:
98:
1332:
1306:
485:
Those prefectures were not incorporated into Lelang
Commandery and disappeared in 82 BC .
1271:
1264:
1228:"The Han dynasty created four outposts in Korea to control that portion of its border."
342:
289:
1443:
1052:
779:
North Korea and the World: Human Rights, Arms
Control, and Strategies for Negotiation
761:
525:
383:
423:
128:
732:
Ch'oe, Yŏng-ho (May 1981), "Reinterpreting
Traditional History in North Korea",
521:
501:
497:
293:
249:
1359:
1340:
1044:
1026:"Centering the Periphery: Manchurian Exile(s) and the North Korean State"
651:
A History of Korea: From "Land of the
Morning Calm" to States in Conflict
1153:
Sino-Japanese
Relations: The Need for Conflict Prevention and Management
753:
443:
277:
225:
888:
Mark E Byington, Project
Director of the Early Korea Project (2009).
403:
362:
151:
745:
292:), the main office for this commandery was about 2400 km away from
533:
529:
297:
285:
165:
304:. At this point, Lintun Commandery was disappeared from history.
1363:
999:
The Land of
Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism
1314:
18:
835:
A Concise
History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present
807:
A Concise History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present
392:
Main office after incorporation into Lelang Commandery.
276:
In BC 108, Lintun Commandery was established as part of
16:
One of the four commanderies of the Han dynasty in Korea
311:
917:
Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism
133:
1184:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 118.
892:. Korea Institute, Harvard University. p. 172.
207:
193:
838:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 17.
810:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 19.
201:
187:
182:
164:
150:
145:
127:
120:
115:
97:
92:
83:
1263:
890:Early Korea 2: The Samhan Period in Korean History
863:Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture
233:in 106 BC. Lintun is colored as pink in this map.
624:Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background
472:Incorporated into Lelang Commandery in 82 BC.
452:Incorporated into Lelang Commandery in 82 BC.
412:Incorporated into Lelang Commandery in 82 BC.
1375:
1156:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13.
103:
8:
782:. University Press of Kentucky. p. 26.
432:Incorporated to Lelang Commandery in 82 BC.
170:
156:
1100:. Cambridge University Press. p. 168.
1382:
1368:
1360:
1237:A History of Korea: An Episodic Narrativea
682:. Columbia University Press. p. 227.
179:
112:
866:. Columbia University Press. p. 11.
482:Somewhere in present-day Gangwon Province
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
654:. Indiana University Press. p. 18.
626:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112.
500:academic community and some part of the
316:Administrative area of Lintun commandery
224:
32:This article includes a list of general
584:
1069:Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea
600:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 6.
80:
1002:. Homa & Seka Books. p. 36.
300::夫租) prefecture were incorporated to
7:
252:. Lintun Commandery was one of the
974:. Aldine Transaction. p. 84.
351:Main office of Lintun Commandery.
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1240:. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 4.
679:Sourcebook of Korean Civilization
920:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 296.
23:
1270:. Ilchokak Publishers. p.
1125:The Far East: A Concise History
1094:Nelson, Sarah Milledge (1993).
971:A Historical Geography of China
776:Clemens, Walter C. Jr. (2016).
594:United States Congress (2016).
1128:. Pergamon Press. p. 34.
1072:. Reaktion Books. p. 10.
1024:Armstrong, Charles K. (1995),
229:Four Commanderies of Han with
208:
194:
134:
104:
1:
860:Bowman, John Stewart (2000).
288::東暆) prefecture (present-day
1266:Korea Old and New: A History
734:The Journal of Asian Studies
597:North Korea: A Country Study
320:
914:Preucel, Robert W. (2010).
1471:
1262:Eckert, Carter J. (1991).
1234:Hwang, Kyung Moon (2010).
1150:Swanström, Niklas (2009).
946:. Routledge. p. 365.
336:Dongyi prefecture (former)
1397:
1209:Korea, the Divided Nation
1178:Meyer, Milton W. (1997).
942:Dr. Brian, Fagan (2016).
832:Seth, Michael J. (2016).
804:Seth, Michael J. (2016).
710:. Routledge. p. 17.
622:Connor, Edgar V. (2003).
314:
219:
178:
171:
157:
111:
88:
1455:Four Commanderies of Han
1391:Four Commanderies of Han
1097:The Archaeology of Korea
707:State Formation in Korea
546:Four Commanderies of Han
254:Four Commanderies of Han
1212:. Praeger. p. 13.
1181:Asia: A Concise History
428:South Hamgyong Province
356:Dongyi prefecture (new)
53:more precise citations.
1450:100s BC establishments
1206:Olsen, Edward (2005).
996:Kang, Jae-eun (2006).
676:Lee, Peter H. (1993).
520:These hypotheses are "
234:
1122:Jones, F. C. (1966).
1066:Pratt, Keith (2006).
944:Ancient Civilizations
704:Barnes, Gina (2000).
648:Kim, Jinwung (2012).
228:
1045:10.1353/ks.1995.0017
968:Tuan, Yi-Fu (2008).
437:Xietoumei prefecture
189:Revised Romanization
507:Liaodong Commandery
477:Other 9 prefectures
308:Administrative area
244:established in the
1429:(107 BCE — 82 BCE)
1427:Zhenfan Commandery
1421:(107 BCE — 302 CE)
1413:(107 BCE — 82 BCE)
1405:(108 BCE — 313 CE)
573:Canghai Commandery
568:Daifang commandery
561:Zhenfan Commandery
511:Liaodong peninsula
266:Zhenfan Commandery
235:
1437:
1436:
1419:Xuantu Commandery
1411:Lintun Commandery
1403:Lelang Commandery
1350:978-4-06-159678-8
1324:978-4-14-001172-0
927:978-1-4051-5832-9
556:Xuantu Commandery
551:Lelang Commandery
515:Jinzhou peninsula
489:
488:
457:Qianmo prefecture
397:Cantai prefecture
302:Lelang Commandery
262:Xuantu Commandery
258:Lelang Commandery
238:Lintun Commandery
223:
222:
215:
214:
203:McCune–Reischauer
141:
140:
122:Standard Mandarin
84:Lintun Commandery
79:
78:
71:
1462:
1430:
1422:
1414:
1406:
1384:
1377:
1370:
1361:
1354:
1328:
1293:
1285:
1269:
1251:
1223:
1195:
1167:
1139:
1111:
1083:
1055:
1030:
1013:
985:
957:
931:
903:
877:
849:
821:
793:
764:
721:
693:
665:
637:
611:
589:
513:, especially in
468:Gangwon Province
448:Gangwon Province
417:Huali prefecture
408:Gangwon Province
388:Gangwon Province
367:Gangwon Province
347:Gangwon Province
328:Present location
312:
282:Gangwon Province
246:Korean peninsula
211:
210:
197:
196:
180:
174:
173:
160:
159:
137:
136:
113:
107:
106:
81:
74:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:this article by
40:inline citations
27:
26:
19:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1425:
1417:
1409:
1401:
1393:
1388:
1351:
1331:
1325:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1296:
1282:
1261:
1248:
1233:
1220:
1205:
1192:
1177:
1164:
1149:
1136:
1121:
1108:
1093:
1080:
1065:
1028:
1023:
1010:
995:
982:
967:
954:
941:
928:
913:
900:
887:
874:
859:
846:
831:
818:
803:
790:
775:
746:10.2307/2054553
731:
718:
703:
690:
675:
662:
647:
634:
621:
608:
593:
590:
586:
581:
542:
494:
377:Buer prefecture
310:
274:
248:by the Chinese
75:
64:
58:
55:
45:Please help to
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1468:
1466:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1423:
1415:
1407:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1379:
1372:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1349:
1323:
1313:. NHKブックス172.
1301:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1281:978-0962771309
1280:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1247:978-0230205451
1246:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1219:978-0275983079
1218:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1191:978-0847680634
1190:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1163:978-1847186201
1162:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1140:
1135:978-0080116419
1134:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1106:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1079:978-1861892737
1078:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1033:Korean Studies
1020:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1009:978-1931907309
1008:
992:
991:
987:
986:
981:978-0202362007
980:
964:
963:
959:
958:
953:978-1138181632
952:
938:
937:
933:
932:
926:
910:
909:
905:
904:
899:978-0979580031
898:
884:
883:
879:
878:
873:978-0231110044
872:
856:
855:
851:
850:
845:978-1442235175
844:
828:
827:
823:
822:
817:978-1442235175
816:
800:
799:
795:
794:
789:978-0813167466
788:
772:
771:
767:
766:
740:(3): 503–523,
728:
727:
723:
722:
717:978-0700713233
716:
700:
699:
695:
694:
689:978-0231079129
688:
672:
671:
667:
666:
661:978-0253000248
660:
644:
643:
639:
638:
633:978-1590334430
632:
618:
617:
613:
612:
607:978-1590334430
606:
583:
582:
580:
577:
576:
575:
570:
565:
564:
563:
558:
553:
541:
538:
493:
490:
487:
486:
483:
480:
478:
474:
473:
470:
464:Goseong County
461:
458:
454:
453:
450:
441:
438:
434:
433:
430:
421:
418:
414:
413:
410:
401:
398:
394:
393:
390:
381:
378:
374:
373:
370:
360:
357:
353:
352:
349:
343:Gangneung City
340:
337:
333:
332:
329:
326:
323:
319:
318:
309:
306:
290:Gangneung City
273:
270:
221:
220:
217:
216:
213:
212:
205:
199:
198:
191:
185:
184:
183:Transcriptions
176:
175:
168:
162:
161:
154:
148:
147:
143:
142:
139:
138:
131:
125:
124:
118:
117:
116:Transcriptions
109:
108:
101:
95:
94:
90:
89:
86:
85:
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1467:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1267:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1107:9780521407830
1103:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1005:
1001:
1000:
994:
993:
989:
988:
983:
977:
973:
972:
966:
965:
961:
960:
955:
949:
945:
940:
939:
935:
934:
929:
923:
919:
918:
912:
911:
907:
906:
901:
895:
891:
886:
885:
881:
880:
875:
869:
865:
864:
858:
857:
853:
852:
847:
841:
837:
836:
830:
829:
825:
824:
819:
813:
809:
808:
802:
801:
797:
796:
791:
785:
781:
780:
774:
773:
769:
768:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
730:
729:
725:
724:
719:
713:
709:
708:
702:
701:
697:
696:
691:
685:
681:
680:
674:
673:
669:
668:
663:
657:
653:
652:
646:
645:
641:
640:
635:
629:
625:
620:
619:
615:
614:
609:
603:
599:
598:
592:
591:
588:
585:
578:
574:
571:
569:
566:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
548:
547:
544:
543:
539:
537:
535:
531:
527:
526:United States
523:
518:
516:
512:
508:
503:
499:
491:
484:
481:
479:
476:
475:
471:
469:
465:
462:
459:
456:
455:
451:
449:
445:
442:
439:
436:
435:
431:
429:
425:
422:
419:
416:
415:
411:
409:
405:
402:
399:
396:
395:
391:
389:
385:
384:Anbyon County
382:
379:
376:
375:
371:
368:
364:
361:
358:
355:
354:
350:
348:
344:
341:
338:
335:
334:
330:
327:
324:
321:
317:
313:
307:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
271:
269:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
232:
227:
218:
206:
204:
200:
192:
190:
186:
181:
177:
169:
167:
163:
155:
153:
149:
144:
132:
130:
126:
123:
119:
114:
110:
102:
100:
96:
91:
87:
82:
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
1410:
1336:
1310:
1265:
1236:
1208:
1180:
1152:
1124:
1096:
1068:
1036:
1032:
998:
970:
943:
916:
889:
862:
834:
806:
778:
737:
733:
706:
678:
650:
623:
596:
587:
519:
502:South Korean
498:North Korean
495:
424:Kumya County
315:
275:
237:
236:
129:Hanyu Pinyin
93:Chinese name
65:
56:
37:
1339:. 講談社学術文庫.
522:dictatorial
492:Revisionism
256:along with
250:Han dynasty
146:Korean name
51:introducing
1444:Categories
1300:References
325:Characters
284:. Dongyi (
242:commandery
135:Líntún jùn
59:April 2017
34:references
1053:154659765
762:145140808
209:Imtun-kun
195:Imdun-gun
1341:Kodansha
1335:(2004).
1309:(1972).
1039:: 1–16,
540:See also
331:Remarks
294:Chang'an
754:2054553
496:In the
444:Munchon
278:Youzhou
272:History
99:Chinese
47:improve
1347:
1321:
1278:
1244:
1216:
1188:
1160:
1132:
1104:
1076:
1051:
1006:
978:
950:
924:
896:
870:
842:
814:
786:
760:
752:
714:
686:
658:
630:
604:
404:Sokcho
363:Wonsan
240:was a
152:Hangul
36:, but
1049:S2CID
1029:(PDF)
758:S2CID
750:JSTOR
579:Notes
534:Japan
530:China
298:Hanja
286:Hanja
166:Hanja
1345:ISBN
1337:古代朝鮮
1333:井上秀雄
1319:ISBN
1311:古代朝鮮
1307:井上秀雄
1276:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1214:ISBN
1186:ISBN
1158:ISBN
1130:ISBN
1102:ISBN
1074:ISBN
1004:ISBN
976:ISBN
948:ISBN
922:ISBN
894:ISBN
868:ISBN
840:ISBN
812:ISBN
784:ISBN
712:ISBN
684:ISBN
656:ISBN
628:ISBN
602:ISBN
532:and
322:Name
264:and
1315:NHK
1041:doi
742:doi
517:.
440:邪頭昧
231:Jin
172:臨屯郡
158:임둔군
105:臨屯郡
1446::
1343:.
1317:.
1274:.
1272:13
1047:,
1037:19
1035:,
1031:,
756:,
748:,
738:40
736:,
536:.
528:,
466:,
460:前莫
446:,
426:,
420:華麗
406:,
400:蠶台
386:,
380:不而
365:,
359:東暆
345:,
339:東暆
268:.
260:,
1383:e
1376:t
1369:v
1353:.
1327:.
1284:.
1250:.
1222:.
1194:.
1166:.
1138:.
1110:.
1082:.
1043::
1012:.
984:.
956:.
930:.
902:.
876:.
848:.
820:.
792:.
765:.
744::
720:.
692:.
664:.
636:.
610:.
369:,
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
