Knowledge (XXG)

List of relativistic equations

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until the light hits the mirror at the top of the vehicle, and then having the train move still more until the light beam returns to the bottom of the vehicle. The light beam will have appeared to have moved diagonally upward with the train, and then diagonally downward. This path will help form two-right sided triangles, with the height as one of the sides, and the two straight parts of the path being the respective hypotenuses:
1012:. The proper time between two events - such as the event of light being emitted on the vehicle and the event of light being received on the vehicle - is the time between the two events in a frame where the events occur at the same location. So, above, the emission and reception of the light both took place in the vehicle's frame, making the time that an observer in the vehicle's frame would measure the proper time. 5456: 4836: 7530: 7217: 4967: 8469: 7782: 6590: 1237:. The proper length of an object is the length of the object in the frame in which the object is at rest. Also, this contraction only affects the dimensions of the object which are parallel to the relative velocity between the object and observer. Thus, lengths perpendicular to the direction of motion are unaffected by length contraction. 4527: 6069: 7391: 8364: 7081: 5223: 8699:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nu '&=\gamma \nu \left(1-\beta \right)\\&=\nu {\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}}\left(1-\beta \right)\\&=\nu {\frac {1}{\sqrt {\left(1-\beta \right)\left(1+\beta \right)}}}\left(1-\beta \right)\\&=\nu {\frac {\sqrt {1-\beta }}{\sqrt {1+\beta }}}\end{aligned}}} 4851: 8462:
This is the formula for the relativistic doppler shift where the difference in velocity between the emitter and observer is not on the x-axis. There are two special cases of this equation. The first is the case where the velocity between the emitter and observer is along the x-axis. In that case θ
8054:{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}{\frac {E'}{c}}\\p'_{x}\\p'_{y}\\p'_{z}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &-\gamma \beta &0&0\\-\gamma \beta &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}{\frac {E}{c}}\\p_{x}\\p_{y}\\p_{z}\end{pmatrix}}} 446:
However, to the observer on the ground, the situation is very different. Since the train is moving by the observer on the ground, the light beam appears to move diagonally instead of straight up and down. To visualize this, picture the light being emitted at one point, then having the vehicle move
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If an object emits a beam of light or radiation, the frequency, wavelength, and energy of that light or radiation will look different to a moving observer than to one at rest with respect to the emitter. If one assumes that the observer is moving with respect to the emitter along the x-axis, then
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passed between the front of the train passing the post, and the back of the train passing the post. Because the two events - the passing of each end of the train by the post - occurred in the same place in the ground observer's frame, the time this observer measured is the proper time. So:
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can be a four-vector representing position, velocity, or momentum, and the same Λ can be used when transforming between the same two frames. The most general Lorentz transformation includes boosts and rotations; the components are complicated and the transformation requires
953: 6397: 3553: 4831:{\displaystyle ds^{2}=dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2}={\begin{pmatrix}cdt&dx&dy&dz\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}cdt\\dx\\dy\\dz\end{pmatrix}}} 2340: 8709:
This is the equation for doppler shift in the case where the velocity between the emitter and observer is along the x-axis. The second special case is that where the relative velocity is perpendicular to the x-axis, and thus θ = π/2, and cos θ = 0, which gives:
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in the first equation negative, and then exchanging primed variables for unprimed ones, and vice versa. Also, as length contraction does not affect the perpendicular dimensions of an object, the following remain the same as in the Galilean transformation:
8457: 7525:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {F}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {P}}}}{\mathrm {d} \tau }}=\gamma m\left(c{\frac {\mathrm {d} \gamma }{\mathrm {d} t}},{\frac {\mathrm {d} \gamma }{\mathrm {d} t}}\mathbf {u} +\gamma \mathbf {a} \right)} 7212:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {A}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}}{\mathrm {d} \tau }}=\gamma \left(c{\frac {\mathrm {d} \gamma }{\mathrm {d} t}},{\frac {\mathrm {d} \gamma }{\mathrm {d} t}}\mathbf {u} +\gamma \mathbf {a} \right)} 5461:
The vectors in the above transformation equation are known as four-vectors, in this case they are specifically the position four-vectors. In general, in special relativity, four-vectors can be transformed from one reference frame to another as follows:
3792: 5451:{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}ct'\\x'\\y'\\z'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &-\gamma \beta &0&0\\-\gamma \beta &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}ct\\x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}} 32:
The laws of physics are invariant under transformations between inertial frames. In other words, the laws of physics will be the same whether you are testing them in a frame 'at rest', or a frame moving with a constant velocity relative to the 'rest'
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This is actually completely analogous to time dilation, as frequency is the reciprocal of time. So, doppler shift for emitters and observers moving perpendicular to the line connecting them is completely due to the effects of time dilation.
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In this context, "speed of light" really refers to the speed supremum of information transmission or of the movement of ordinary (nonnegative mass) matter, locally, as in a classical vacuum. Thus, a more accurate description would refer to
1218: 2437: 4962:{\displaystyle \eta ({\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}',{\boldsymbol {\mathsf {b}}}')=\eta \left(\Lambda {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}},\Lambda {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {b}}}\right)=\eta ({\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}},{\boldsymbol {\mathsf {b}}})} 4211: 4113: 3167: 3067: 2205: 6951: 3896: 3664: 5505: 7574: 7349: 7261: 7039: 6781: 681: 5000:
or spacetime interval, while the time term makes a positive contribution. These differences can be used in any combination, so long as the choice of standards is followed completely throughout the computations performed.
8127: 6328: 7719: 6823: 2102: 4015: 2967: 7656: 1802: 2515: 6681: 749: 3407: 5610:. The inner product of a 4-vector with itself is equal to a scalar (by definition of the inner product), and since the 4-vectors are physical quantities their magnitudes correspond to physical quantities also. 4294: 2585: 2859: 2660: 1871: 1434: 4391: 2019: 1945: 5563:
are the four-vector and the transformed four-vector, respectively, and Λ is the transformation matrix, which, for a given transformation is the same for all four-vectors one might want to transform. So
6585:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\left({\frac {E}{c}}\right)^{2}-\left(p_{1}^{2}+p_{2}^{2}+p_{3}^{2}\right)\\&=\left({\frac {E}{c}}\right)^{2}-p^{2}\\&=\left(mc\right)^{2}\end{aligned}}\,\!} 815: 394:
with respect to someone standing on the ground as the vehicle passes. Inside, a light is shone upwards to a mirror on the ceiling, where the light reflects back down. If the height of the mirror is
270: 63:) is measured to be the same by all observers in inertial frames and is, moreover, finite but nonzero. This speed acts as a supremum for the speed of local transmission of information in the universe. 1629: 6128: 4988:
time-based terms can vary depending on the author's choice. For instance, many times the time-based terms are placed first in the four-vectors, with the spatial terms following. Also, sometimes
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with respect to the ground, and one observer on the train and one on the ground, standing next to a post. The observer on the train sees the front of the train pass the post, and then, some time
1071: 834: 8474: 6402: 5869: 5212: 3250: 5092: 6064:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\left(ct\right)^{2}-\left(x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\right)\\&=\left(ct\right)^{2}-r^{2}\\&=-\chi ^{2}=\left(c\tau \right)^{2}\end{aligned}}\,\!} 5591: 5537: 2723: 1565: 1298: 1506: 2211: 5561: 3422: 8181: 8745: 7759: 306: 8370: 8359:{\displaystyle {\frac {h\nu '}{c}}=\gamma {\frac {h\nu }{c}}-\gamma \beta \left\Vert p\right\|\cos \theta =\gamma {\frac {h\nu }{c}}-\gamma \beta {\frac {h\nu }{c}}\cos \theta } 441: 1131: 993: 374: 5801: 3328: 3289: 3670: 6335: 5158: 5125: 2789: 2756: 1705: 1672: 1364: 1331: 8827: 8220: 6161: 5668: 453: 589: 4375: 319:
For two frames at rest, γ = 1, and increases with relative velocity between the two inertial frames. As the relative velocity approaches the speed of light, γ → ∞.
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Also, the velocities in the directions perpendicular to the frame changes are affected, as shown above. This is due to time dilation, as encapsulated in the
6907: 1147: 4119: 4021: 3075: 2975: 7537: 7301: 7224: 6991: 6733: 2113: 5468: 8797: 2669:, and exchanging the unprimed variables for their primed variables, and vice versa. These transformations together are the Lorentz transformation: 6895:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {X}}}}{\mathrm {d} \tau }}=\gamma \left(c,\mathbf {u} \right)} 597: 6294: 3559: 122:
under vacuum conditions and experiment has nonfalsified this notion with fairly high precision. Regardless of whether light itself does travel at
8787: 8065: 8925: 8911: 8885: 8852: 3803: 7667: 6598: 4347:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {b}}}=\eta ({\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}},{\boldsymbol {\mathsf {b}}})} 2025: 3928: 2880: 8945: 7599: 1732: 4507:{\displaystyle \eta ={\begin{pmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} 2443: 8817: 687: 3334: 8898: 2530: 2795: 2596: 1808: 1370: 1136:
However, the observer on the ground, making the same measurement, comes to a different conclusion. This observer finds that time
8812: 8807: 8802: 1951: 1877: 227: 948:{\displaystyle t'={\frac {2h}{c}}{\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}={\frac {t}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} 6095: 5009:
It is possible to express the above coordinate transformation via a matrix. To simplify things, it can be best to replace
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Applying the above postulates, consider the inside of any vehicle (usually exemplified by a train) moving with a velocity
3184: 8940: 8822: 7588: 198: 2335:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt+x\left({\frac {1-\beta ^{2}}{1-\beta ^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{1-\beta ^{2}}}\right)} 1038: 5164: 3548:{\displaystyle {\frac {dx'}{dt'}}={\frac {\gamma \left(dx-vdt\right)}{\gamma \left(dt-{\frac {vdx}{c^{2}}}\right)}}} 3193: 5047: 5567: 5513: 1576: 5542: 2675: 1517: 1250: 4845:
is known as the spacetime interval. This inner product is invariant under the Lorentz transformation, that is,
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This is the formula for length contraction. As there existed a proper time for time dilation, there exists a
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rather than the speed of light per se. However, light and other massless particles do theoretically travel at
8138: 8452:{\displaystyle \nu '=\gamma \nu -\gamma \beta \nu \cos \theta =\gamma \nu \left(1-\beta \cos \theta \right)} 8847:
Dynamics and Relativity, J.R. Forshaw, A.G. Smith, Manchester Physics Series, John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
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Doppler shift for emitter and observer moving in a direction perpendicular to the line connecting them:
5853:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {X}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {X}}}=\left(c\tau \right)^{2}\,\!} 1095:
later, sees the end of the train pass the same post. He then calculates the train's length as follows:
8716: 7730: 408: 8767: 3787:{\displaystyle {\frac {dx'}{dt'}}={\frac {{\frac {dx}{dt}}-v}{1-{\frac {dx}{dt}}{\frac {v}{c^{2}}}}}} 6387:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {P}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {P}}}=\left(mc\right)^{2}\,\!} 3901:
gives the velocity addition (actually below is subtraction, addition is just reversing the signs of
4518: 6250:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {p} \equiv p^{2}\equiv p_{1}^{2}+p_{2}^{2}+p_{3}^{2}\,\!} 5757:{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} \cdot \mathbf {r} \equiv r^{2}\equiv x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\,\!} 8874:, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3 8777: 8772: 5633: 1101: 1016: 964: 556:{\displaystyle c^{2}\left({\frac {t'}{2}}\right)^{2}=h^{2}+v^{2}\left({\frac {t'}{2}}\right)^{2}} 345: 17: 8196: 8921: 8907: 8894: 8881: 8848: 3295: 3256: 2871: 183: 5131: 5098: 4382: 2762: 2729: 1678: 1645: 1337: 1304: 7661:
Doppler shift for emitter and observer moving right towards each other (or directly away):
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the standard Lorentz transformation of the four-momentum, which includes energy, becomes:
2432:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt-x\left({\frac {\beta ^{2}}{1-\beta ^{2}}}\right)} 569: 8871: 6087: 313: 218: 190: 6946:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}=c^{2}\,\!} 1450:
Now substituting the length contraction result into the Galilean transformation (i.e.
1213:{\displaystyle \ell '=vt=v\left({\frac {t'}{\gamma }}\right)={\frac {\ell }{\gamma }}} 176:
does act as such a supremum, and that is the assumption which matters for Relativity.
8934: 4378: 4278: 4261: 4206:{\displaystyle V'_{z}={\frac {V_{z}}{\gamma \left(1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}\right)}}} 4108:{\displaystyle V'_{y}={\frac {V_{y}}{\gamma \left(1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}\right)}}} 3162:{\displaystyle V'_{z}={\frac {V_{z}}{\gamma \left(1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}\right)}}} 3062:{\displaystyle V'_{y}={\frac {V_{y}}{\gamma \left(1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}\right)}}} 1230: 323: 4265: 7569:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {F}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}=0\,\!} 7344:{\displaystyle \mathbf {f} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!} 7256:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {A}}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}=0\,\!} 7034:{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {u} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!} 6776:{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!} 2200:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt+x\left(1-{\frac {1}{1-\beta ^{2}}}\right)} 4238:
equations were both derived by dividing the appropriate space differential (e.g.
8222:, and plugging in the formulas for frequency's relation to momentum and energy: 5607: 5500:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}'=\Lambda {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}} 4997: 1444:
Derivation of Lorentz transformation using time dilation and length contraction
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To derive the equations of special relativity, one must start with two other
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Going from the primed frame to the unprimed frame was accomplished by making
676:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {t'}{2}}\right)^{2}={\frac {h^{2}}{c^{2}-v^{2}}}} 6323:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {P}}}=m{\boldsymbol {\mathsf {U}}}\,\!} 3659:{\displaystyle {\frac {dx'}{dt'}}={\frac {dx-vdt}{dt-{\frac {vdx}{c^{2}}}}}} 16:
Following is a list of the frequently occurring equations in the theory of
4271: 8122:{\displaystyle {\frac {E'}{c}}=\gamma {\frac {E}{c}}-\gamma \beta p_{x}} 3891:{\displaystyle V_{x}={\frac {dx}{dt}}\,\quad V'_{x}={\frac {dx'}{dt'}}} 402:, then the time it takes for the light to go up and come back down is: 7714:{\displaystyle \nu '=\nu {\frac {\sqrt {1-\beta }}{\sqrt {1+\beta }}}} 6676:{\displaystyle E^{2}=\left(pc\right)^{2}+\left(mc^{2}\right)^{2}\,\!} 5595: 4282: 2097:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt+x\left(1-\gamma ^{2}\right)} 4010:{\displaystyle V'_{x}={\frac {V_{x}-v}{1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}}}} 2962:{\displaystyle V'_{x}={\frac {V_{x}-v}{1-{\frac {V_{x}v}{c^{2}}}}}} 214:
The following notations are used very often in special relativity:
7651:{\displaystyle \nu '=\gamma \nu \left(1-\beta \cos \theta \right)} 5606:
Invariance and unification of physical quantities both arise from
1797:{\displaystyle x=\gamma \left(\gamma \left(x-vt\right)+vt'\right)} 4996:, making the spatial terms produce negative contributions to the 2510:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt-\gamma ^{2}\beta ^{2}x\,} 8920:, D. Kleppner, R.J. Kolenkow, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 744:{\displaystyle {\frac {t'}{2}}={\frac {h}{\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}} 3402:{\displaystyle dt'=\gamma \left(dt-{\frac {vdx}{c^{2}}}\right)} 1004:
In this example the time measured in the frame on the vehicle,
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From these two postulates, all of special relativity follows.
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And the converse can again be gotten by changing the sign of
2580:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma \left(t-\beta {\frac {x}{c}}\right)} 2854:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma \left(t-{\frac {vx}{c^{2}}}\right)} 2655:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma \left(t-{\frac {vx}{c^{2}}}\right)} 1866:{\displaystyle x=\gamma \left(\gamma x-\gamma vt+vt'\right)} 1429:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma \left(t-{\frac {vx}{c^{2}}}\right)} 2014:{\displaystyle \gamma vt'=\gamma ^{2}vt-\gamma ^{2}x+x\,} 1940:{\displaystyle x=\gamma ^{2}x-\gamma ^{2}vt+\gamma vt'\,} 265:{\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}}} 4274:
while normal bold roman is used for ordinary 3-vectors.
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and going from the primed frame to the unprimed frame:
7988: 7876: 7791: 7765: 5410: 5298: 5232: 4778: 4675: 4626: 4406: 3173: 1440: 1077: 380: 8719: 8472: 8373: 8231: 8199: 8141: 8068: 7785: 7733: 7670: 7602: 7540: 7394: 7304: 7227: 7084: 6994: 6910: 6826: 6736: 6601: 6400: 6338: 6297: 6164: 6123:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\gamma m\mathbf {u} \,\!} 6098: 5867: 5804: 5671: 5570: 5545: 5516: 5471: 5226: 5167: 5134: 5101: 5050: 4854: 4530: 4394: 4363: 4297: 4122: 4024: 3931: 3806: 3673: 3562: 3425: 3337: 3298: 3259: 3196: 3078: 2978: 2883: 2798: 2765: 2732: 2678: 2599: 2533: 2446: 2349: 2214: 2116: 2028: 1954: 1880: 1811: 1735: 1681: 1648: 1579: 1520: 1467: 1373: 1340: 1307: 1253: 1150: 1104: 1041: 967: 837: 758: 690: 600: 572: 456: 411: 348: 281: 230: 155: 128: 101: 74: 42: 810:{\displaystyle t'={\frac {2h}{\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}}} 4381:. In special relativity, the metric tensor is the 8739: 8698: 8451: 8358: 8214: 8175: 8121: 8053: 7753: 7713: 7650: 7568: 7524: 7343: 7255: 7211: 7033: 6945: 6894: 6775: 6675: 6584: 6386: 6322: 6249: 6122: 6063: 5852: 5756: 5585: 5555: 5531: 5499: 5450: 5206: 5152: 5119: 5086: 4961: 4830: 4506: 4369: 4346: 4205: 4107: 4009: 3890: 3786: 3658: 3547: 3401: 3322: 3283: 3244: 3161: 3061: 2961: 2853: 2783: 2750: 2717: 2654: 2579: 2509: 2431: 2334: 2199: 2096: 2013: 1939: 1865: 1796: 1699: 1666: 1623: 1559: 1500: 1428: 1358: 1325: 1292: 1212: 1125: 1065: 987: 947: 809: 743: 675: 583: 555: 435: 368: 300: 264: 168: 141: 114: 87: 55: 36:The speed of light in a perfect classical vacuum ( 8828:List of equations in nuclear and particle physics 7565: 7340: 7252: 7030: 6942: 6772: 6672: 6581: 6383: 6319: 6246: 6119: 6060: 5849: 5753: 4972:The sign of the metric and the placement of the 1066:{\displaystyle \ell '={\frac {\ell }{\gamma }}} 5207:{\displaystyle ct'=\gamma ct-\gamma \beta x\,} 3245:{\displaystyle dx'=\gamma \left(dx-vdt\right)} 1233:for length contraction, which in this case is 8906:, G. Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 7769:Derivation of the relativistic Doppler shift 5087:{\displaystyle x'=\gamma x-\gamma \beta ct\,} 5041:, which has the dimensions of distance. So: 4270:In what follows, bold sans serif is used for 8: 8161: 8155: 5586:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}'} 5532:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}'} 1624:{\displaystyle x=\gamma \left(x'+vt'\right)} 1087:Consider a long train, moving with velocity 7553: 7543: 7415: 7397: 7240: 7230: 7105: 7087: 6923: 6913: 6847: 6829: 6351: 6341: 6313: 6300: 5817: 5807: 5574: 5556:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mathsf {a}}}} 5548: 5520: 5492: 5475: 4951: 4941: 4920: 4907: 4879: 4864: 4336: 4326: 4310: 4300: 2718:{\displaystyle x'=\gamma \left(x-vt\right)} 1560:{\displaystyle x'=\gamma \left(x-vt\right)} 1293:{\displaystyle x'=\gamma \left(x-vt\right)} 8904:The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas 3183:The Lorentz transformations also apply to 1501:{\displaystyle {\frac {x'}{\gamma }}=x-vt} 8880:, J.R. Forshaw, A.G. Smith, Wiley, 2009, 8718: 8666: 8587: 8546: 8530: 8473: 8471: 8372: 8332: 8308: 8258: 8232: 8230: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8146: 8140: 8113: 8090: 8069: 8067: 8037: 8023: 8009: 7991: 7983: 7871: 7851: 7834: 7817: 7794: 7786: 7784: 7732: 7685: 7669: 7601: 7564: 7552: 7551: 7542: 7541: 7539: 7512: 7501: 7490: 7480: 7477: 7463: 7453: 7450: 7422: 7414: 7413: 7408: 7405: 7396: 7395: 7393: 7339: 7328: 7321: 7316: 7313: 7305: 7303: 7251: 7239: 7238: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7199: 7188: 7177: 7167: 7164: 7150: 7140: 7137: 7112: 7104: 7103: 7098: 7095: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7029: 7018: 7011: 7006: 7003: 6995: 6993: 6941: 6935: 6922: 6921: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6882: 6854: 6846: 6845: 6840: 6837: 6828: 6827: 6825: 6771: 6760: 6753: 6748: 6745: 6737: 6735: 6671: 6665: 6654: 6632: 6606: 6600: 6580: 6570: 6537: 6524: 6510: 6484: 6479: 6466: 6461: 6448: 6443: 6425: 6411: 6401: 6399: 6382: 6376: 6350: 6349: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6245: 6239: 6234: 6221: 6216: 6203: 6198: 6185: 6173: 6165: 6163: 6118: 6113: 6099: 6097: 6059: 6049: 6023: 6000: 5987: 5949: 5944: 5931: 5926: 5913: 5908: 5890: 5868: 5866: 5848: 5842: 5816: 5815: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5752: 5746: 5741: 5728: 5723: 5710: 5705: 5692: 5680: 5672: 5670: 5573: 5572: 5569: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5519: 5518: 5515: 5491: 5490: 5474: 5473: 5470: 5405: 5293: 5227: 5225: 5203: 5166: 5149: 5133: 5116: 5100: 5083: 5049: 4950: 4949: 4940: 4939: 4919: 4918: 4906: 4905: 4878: 4877: 4863: 4862: 4853: 4773: 4670: 4621: 4612: 4599: 4586: 4570: 4554: 4538: 4529: 4401: 4393: 4362: 4335: 4334: 4325: 4324: 4309: 4308: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4187: 4173: 4166: 4145: 4139: 4127: 4121: 4089: 4075: 4068: 4047: 4041: 4029: 4023: 3996: 3982: 3975: 3955: 3948: 3936: 3930: 3858: 3846: 3840: 3820: 3811: 3805: 3773: 3764: 3744: 3710: 3707: 3674: 3672: 3645: 3628: 3596: 3563: 3561: 3529: 3512: 3459: 3426: 3424: 3386: 3369: 3336: 3319: 3297: 3280: 3258: 3195: 3143: 3129: 3122: 3101: 3095: 3083: 3077: 3043: 3029: 3022: 3001: 2995: 2983: 2977: 2948: 2934: 2927: 2907: 2900: 2888: 2882: 2838: 2824: 2797: 2780: 2764: 2747: 2731: 2677: 2639: 2625: 2598: 2562: 2532: 2506: 2497: 2487: 2468: 2445: 2416: 2399: 2393: 2371: 2348: 2318: 2302: 2290: 2272: 2259: 2236: 2213: 2183: 2167: 2138: 2115: 2083: 2050: 2027: 2010: 1995: 1976: 1953: 1936: 1907: 1891: 1879: 1810: 1734: 1696: 1680: 1663: 1647: 1578: 1519: 1468: 1466: 1413: 1399: 1372: 1355: 1339: 1322: 1306: 1252: 1200: 1178: 1149: 1122: 1103: 1053: 1040: 966: 934: 924: 918: 906: 892: 882: 876: 864: 849: 836: 798: 785: 770: 757: 732: 719: 709: 691: 689: 664: 651: 640: 634: 625: 606: 599: 571: 547: 528: 517: 504: 491: 472: 461: 455: 418: 410: 347: 288: 280: 253: 237: 229: 160: 154: 133: 127: 106: 100: 79: 73: 47: 41: 8893:, D. McMahon, Mc Graw Hill (USA), 2006, 8798:List of equations in classical mechanics 5612: 8840: 8176:{\displaystyle p_{x}=\|p\|\cos \theta } 958:This is the formula for time dilation: 8868:Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition) 8788:Defining equation (physical chemistry) 5624: 5621: 5618: 5615: 5602:4-vectors and frame-invariant results 312:is the relative velocity between two 301:{\displaystyle \beta ={\frac {v}{c}}} 7: 8818:List of electromagnetism equations 7491: 7481: 7464: 7454: 7423: 7409: 7329: 7317: 7178: 7168: 7151: 7141: 7113: 7099: 7019: 7007: 6855: 6841: 6761: 6749: 5487: 4915: 4902: 14: 8740:{\displaystyle \nu '=\gamma \nu } 8463:= 0, and cos θ = 1, which gives: 7754:{\displaystyle \nu '=\gamma \nu } 1726:transformation into its inverse: 1081:Derivation of length contraction 436:{\displaystyle t={\frac {2h}{c}}} 8813:List of equations in gravitation 8808:List of equations in wave theory 8803:Table of thermodynamic equations 7513: 7502: 7322: 7306: 7200: 7189: 7012: 6996: 6883: 6754: 6738: 6174: 6166: 6114: 6100: 5681: 5673: 3177:Derivation of velocity addition 24:Postulates of Special Relativity 3841: 8289: 8283: 8206: 4956: 4936: 4888: 4858: 4341: 4321: 2520:Finally, dividing through by γ 1: 8186:where θ is the angle between 2107:Plugging in the value for γ: 8918:An Introduction to Mechanics 4246:) by the time differential. 1718:transform, substituting the 384:Derivation of time dilation 8823:List of photonics equations 7589:Relativistic Doppler effect 4256:The metric and four-vectors 1126:{\displaystyle \ell =vt'\,} 1031:in the same inertial frame) 988:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma t} 824:, and then plugging in for 369:{\displaystyle t'=\gamma t} 199:Cartesian coordinate system 193:is restricted fully to the 8962: 8946:Lists of physics equations 8215:{\displaystyle {\vec {p}}} 7586: 6088:Momentum-energy invariance 4259: 1710:Finally, to determine how 398:, and the speed of light 8783:List of physics formulae 3323:{\displaystyle dz'=dz\,} 3284:{\displaystyle dy'=dy\,} 8878:Dynamics and Relativity 7593:General doppler shift: 820:Taking out a factor of 338:in same inertial frame) 8891:Relativity DeMystified 8741: 8700: 8453: 8360: 8216: 8177: 8123: 8055: 7755: 7715: 7652: 7570: 7526: 7345: 7257: 7213: 7035: 6947: 6896: 6777: 6677: 6586: 6388: 6324: 6251: 6124: 6065: 5854: 5758: 5587: 5557: 5533: 5501: 5452: 5208: 5154: 5153:{\displaystyle z'=z\,} 5121: 5120:{\displaystyle y'=y\,} 5088: 4963: 4832: 4508: 4371: 4348: 4207: 4109: 4011: 3892: 3788: 3660: 3549: 3403: 3324: 3285: 3246: 3163: 3063: 2963: 2855: 2785: 2784:{\displaystyle z'=z\,} 2752: 2751:{\displaystyle y'=y\,} 2719: 2656: 2581: 2511: 2433: 2336: 2201: 2098: 2015: 1941: 1867: 1798: 1701: 1700:{\displaystyle z'=z\,} 1668: 1667:{\displaystyle y'=y\,} 1625: 1561: 1502: 1430: 1360: 1359:{\displaystyle z'=z\,} 1327: 1326:{\displaystyle y'=y\,} 1294: 1242:Lorentz transformation 1214: 1127: 1067: 989: 949: 811: 745: 677: 585: 557: 437: 370: 302: 266: 210:Lorentz transformation 182:In the following, the 170: 143: 116: 89: 57: 8793:Constitutive equation 8742: 8701: 8454: 8361: 8217: 8178: 8124: 8056: 7756: 7716: 7653: 7571: 7527: 7346: 7258: 7214: 7036: 6948: 6897: 6778: 6678: 6587: 6389: 6325: 6252: 6125: 6066: 5855: 5759: 5588: 5558: 5534: 5502: 5453: 5217:then in matrix form: 5209: 5155: 5122: 5089: 4964: 4833: 4509: 4372: 4370:{\displaystyle \eta } 4349: 4224:transformation. The 4208: 4110: 4012: 3893: 3789: 3661: 3550: 3404: 3325: 3286: 3247: 3164: 3064: 2964: 2856: 2786: 2753: 2720: 2657: 2582: 2512: 2434: 2337: 2202: 2099: 2016: 1942: 1868: 1799: 1702: 1669: 1626: 1562: 1503: 1431: 1361: 1328: 1295: 1215: 1128: 1068: 1019:(different positions 990: 950: 812: 746: 678: 586: 558: 438: 371: 334:at the same position 303: 267: 171: 169:{\displaystyle c_{0}} 144: 142:{\displaystyle c_{0}} 117: 115:{\displaystyle c_{0}} 90: 88:{\displaystyle c_{0}} 58: 56:{\displaystyle c_{0}} 8768:Theory of relativity 8717: 8470: 8371: 8229: 8197: 8139: 8066: 7783: 7731: 7668: 7600: 7538: 7392: 7302: 7225: 7082: 6992: 6908: 6824: 6734: 6599: 6398: 6336: 6295: 6162: 6096: 5865: 5802: 5669: 5568: 5543: 5514: 5469: 5224: 5165: 5132: 5099: 5048: 4852: 4528: 4392: 4361: 4295: 4120: 4022: 3929: 3804: 3671: 3560: 3423: 3335: 3296: 3257: 3194: 3076: 2976: 2881: 2796: 2763: 2730: 2676: 2597: 2531: 2444: 2347: 2212: 2114: 2026: 1952: 1878: 1809: 1733: 1679: 1646: 1577: 1518: 1465: 1371: 1338: 1305: 1251: 1148: 1102: 1039: 1027:at the same instant 965: 835: 756: 688: 598: 570: 454: 409: 346: 279: 228: 153: 126: 99: 72: 40: 7859: 7842: 7825: 6489: 6471: 6453: 6244: 6226: 6208: 5954: 5936: 5918: 5751: 5733: 5715: 4519:Space-time interval 4135: 4037: 3944: 3854: 3091: 2991: 2896: 566:Rearranging to get 8941:Special relativity 8778:General relativity 8773:Special relativity 8737: 8696: 8694: 8449: 8356: 8212: 8173: 8119: 8051: 8045: 7977: 7862: 7847: 7830: 7813: 7751: 7711: 7648: 7566: 7522: 7341: 7253: 7209: 7031: 6943: 6892: 6773: 6673: 6582: 6578: 6475: 6457: 6439: 6384: 6320: 6247: 6230: 6212: 6194: 6120: 6080:= proper distance 6061: 6057: 5940: 5922: 5904: 5850: 5754: 5737: 5719: 5701: 5583: 5553: 5529: 5497: 5448: 5442: 5399: 5284: 5204: 5150: 5117: 5084: 5005:Lorentz transforms 4992:is replaced with − 4959: 4828: 4822: 4767: 4664: 4504: 4498: 4367: 4344: 4203: 4123: 4105: 4025: 4007: 3932: 3888: 3842: 3797:Now substituting: 3784: 3656: 3545: 3399: 3320: 3281: 3242: 3159: 3079: 3059: 2979: 2959: 2884: 2851: 2781: 2748: 2715: 2652: 2590:Or more commonly: 2577: 2507: 2429: 2332: 2197: 2094: 2011: 1937: 1863: 1794: 1697: 1664: 1621: 1557: 1498: 1426: 1356: 1323: 1290: 1210: 1123: 1063: 1017:Length contraction 1008:, is known as the 985: 945: 807: 741: 673: 584:{\displaystyle t'} 581: 553: 433: 366: 298: 262: 166: 139: 112: 85: 53: 18:special relativity 8926:978-0-521-19821-9 8912:978-0-521-57507-2 8886:978-0-470-01460-8 8853:978-0-470-01460-8 8756: 8755: 8690: 8689: 8678: 8632: 8631: 8553: 8552: 8345: 8321: 8271: 8250: 8209: 8098: 8082: 7999: 7807: 7709: 7708: 7697: 7580: 7579: 7499: 7472: 7431: 7337: 7186: 7159: 7121: 7027: 6863: 6769: 6693:= invariant mass 6518: 6419: 5625:Invariant result 4251: 4250: 4201: 4193: 4103: 4095: 4005: 4002: 3886: 3838: 3782: 3779: 3762: 3728: 3702: 3654: 3651: 3591: 3543: 3535: 3454: 3392: 3157: 3149: 3057: 3049: 2957: 2954: 2872:Velocity addition 2866: 2865: 2844: 2645: 2570: 2423: 2325: 2297: 2190: 1481: 1419: 1225: 1224: 1208: 1191: 1061: 1000: 999: 943: 942: 940: 901: 900: 898: 862: 805: 804: 739: 738: 704: 671: 619: 541: 485: 431: 326:(different times 296: 260: 259: 197:-direction, of a 184:relative velocity 8953: 8855: 8845: 8746: 8744: 8743: 8738: 8727: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8697: 8695: 8691: 8679: 8668: 8667: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8633: 8630: 8626: 8611: 8607: 8592: 8588: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8554: 8551: 8550: 8535: 8531: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8484: 8458: 8456: 8455: 8450: 8448: 8444: 8381: 8365: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8346: 8341: 8333: 8322: 8317: 8309: 8292: 8272: 8267: 8259: 8251: 8246: 8245: 8233: 8221: 8219: 8218: 8213: 8211: 8210: 8202: 8182: 8180: 8179: 8174: 8151: 8150: 8128: 8126: 8125: 8120: 8118: 8117: 8099: 8091: 8083: 8078: 8070: 8060: 8058: 8057: 8052: 8050: 8049: 8042: 8041: 8028: 8027: 8014: 8013: 8000: 7992: 7982: 7981: 7867: 7866: 7855: 7838: 7821: 7808: 7803: 7795: 7766: 7760: 7758: 7757: 7752: 7741: 7720: 7718: 7717: 7712: 7710: 7698: 7687: 7686: 7678: 7657: 7655: 7654: 7649: 7647: 7643: 7610: 7575: 7573: 7572: 7567: 7557: 7556: 7547: 7546: 7531: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7516: 7505: 7500: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7484: 7478: 7473: 7471: 7467: 7461: 7457: 7451: 7432: 7430: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7412: 7406: 7401: 7400: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7338: 7336: 7332: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7314: 7309: 7262: 7260: 7259: 7254: 7244: 7243: 7234: 7233: 7218: 7216: 7215: 7210: 7208: 7204: 7203: 7192: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7171: 7165: 7160: 7158: 7154: 7148: 7144: 7138: 7122: 7120: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7102: 7096: 7091: 7090: 7044:4-acceleration: 7040: 7038: 7037: 7032: 7028: 7026: 7022: 7016: 7015: 7010: 7004: 6999: 6961:3-acceleration: 6952: 6950: 6949: 6944: 6940: 6939: 6927: 6926: 6917: 6916: 6901: 6899: 6898: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6886: 6864: 6862: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6844: 6838: 6833: 6832: 6782: 6780: 6779: 6774: 6770: 6768: 6764: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6746: 6741: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6637: 6636: 6631: 6627: 6611: 6610: 6591: 6589: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6546: 6542: 6541: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6488: 6483: 6470: 6465: 6452: 6447: 6430: 6429: 6424: 6420: 6412: 6404: 6393: 6391: 6390: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6371: 6355: 6354: 6345: 6344: 6329: 6327: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6304: 6303: 6256: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6225: 6220: 6207: 6202: 6190: 6189: 6177: 6169: 6129: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6117: 6103: 6070: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6053: 6048: 6044: 6028: 6027: 6009: 6005: 6004: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5982: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5953: 5948: 5935: 5930: 5917: 5912: 5895: 5894: 5889: 5885: 5871: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5847: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5821: 5820: 5811: 5810: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5732: 5727: 5714: 5709: 5697: 5696: 5684: 5676: 5616:Property/effect 5613: 5592: 5590: 5589: 5584: 5582: 5578: 5577: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5538: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5506: 5504: 5503: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5483: 5479: 5478: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5447: 5446: 5404: 5403: 5289: 5288: 5281: 5269: 5257: 5245: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5178: 5159: 5157: 5156: 5151: 5142: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5109: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5085: 5058: 4968: 4966: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4954: 4945: 4944: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4911: 4910: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4872: 4868: 4867: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4827: 4826: 4772: 4771: 4669: 4668: 4617: 4616: 4604: 4603: 4591: 4590: 4575: 4574: 4559: 4558: 4543: 4542: 4513: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4503: 4502: 4383:Minkowski metric 4377:is known as the 4376: 4374: 4373: 4368: 4353: 4351: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4339: 4330: 4329: 4314: 4313: 4304: 4303: 4281:(i.e. notion of 4212: 4210: 4209: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4199: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4182: 4178: 4177: 4167: 4150: 4149: 4140: 4131: 4114: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4093: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4069: 4052: 4051: 4042: 4033: 4016: 4014: 4013: 4008: 4006: 4004: 4003: 4001: 4000: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3976: 3967: 3960: 3959: 3949: 3940: 3897: 3895: 3894: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3884: 3872: 3871: 3859: 3850: 3839: 3837: 3829: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3777: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3753: 3745: 3736: 3729: 3727: 3719: 3711: 3708: 3703: 3701: 3700: 3688: 3687: 3675: 3665: 3663: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3640: 3629: 3617: 3597: 3592: 3590: 3589: 3577: 3576: 3564: 3554: 3552: 3551: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3536: 3534: 3533: 3524: 3513: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3460: 3455: 3453: 3452: 3440: 3439: 3427: 3412:The velocity is 3408: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3391: 3390: 3381: 3370: 3348: 3329: 3327: 3326: 3321: 3309: 3290: 3288: 3287: 3282: 3270: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3241: 3237: 3207: 3174: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3147: 3138: 3134: 3133: 3123: 3106: 3105: 3096: 3087: 3068: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3047: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3023: 3006: 3005: 2996: 2987: 2968: 2966: 2965: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2955: 2953: 2952: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2928: 2919: 2912: 2911: 2901: 2892: 2860: 2858: 2857: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2843: 2842: 2833: 2825: 2806: 2790: 2788: 2787: 2782: 2773: 2757: 2755: 2754: 2749: 2740: 2724: 2722: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2686: 2661: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2643: 2634: 2626: 2607: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2571: 2563: 2541: 2516: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2492: 2491: 2473: 2472: 2460: 2438: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2404: 2403: 2394: 2376: 2375: 2363: 2341: 2339: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2326: 2324: 2323: 2322: 2303: 2298: 2296: 2295: 2294: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2260: 2241: 2240: 2228: 2206: 2204: 2203: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2188: 2187: 2168: 2143: 2142: 2130: 2103: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2055: 2054: 2042: 2020: 2018: 2017: 2012: 2000: 1999: 1981: 1980: 1968: 1946: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1935: 1912: 1911: 1896: 1895: 1872: 1870: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1857: 1803: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1788: 1774: 1770: 1706: 1704: 1703: 1698: 1689: 1673: 1671: 1670: 1665: 1656: 1630: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1601: 1566: 1564: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1528: 1507: 1505: 1504: 1499: 1482: 1477: 1469: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1417: 1408: 1400: 1381: 1365: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1348: 1332: 1330: 1329: 1324: 1315: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1261: 1219: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1179: 1158: 1132: 1130: 1129: 1124: 1121: 1078: 1072: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1062: 1054: 1049: 994: 992: 991: 986: 975: 954: 952: 951: 946: 944: 941: 939: 938: 929: 928: 919: 911: 907: 902: 899: 897: 896: 887: 886: 877: 869: 865: 863: 858: 850: 845: 816: 814: 813: 808: 806: 803: 802: 790: 789: 780: 779: 771: 766: 750: 748: 747: 742: 740: 737: 736: 724: 723: 714: 710: 705: 700: 692: 682: 680: 679: 674: 672: 670: 669: 668: 656: 655: 645: 644: 635: 630: 629: 624: 620: 615: 607: 590: 588: 587: 582: 580: 562: 560: 559: 554: 552: 551: 546: 542: 537: 529: 522: 521: 509: 508: 496: 495: 490: 486: 481: 473: 466: 465: 442: 440: 439: 434: 432: 427: 419: 381: 375: 373: 372: 367: 356: 307: 305: 304: 299: 297: 289: 271: 269: 268: 263: 261: 258: 257: 242: 238: 175: 173: 172: 167: 165: 164: 148: 146: 145: 140: 138: 137: 121: 119: 118: 113: 111: 110: 94: 92: 91: 86: 84: 83: 62: 60: 59: 54: 52: 51: 8961: 8960: 8956: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8951: 8950: 8931: 8930: 8864: 8859: 8858: 8846: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8763: 8720: 8715: 8714: 8693: 8692: 8654: 8653: 8638: 8634: 8616: 8612: 8597: 8593: 8575: 8574: 8559: 8555: 8542: 8518: 8517: 8502: 8498: 8485: 8477: 8468: 8467: 8425: 8421: 8374: 8369: 8368: 8334: 8310: 8282: 8260: 8238: 8234: 8227: 8226: 8195: 8194: 8191: 8142: 8137: 8136: 8109: 8071: 8064: 8063: 8044: 8043: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8005: 8002: 8001: 7984: 7976: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7882: 7872: 7861: 7860: 7844: 7843: 7827: 7826: 7810: 7809: 7796: 7787: 7781: 7780: 7734: 7729: 7728: 7671: 7666: 7665: 7624: 7620: 7603: 7598: 7597: 7591: 7585: 7576: 7536: 7535: 7489: 7479: 7462: 7452: 7446: 7442: 7421: 7407: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7385: 7378: 7371: 7364: 7327: 7315: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7295: 7288: 7281: 7263: 7223: 7222: 7176: 7166: 7149: 7139: 7133: 7129: 7111: 7097: 7080: 7079: 7077: 7075: 7068: 7061: 7054: 7017: 7005: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6985: 6978: 6971: 6953: 6931: 6906: 6905: 6875: 6871: 6853: 6839: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6810: 6803: 6796: 6759: 6747: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6720: 6713: 6694: 6689: 6688:= total energy 6650: 6646: 6642: 6641: 6620: 6616: 6615: 6602: 6597: 6596: 6595: 6594:which leads to: 6577: 6576: 6558: 6554: 6553: 6544: 6543: 6533: 6506: 6505: 6496: 6495: 6438: 6434: 6407: 6406: 6396: 6395: 6364: 6360: 6359: 6334: 6333: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6281: 6274: 6181: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6094: 6093: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6056: 6055: 6037: 6033: 6032: 6019: 6007: 6006: 5996: 5975: 5971: 5970: 5961: 5960: 5903: 5899: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5863: 5862: 5860: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5800: 5799: 5795: 5788: 5781: 5688: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5655: 5648: 5604: 5571: 5566: 5565: 5541: 5540: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5472: 5467: 5466: 5441: 5440: 5434: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5406: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5376: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5304: 5294: 5283: 5282: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5238: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5171: 5163: 5162: 5135: 5130: 5129: 5102: 5097: 5096: 5051: 5046: 5045: 5007: 4901: 4897: 4876: 4861: 4850: 4849: 4821: 4820: 4811: 4810: 4801: 4800: 4791: 4790: 4774: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4671: 4663: 4662: 4654: 4646: 4638: 4622: 4608: 4595: 4582: 4566: 4550: 4534: 4526: 4525: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4402: 4390: 4389: 4359: 4358: 4293: 4292: 4268: 4260:Main articles: 4258: 4236: 4229: 4183: 4169: 4168: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4141: 4118: 4117: 4085: 4071: 4070: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4020: 4019: 3992: 3978: 3977: 3968: 3951: 3950: 3927: 3926: 3920: 3913: 3906: 3877: 3873: 3864: 3860: 3830: 3822: 3807: 3802: 3801: 3769: 3754: 3746: 3737: 3720: 3712: 3709: 3693: 3689: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3668: 3641: 3630: 3618: 3598: 3582: 3578: 3569: 3565: 3558: 3557: 3525: 3514: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3445: 3441: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3420: 3382: 3371: 3359: 3355: 3341: 3333: 3332: 3302: 3294: 3293: 3263: 3255: 3254: 3218: 3214: 3200: 3192: 3191: 3139: 3125: 3124: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3097: 3074: 3073: 3039: 3025: 3024: 3015: 3011: 3007: 2997: 2974: 2973: 2944: 2930: 2929: 2920: 2903: 2902: 2879: 2878: 2834: 2826: 2817: 2813: 2799: 2794: 2793: 2766: 2761: 2760: 2733: 2728: 2727: 2697: 2693: 2679: 2674: 2673: 2635: 2627: 2618: 2614: 2600: 2595: 2594: 2552: 2548: 2534: 2529: 2528: 2493: 2483: 2464: 2453: 2442: 2441: 2412: 2405: 2395: 2389: 2367: 2356: 2345: 2344: 2314: 2307: 2286: 2279: 2268: 2261: 2258: 2254: 2232: 2221: 2210: 2209: 2179: 2172: 2160: 2156: 2134: 2123: 2112: 2111: 2079: 2072: 2068: 2046: 2035: 2024: 2023: 1991: 1972: 1961: 1950: 1949: 1928: 1903: 1887: 1876: 1875: 1850: 1825: 1821: 1807: 1806: 1781: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1731: 1730: 1682: 1677: 1676: 1649: 1644: 1643: 1608: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1575: 1574: 1539: 1535: 1521: 1516: 1515: 1470: 1463: 1462: 1409: 1401: 1392: 1388: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1341: 1336: 1335: 1308: 1303: 1302: 1272: 1268: 1254: 1249: 1248: 1180: 1174: 1151: 1146: 1145: 1114: 1100: 1099: 1042: 1037: 1036: 968: 963: 962: 930: 920: 888: 878: 851: 838: 833: 832: 794: 781: 772: 759: 754: 753: 728: 715: 693: 686: 685: 660: 647: 646: 636: 608: 602: 601: 596: 595: 573: 568: 567: 530: 524: 523: 513: 500: 474: 468: 467: 457: 452: 451: 420: 407: 406: 349: 344: 343: 314:inertial frames 277: 276: 249: 226: 225: 212: 207: 191:inertial frames 156: 151: 150: 129: 124: 123: 102: 97: 96: 75: 70: 69: 43: 38: 37: 26: 12: 11: 5: 8959: 8957: 8949: 8948: 8943: 8933: 8932: 8929: 8928: 8915: 8901: 8888: 8875: 8863: 8860: 8857: 8856: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8754: 8753: 8748: 8747: 8736: 8733: 8730: 8726: 8723: 8707: 8706: 8688: 8685: 8682: 8677: 8674: 8671: 8665: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8655: 8651: 8647: 8644: 8641: 8637: 8629: 8625: 8622: 8619: 8615: 8610: 8606: 8603: 8600: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8576: 8572: 8568: 8565: 8562: 8558: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8538: 8534: 8529: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8494: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8480: 8476: 8475: 8460: 8459: 8447: 8443: 8440: 8437: 8434: 8431: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8417: 8414: 8411: 8408: 8405: 8402: 8399: 8396: 8393: 8390: 8387: 8384: 8380: 8377: 8366: 8355: 8352: 8349: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8331: 8328: 8325: 8320: 8316: 8313: 8307: 8304: 8301: 8298: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8285: 8281: 8278: 8275: 8270: 8266: 8263: 8257: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8241: 8237: 8208: 8205: 8189: 8184: 8183: 8172: 8169: 8166: 8163: 8160: 8157: 8154: 8149: 8145: 8130: 8129: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8105: 8102: 8097: 8094: 8089: 8086: 8081: 8077: 8074: 8061: 8048: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8031: 8026: 8022: 8018: 8017: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8003: 7998: 7995: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7980: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7955: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7909: 7906: 7905: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7811: 7806: 7802: 7799: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7771: 7770: 7762: 7761: 7750: 7747: 7744: 7740: 7737: 7722: 7721: 7707: 7704: 7701: 7696: 7693: 7690: 7684: 7681: 7677: 7674: 7659: 7658: 7646: 7642: 7639: 7636: 7633: 7630: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7616: 7613: 7609: 7606: 7587:Main article: 7584: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7563: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7533: 7520: 7515: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7493: 7487: 7483: 7476: 7470: 7466: 7460: 7456: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7438: 7435: 7429: 7425: 7417: 7411: 7404: 7399: 7383: 7376: 7369: 7362: 7352: 7335: 7331: 7324: 7319: 7312: 7308: 7293: 7286: 7279: 7269: 7265: 7264: 7250: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7220: 7207: 7202: 7198: 7195: 7191: 7184: 7180: 7174: 7170: 7163: 7157: 7153: 7147: 7143: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7125: 7119: 7115: 7107: 7101: 7094: 7089: 7073: 7066: 7059: 7052: 7042: 7025: 7021: 7014: 7009: 7002: 6998: 6983: 6976: 6969: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6903: 6890: 6885: 6881: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6867: 6861: 6857: 6849: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6815: 6808: 6801: 6794: 6784: 6767: 6763: 6756: 6751: 6744: 6740: 6725: 6718: 6711: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6668: 6663: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6605: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6557: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6545: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6497: 6493: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6403: 6379: 6374: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6331: 6315: 6310: 6307: 6302: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6258: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6154: 6147: 6140: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6090: 6084: 6083: 6075:= proper time 6052: 6047: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6008: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5974: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5907: 5902: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5872: 5870: 5845: 5840: 5836: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5797: 5793: 5786: 5779: 5765: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5660: 5653: 5646: 5636: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5620: 5617: 5603: 5600: 5581: 5576: 5550: 5527: 5522: 5510:In the above, 5508: 5507: 5494: 5489: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5459: 5458: 5445: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5265: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5215: 5214: 5202: 5199: 5196: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5184: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5160: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5127: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5094: 5082: 5079: 5076: 5073: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5057: 5054: 5006: 5003: 4970: 4969: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4935: 4932: 4928: 4922: 4917: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4860: 4857: 4841:In the above, 4839: 4838: 4825: 4819: 4816: 4813: 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4667: 4661: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4522: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4400: 4397: 4366: 4355: 4354: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4320: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4234: 4227: 4214: 4213: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4165: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4148: 4144: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4115: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4017: 3999: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3971: 3966: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3918: 3911: 3904: 3899: 3898: 3883: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3836: 3833: 3828: 3825: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3795: 3794: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3757: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3740: 3735: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3718: 3715: 3706: 3699: 3696: 3692: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3666: 3648: 3644: 3639: 3636: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3616: 3613: 3610: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3595: 3588: 3585: 3581: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3555: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3511: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3410: 3409: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3330: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3305: 3301: 3291: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3252: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3210: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3169: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3070: 3069: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2970: 2969: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2875: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2862: 2861: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2829: 2823: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2802: 2791: 2779: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2758: 2746: 2743: 2739: 2736: 2725: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2682: 2663: 2662: 2650: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2603: 2588: 2587: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2518: 2517: 2505: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2439: 2427: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2402: 2398: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2352: 2342: 2330: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2282: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2264: 2257: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2217: 2207: 2195: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2105: 2104: 2092: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2034: 2031: 2021: 2009: 2006: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1947: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1883: 1873: 1861: 1856: 1853: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1804: 1792: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1708: 1707: 1695: 1692: 1688: 1685: 1674: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1652: 1632: 1631: 1619: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1600: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1568: 1567: 1555: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1524: 1509: 1508: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1446: 1445: 1437: 1436: 1424: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1384: 1380: 1377: 1366: 1354: 1351: 1347: 1344: 1333: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1311: 1300: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1245: 1244: 1227: 1226: 1223: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1207: 1204: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1134: 1133: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1083: 1082: 1074: 1073: 1060: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1045: 1033: 1032: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 996: 995: 984: 981: 978: 974: 971: 956: 955: 937: 933: 927: 923: 917: 914: 910: 905: 895: 891: 885: 881: 875: 872: 868: 861: 857: 854: 848: 844: 841: 818: 817: 801: 797: 793: 788: 784: 778: 775: 769: 765: 762: 751: 735: 731: 727: 722: 718: 713: 708: 703: 699: 696: 683: 667: 663: 659: 654: 650: 643: 639: 633: 628: 623: 618: 614: 611: 605: 579: 576: 564: 563: 550: 545: 540: 536: 533: 527: 520: 516: 512: 507: 503: 499: 494: 489: 484: 480: 477: 471: 464: 460: 444: 443: 430: 426: 423: 417: 414: 386: 385: 377: 376: 365: 362: 359: 355: 352: 340: 339: 295: 292: 287: 284: 273: 272: 256: 252: 248: 245: 241: 236: 233: 222: 221: 219:Lorentz factor 211: 208: 206: 203: 163: 159: 136: 132: 109: 105: 82: 78: 65: 64: 50: 46: 34: 25: 22: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8958: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8938: 8936: 8927: 8923: 8919: 8916: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8899:0-07-145545-0 8896: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8876: 8873: 8869: 8866: 8865: 8861: 8854: 8850: 8844: 8841: 8834: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8765: 8760: 8752: 8734: 8731: 8728: 8724: 8721: 8713: 8712: 8711: 8686: 8683: 8680: 8675: 8672: 8669: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8649: 8645: 8642: 8639: 8635: 8627: 8623: 8620: 8617: 8613: 8608: 8604: 8601: 8598: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8570: 8566: 8563: 8560: 8556: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8536: 8532: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8513: 8509: 8506: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8481: 8478: 8466: 8465: 8464: 8445: 8441: 8438: 8435: 8432: 8429: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8415: 8412: 8409: 8406: 8403: 8400: 8397: 8394: 8391: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8378: 8375: 8367: 8353: 8350: 8347: 8342: 8338: 8335: 8329: 8326: 8323: 8318: 8314: 8311: 8305: 8302: 8299: 8296: 8293: 8286: 8279: 8276: 8273: 8268: 8264: 8261: 8255: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8239: 8235: 8225: 8224: 8223: 8203: 8192: 8170: 8167: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8147: 8143: 8135: 8134: 8133: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8103: 8100: 8095: 8092: 8087: 8084: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8062: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8024: 8020: 8010: 8006: 7996: 7993: 7985: 7978: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7910: 7907: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7887: 7884: 7879: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7804: 7800: 7797: 7788: 7779: 7778: 7777: 7773: 7772: 7768: 7767: 7764: 7763: 7748: 7745: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7727: 7726: 7725: 7705: 7702: 7699: 7694: 7691: 7688: 7682: 7679: 7675: 7672: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7644: 7640: 7637: 7634: 7631: 7628: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7614: 7611: 7607: 7604: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7590: 7583:Doppler shift 7582: 7561: 7558: 7548: 7534: 7532: 7518: 7509: 7506: 7495: 7485: 7474: 7468: 7458: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7436: 7433: 7427: 7402: 7382: 7375: 7368: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7351: 7333: 7310: 7292: 7285: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7248: 7245: 7235: 7221: 7219: 7205: 7196: 7193: 7182: 7172: 7161: 7155: 7145: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7123: 7117: 7092: 7072: 7065: 7058: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7041: 7023: 7000: 6982: 6975: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6958:Acceleration 6957: 6956: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6918: 6904: 6902: 6888: 6879: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6865: 6859: 6834: 6814: 6807: 6800: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6783: 6765: 6742: 6724: 6717: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6695: 6692: 6687: 6683: 6666: 6661: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6603: 6592: 6571: 6566: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6550: 6548: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6500: 6491: 6485: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6440: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6413: 6408: 6377: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6346: 6332: 6330: 6308: 6305: 6285: 6278: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6257: 6240: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6170: 6153: 6146: 6139: 6135: 6130: 6110: 6107: 6104: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6079: 6074: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6038: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5979: 5976: 5972: 5967: 5965: 5956: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5879: 5875: 5843: 5838: 5834: 5831: 5827: 5822: 5812: 5798: 5792: 5785: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5764: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5677: 5659: 5652: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5579: 5525: 5484: 5480: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5443: 5437: 5430: 5423: 5416: 5413: 5407: 5400: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5332: 5329: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5301: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5278: 5275: 5266: 5263: 5254: 5251: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5220: 5219: 5218: 5200: 5197: 5194: 5191: 5188: 5185: 5182: 5179: 5175: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5146: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5128: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5095: 5080: 5077: 5074: 5071: 5068: 5065: 5062: 5059: 5055: 5052: 5044: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4946: 4933: 4930: 4926: 4912: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4884: 4873: 4869: 4855: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4823: 4817: 4814: 4807: 4804: 4797: 4794: 4787: 4784: 4781: 4775: 4768: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4678: 4672: 4665: 4659: 4656: 4651: 4648: 4643: 4640: 4635: 4632: 4629: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4523: 4520: 4517: 4516: 4499: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4409: 4403: 4398: 4395: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4380: 4379:metric tensor 4364: 4331: 4318: 4315: 4305: 4291: 4290: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4279:Inner product 4277: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4267: 4263: 4262:metric tensor 4255: 4247: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4223: 4219: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4116: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4018: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3969: 3964: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3914: 3907: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3861: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3834: 3831: 3826: 3823: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3800: 3799: 3798: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3758: 3755: 3750: 3747: 3741: 3738: 3733: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3716: 3713: 3704: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3667: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3593: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3570: 3566: 3556: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3518: 3515: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3479: 3476: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3316: 3313: 3310: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3267: 3264: 3260: 3253: 3238: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3204: 3201: 3197: 3190: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3185:differentials 3181: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3152: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3119: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3098: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3071: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2971: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2921: 2916: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2877: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2792: 2777: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2759: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2726: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2672: 2671: 2670: 2668: 2648: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2608: 2604: 2601: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2573: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2523: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2454: 2450: 2447: 2440: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2406: 2400: 2396: 2390: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2350: 2343: 2328: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2255: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2218: 2215: 2208: 2193: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2110: 2109: 2108: 2090: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2036: 2032: 2029: 2022: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1948: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1881: 1874: 1859: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1844: 1841: 1838: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1805: 1790: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1675: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1637: 1617: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1529: 1525: 1522: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1422: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1367: 1352: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1334: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1301: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1231:proper length 1205: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1175: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1152: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1084: 1080: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1058: 1055: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1035: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1011: 1007: 982: 979: 976: 972: 969: 961: 960: 959: 935: 931: 925: 921: 915: 912: 908: 903: 893: 889: 883: 879: 873: 870: 866: 859: 855: 852: 846: 842: 839: 831: 830: 829: 828:, one finds: 827: 823: 799: 795: 791: 786: 782: 776: 773: 767: 763: 760: 752: 733: 729: 725: 720: 716: 711: 706: 701: 697: 694: 684: 665: 661: 657: 652: 648: 641: 637: 631: 626: 621: 616: 612: 609: 603: 594: 593: 592: 577: 574: 548: 543: 538: 534: 531: 525: 518: 514: 510: 505: 501: 497: 492: 487: 482: 478: 475: 469: 462: 458: 450: 449: 448: 428: 424: 421: 415: 412: 405: 404: 403: 401: 397: 393: 388: 387: 383: 382: 379: 378: 363: 360: 357: 353: 350: 342: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 324:Time dilation 322: 321: 320: 317: 315: 311: 293: 290: 285: 282: 254: 250: 246: 243: 239: 234: 231: 224: 223: 220: 217: 216: 215: 209: 204: 202: 200: 196: 192: 188: 185: 180: 177: 161: 157: 134: 130: 107: 103: 80: 76: 48: 44: 35: 31: 30: 29: 23: 21: 19: 8917: 8903: 8890: 8877: 8867: 8843: 8749: 8708: 8461: 8187: 8185: 8131: 7774: 7723: 7660: 7592: 7388: 7380: 7373: 7366: 7359: 7355: 7298: 7290: 7283: 7276: 7272: 7078: 7070: 7063: 7056: 7049: 7045: 6988: 6980: 6973: 6966: 6962: 6820: 6812: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6787: 6786:4-velocity: 6730: 6722: 6715: 6708: 6704: 6703:3-velocity: 6690: 6685: 6684: 6593: 6394: 6291: 6283: 6276: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6260:4-momentum: 6151: 6144: 6137: 6133: 6132:3-momentum: 6131: 6092: 6077: 6072: 5861: 5790: 5783: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5767:4-position: 5665: 5657: 5650: 5643: 5639: 5638:3-position: 5608:four-vectors 5605: 5509: 5460: 5216: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5008: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4971: 4842: 4840: 4356: 4269: 4266:four-vectors 4243: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4215: 3916: 3909: 3902: 3900: 3796: 3413: 3411: 3182: 2666: 2664: 2589: 2521: 2519: 2106: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1709: 1635: 1633: 1569: 1510: 1458:), we have: 1455: 1451: 1449: 1234: 1228: 1137: 1135: 1092: 1088: 1086: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1005: 1003: 957: 825: 821: 819: 565: 445: 399: 395: 391: 389: 335: 331: 327: 318: 309: 274: 213: 194: 189:between two 186: 181: 178: 66: 27: 15: 8872:R.G. Lerner 4998:dot product 1010:proper time 8935:Categories 8835:References 5631:Space-time 5039:cdt′ 4986:cdt′ 205:Kinematics 8735:ν 8732:γ 8722:ν 8687:β 8676:β 8673:− 8664:ν 8646:β 8643:− 8624:β 8605:β 8602:− 8585:ν 8567:β 8564:− 8544:β 8540:− 8528:ν 8510:β 8507:− 8496:ν 8493:γ 8479:ν 8442:θ 8439:⁡ 8433:β 8430:− 8419:ν 8416:γ 8410:θ 8407:⁡ 8401:ν 8398:β 8395:γ 8392:− 8389:ν 8386:γ 8376:ν 8354:θ 8351:⁡ 8339:ν 8330:β 8327:γ 8324:− 8315:ν 8306:γ 8300:θ 8297:⁡ 8280:β 8277:γ 8274:− 8265:ν 8256:γ 8240:ν 8207:→ 8171:θ 8168:⁡ 8162:‖ 8156:‖ 8132:Now, if 8107:β 8104:γ 8101:− 8088:γ 7919:γ 7914:β 7911:γ 7908:− 7891:β 7888:γ 7885:− 7880:γ 7749:ν 7746:γ 7736:ν 7706:β 7695:β 7692:− 7683:ν 7673:ν 7641:θ 7638:⁡ 7632:β 7629:− 7618:ν 7615:γ 7605:ν 7549:⋅ 7510:γ 7486:γ 7459:γ 7437:γ 7428:τ 7354:4-force: 7271:3-force: 7236:⋅ 7197:γ 7173:γ 7146:γ 7127:γ 7118:τ 6919:⋅ 6869:γ 6860:τ 6700:Velocity 6531:− 6432:− 6347:⋅ 6192:≡ 6179:≡ 6171:⋅ 6108:γ 6042:τ 6021:χ 6017:− 5994:− 5897:− 5835:τ 5813:⋅ 5699:≡ 5686:≡ 5678:⋅ 5622:4-vector 5619:3-vector 5488:Λ 5341:γ 5336:β 5333:γ 5330:− 5313:β 5310:γ 5307:− 5302:γ 5198:β 5195:γ 5192:− 5183:γ 5075:β 5072:γ 5069:− 5063:γ 5023:dt′ 4934:η 4916:Λ 4903:Λ 4895:η 4856:η 4679:− 4593:− 4410:− 4396:η 4365:η 4319:η 4306:⋅ 4272:4-vectors 4244:dz′ 4240:dy′ 4222:dt′ 4164:− 4153:γ 4066:− 4055:γ 3973:− 3962:− 3922:around): 3742:− 3731:− 3626:− 3606:− 3510:− 3496:γ 3477:− 3463:γ 3367:− 3353:γ 3226:− 3212:γ 3120:− 3109:γ 3020:− 3009:γ 2925:− 2914:− 2822:− 2811:γ 2702:− 2691:γ 2623:− 2612:γ 2560:β 2557:− 2546:γ 2495:β 2485:γ 2481:− 2466:γ 2448:γ 2414:β 2410:− 2397:β 2384:− 2369:γ 2351:γ 2316:β 2312:− 2300:− 2288:β 2284:− 2270:β 2266:− 2234:γ 2216:γ 2181:β 2177:− 2165:− 2136:γ 2118:γ 2081:γ 2077:− 2048:γ 2030:γ 1993:γ 1989:− 1974:γ 1956:γ 1923:γ 1905:γ 1901:− 1889:γ 1836:γ 1833:− 1827:γ 1819:γ 1762:− 1751:γ 1743:γ 1587:γ 1544:− 1533:γ 1511:that is: 1490:− 1479:γ 1397:− 1386:γ 1277:− 1266:γ 1206:γ 1203:ℓ 1189:γ 1153:ℓ 1106:ℓ 1059:γ 1056:ℓ 1044:ℓ 980:γ 916:− 874:− 792:− 726:− 658:− 361:γ 283:β 251:β 247:− 232:γ 149:, though 8761:See also 8725:′ 8482:′ 8379:′ 8290:‖ 8284:‖ 8243:′ 8076:′ 7857:′ 7840:′ 7823:′ 7801:′ 7739:′ 7676:′ 7608:′ 5580:′ 5526:′ 5481:′ 5279:′ 5267:′ 5255:′ 5243:′ 5176:′ 5140:′ 5107:′ 5056:′ 5015:t′ 4885:′ 4870:′ 4233:V′ 4226:V′ 4133:′ 4035:′ 3942:′ 3882:′ 3869:′ 3852:′ 3698:′ 3685:′ 3587:′ 3574:′ 3450:′ 3437:′ 3346:′ 3307:′ 3268:′ 3205:′ 3089:′ 2989:′ 2894:′ 2804:′ 2771:′ 2738:′ 2684:′ 2605:′ 2539:′ 2458:′ 2361:′ 2226:′ 2128:′ 2040:′ 1966:′ 1933:′ 1855:′ 1786:′ 1724:x′ 1716:t′ 1687:′ 1654:′ 1613:′ 1599:′ 1526:′ 1475:′ 1456:ℓ 1379:′ 1346:′ 1313:′ 1259:′ 1235:ℓ 1185:′ 1156:′ 1119:′ 1093:t′ 1047:′ 973:′ 843:′ 764:′ 698:′ 613:′ 578:′ 535:′ 479:′ 354:′ 8862:Sources 5596:spinors 8924:  8910:  8897:  8884:  8851:  7268:Force 5634:events 5037:, and 5021:, and 4984:, and 4357:where 4283:length 3915:, and 3187:, so: 275:where 33:frame. 5025:with 3416:, so 3414:dx/dt 8922:ISBN 8908:ISBN 8895:ISBN 8882:ISBN 8849:ISBN 8193:and 5539:and 4264:and 4231:and 1714:and 1023:and 330:and 308:and 8436:cos 8404:cos 8348:cos 8294:cos 8165:cos 7635:cos 7358:= ( 7275:= ( 7048:= ( 6965:= ( 6790:= ( 6707:= ( 6266:E/c 6264:= ( 6136:= ( 5771:= ( 5642:= ( 5035:cdt 5031:ct' 4982:cdt 4978:ct' 4242:or 8937:: 8870:, 7386:) 7379:, 7372:, 7365:, 7296:) 7289:, 7282:, 7076:) 7069:, 7062:, 7055:, 6986:) 6979:, 6972:, 6818:) 6811:, 6804:, 6797:, 6728:) 6721:, 6714:, 6289:) 6282:, 6275:, 6268:, 6157:) 6150:, 6143:, 5796:) 5789:, 5782:, 5775:, 5773:ct 5663:) 5656:, 5649:, 5598:. 5033:, 5029:, 5027:ct 5019:dt 5017:, 5013:, 4980:, 4976:, 4974:ct 4843:ds 4385:: 4218:dt 3908:, 2524:: 1454:= 1025:x' 591:: 332:t' 316:. 201:. 20:. 8914:. 8729:= 8684:+ 8681:1 8670:1 8661:= 8650:) 8640:1 8636:( 8628:) 8621:+ 8618:1 8614:( 8609:) 8599:1 8595:( 8590:1 8582:= 8571:) 8561:1 8557:( 8548:2 8537:1 8533:1 8525:= 8514:) 8504:1 8500:( 8490:= 8446:) 8427:1 8423:( 8413:= 8383:= 8343:c 8336:h 8319:c 8312:h 8303:= 8287:p 8269:c 8262:h 8253:= 8248:c 8236:h 8204:p 8190:x 8188:p 8159:p 8153:= 8148:x 8144:p 8115:x 8111:p 8096:c 8093:E 8085:= 8080:c 8073:E 8047:) 8039:z 8035:p 8025:y 8021:p 8011:x 8007:p 7997:c 7994:E 7986:( 7979:) 7973:1 7968:0 7963:0 7958:0 7951:0 7946:1 7941:0 7936:0 7929:0 7924:0 7901:0 7896:0 7874:( 7869:= 7864:) 7853:z 7849:p 7836:y 7832:p 7819:x 7815:p 7805:c 7798:E 7789:( 7743:= 7703:+ 7700:1 7689:1 7680:= 7645:) 7626:1 7622:( 7612:= 7562:0 7559:= 7554:U 7544:F 7519:) 7514:a 7507:+ 7503:u 7496:t 7492:d 7482:d 7475:, 7469:t 7465:d 7455:d 7448:c 7444:( 7440:m 7434:= 7424:d 7416:P 7410:d 7403:= 7398:F 7384:3 7381:F 7377:2 7374:F 7370:1 7367:F 7363:0 7360:F 7356:F 7334:t 7330:d 7323:p 7318:d 7311:= 7307:f 7294:3 7291:f 7287:2 7284:f 7280:1 7277:f 7273:f 7249:0 7246:= 7241:U 7231:A 7206:) 7201:a 7194:+ 7190:u 7183:t 7179:d 7169:d 7162:, 7156:t 7152:d 7142:d 7135:c 7131:( 7124:= 7114:d 7106:U 7100:d 7093:= 7088:A 7074:3 7071:A 7067:2 7064:A 7060:1 7057:A 7053:0 7050:A 7046:A 7024:t 7020:d 7013:u 7008:d 7001:= 6997:a 6984:3 6981:a 6977:2 6974:a 6970:1 6967:a 6963:a 6937:2 6933:c 6929:= 6924:U 6914:U 6889:) 6884:u 6880:, 6877:c 6873:( 6866:= 6856:d 6848:X 6842:d 6835:= 6830:U 6816:3 6813:U 6809:2 6806:U 6802:1 6799:U 6795:0 6792:U 6788:U 6766:t 6762:d 6755:r 6750:d 6743:= 6739:u 6726:3 6723:u 6719:2 6716:u 6712:1 6709:u 6705:u 6691:m 6686:E 6667:2 6662:) 6656:2 6652:c 6648:m 6644:( 6639:+ 6634:2 6629:) 6625:c 6622:p 6618:( 6613:= 6608:2 6604:E 6572:2 6567:) 6563:c 6560:m 6556:( 6551:= 6539:2 6535:p 6526:2 6521:) 6516:c 6513:E 6508:( 6503:= 6492:) 6486:2 6481:3 6477:p 6473:+ 6468:2 6463:2 6459:p 6455:+ 6450:2 6445:1 6441:p 6436:( 6427:2 6422:) 6417:c 6414:E 6409:( 6378:2 6373:) 6369:c 6366:m 6362:( 6357:= 6352:P 6342:P 6314:U 6309:m 6306:= 6301:P 6287:3 6284:p 6280:2 6277:p 6273:1 6270:p 6262:P 6241:2 6236:3 6232:p 6228:+ 6223:2 6218:2 6214:p 6210:+ 6205:2 6200:1 6196:p 6187:2 6183:p 6175:p 6167:p 6155:3 6152:p 6148:2 6145:p 6141:1 6138:p 6134:p 6115:u 6111:m 6105:= 6101:p 6078:χ 6073:τ 6051:2 6046:) 6039:c 6035:( 6030:= 6025:2 6014:= 6002:2 5998:r 5989:2 5984:) 5980:t 5977:c 5973:( 5968:= 5957:) 5951:2 5946:3 5942:x 5938:+ 5933:2 5928:2 5924:x 5920:+ 5915:2 5910:1 5906:x 5901:( 5892:2 5887:) 5883:t 5880:c 5876:( 5844:2 5839:) 5832:c 5828:( 5823:= 5818:X 5808:X 5794:3 5791:x 5787:2 5784:x 5780:1 5777:x 5769:X 5748:2 5743:3 5739:x 5735:+ 5730:2 5725:2 5721:x 5717:+ 5712:2 5707:1 5703:x 5694:2 5690:r 5682:r 5674:r 5661:3 5658:x 5654:2 5651:x 5647:1 5644:x 5640:r 5575:a 5549:a 5521:a 5493:a 5485:= 5476:a 5444:) 5438:z 5431:y 5424:x 5417:t 5414:c 5408:( 5401:) 5395:1 5390:0 5385:0 5380:0 5373:0 5368:1 5363:0 5358:0 5351:0 5346:0 5323:0 5318:0 5296:( 5291:= 5286:) 5276:z 5264:y 5252:x 5240:t 5236:c 5230:( 5201:x 5189:t 5186:c 5180:= 5173:t 5169:c 5147:z 5144:= 5137:z 5114:y 5111:= 5104:y 5081:t 5078:c 5066:x 5060:= 5053:x 5011:t 4994:η 4990:η 4957:) 4952:b 4947:, 4942:a 4937:( 4931:= 4927:) 4921:b 4913:, 4908:a 4899:( 4892:= 4889:) 4880:b 4874:, 4865:a 4859:( 4824:) 4818:z 4815:d 4808:y 4805:d 4798:x 4795:d 4788:t 4785:d 4782:c 4776:( 4769:) 4763:1 4758:0 4753:0 4748:0 4741:0 4736:1 4731:0 4726:0 4719:0 4714:0 4709:1 4704:0 4697:0 4692:0 4687:0 4682:1 4673:( 4666:) 4660:z 4657:d 4652:y 4649:d 4644:x 4641:d 4636:t 4633:d 4630:c 4624:( 4619:= 4614:2 4610:t 4606:d 4601:2 4597:c 4588:2 4584:z 4580:d 4577:+ 4572:2 4568:y 4564:d 4561:+ 4556:2 4552:x 4548:d 4545:= 4540:2 4536:s 4532:d 4500:) 4494:1 4489:0 4484:0 4479:0 4472:0 4467:1 4462:0 4457:0 4450:0 4445:0 4440:1 4435:0 4428:0 4423:0 4418:0 4413:1 4404:( 4399:= 4342:) 4337:b 4332:, 4327:a 4322:( 4316:= 4311:b 4301:a 4285:) 4235:z 4228:y 4220:/ 4197:) 4189:2 4185:c 4180:v 4175:x 4171:V 4161:1 4157:( 4147:z 4143:V 4137:= 4129:z 4125:V 4099:) 4091:2 4087:c 4082:v 4077:x 4073:V 4063:1 4059:( 4049:y 4045:V 4039:= 4031:y 4027:V 3998:2 3994:c 3989:v 3984:x 3980:V 3970:1 3965:v 3957:x 3953:V 3946:= 3938:x 3934:V 3919:z 3917:V 3912:y 3910:V 3905:x 3903:V 3879:t 3875:d 3866:x 3862:d 3856:= 3848:x 3844:V 3835:t 3832:d 3827:x 3824:d 3818:= 3813:x 3809:V 3775:2 3771:c 3767:v 3759:t 3756:d 3751:x 3748:d 3739:1 3734:v 3725:t 3722:d 3717:x 3714:d 3705:= 3695:t 3691:d 3682:x 3678:d 3647:2 3643:c 3638:x 3635:d 3632:v 3623:t 3620:d 3615:t 3612:d 3609:v 3603:x 3600:d 3594:= 3584:t 3580:d 3571:x 3567:d 3539:) 3531:2 3527:c 3522:x 3519:d 3516:v 3507:t 3504:d 3500:( 3490:) 3486:t 3483:d 3480:v 3474:x 3471:d 3467:( 3457:= 3447:t 3443:d 3434:x 3430:d 3396:) 3388:2 3384:c 3379:x 3376:d 3373:v 3364:t 3361:d 3357:( 3350:= 3343:t 3339:d 3317:z 3314:d 3311:= 3304:z 3300:d 3278:y 3275:d 3272:= 3265:y 3261:d 3239:) 3235:t 3232:d 3229:v 3223:x 3220:d 3216:( 3209:= 3202:x 3198:d 3153:) 3145:2 3141:c 3136:v 3131:x 3127:V 3117:1 3113:( 3103:z 3099:V 3093:= 3085:z 3081:V 3053:) 3045:2 3041:c 3036:v 3031:x 3027:V 3017:1 3013:( 3003:y 2999:V 2993:= 2985:y 2981:V 2950:2 2946:c 2941:v 2936:x 2932:V 2922:1 2917:v 2909:x 2905:V 2898:= 2890:x 2886:V 2848:) 2840:2 2836:c 2831:x 2828:v 2819:t 2815:( 2808:= 2801:t 2778:z 2775:= 2768:z 2745:y 2742:= 2735:y 2712:) 2708:t 2705:v 2699:x 2695:( 2688:= 2681:x 2667:v 2649:) 2641:2 2637:c 2632:x 2629:v 2620:t 2616:( 2609:= 2602:t 2574:) 2568:c 2565:x 2554:t 2550:( 2543:= 2536:t 2522:v 2504:x 2499:2 2489:2 2478:t 2475:v 2470:2 2462:= 2455:t 2451:v 2426:) 2418:2 2407:1 2401:2 2391:( 2387:x 2381:t 2378:v 2373:2 2365:= 2358:t 2354:v 2329:) 2320:2 2309:1 2305:1 2292:2 2281:1 2274:2 2263:1 2256:( 2252:x 2249:+ 2246:t 2243:v 2238:2 2230:= 2223:t 2219:v 2194:) 2185:2 2174:1 2170:1 2162:1 2158:( 2154:x 2151:+ 2148:t 2145:v 2140:2 2132:= 2125:t 2121:v 2091:) 2085:2 2074:1 2070:( 2066:x 2063:+ 2060:t 2057:v 2052:2 2044:= 2037:t 2033:v 2008:x 2005:+ 2002:x 1997:2 1986:t 1983:v 1978:2 1970:= 1963:t 1959:v 1930:t 1926:v 1920:+ 1917:t 1914:v 1909:2 1898:x 1893:2 1885:= 1882:x 1860:) 1852:t 1848:v 1845:+ 1842:t 1839:v 1830:x 1823:( 1816:= 1813:x 1791:) 1783:t 1779:v 1776:+ 1772:) 1768:t 1765:v 1759:x 1755:( 1747:( 1740:= 1737:x 1722:↔ 1720:x 1712:t 1694:z 1691:= 1684:z 1661:y 1658:= 1651:y 1636:v 1618:) 1610:t 1606:v 1603:+ 1596:x 1591:( 1584:= 1581:x 1554:) 1550:t 1547:v 1541:x 1537:( 1530:= 1523:x 1496:t 1493:v 1487:x 1484:= 1472:x 1452:x 1423:) 1415:2 1411:c 1406:x 1403:v 1394:t 1390:( 1383:= 1376:t 1353:z 1350:= 1343:z 1320:y 1317:= 1310:y 1287:) 1283:t 1280:v 1274:x 1270:( 1263:= 1256:x 1198:= 1194:) 1182:t 1176:( 1172:v 1169:= 1166:t 1163:v 1160:= 1138:t 1116:t 1112:v 1109:= 1089:v 1051:= 1029:t 1021:x 1006:t 983:t 977:= 970:t 936:2 932:c 926:2 922:v 913:1 909:t 904:= 894:2 890:c 884:2 880:v 871:1 867:1 860:c 856:h 853:2 847:= 840:t 826:t 822:c 800:2 796:v 787:2 783:c 777:h 774:2 768:= 761:t 734:2 730:v 721:2 717:c 712:h 707:= 702:2 695:t 666:2 662:v 653:2 649:c 642:2 638:h 632:= 627:2 622:) 617:2 610:t 604:( 575:t 549:2 544:) 539:2 532:t 526:( 519:2 515:v 511:+ 506:2 502:h 498:= 493:2 488:) 483:2 476:t 470:( 463:2 459:c 429:c 425:h 422:2 416:= 413:t 400:c 396:h 392:v 364:t 358:= 351:t 336:x 328:t 310:v 294:c 291:v 286:= 255:2 244:1 240:1 235:= 195:x 187:v 162:0 158:c 135:0 131:c 108:0 104:c 81:0 77:c 49:0 45:c

Index

special relativity
relative velocity
inertial frames
Cartesian coordinate system
Lorentz factor
inertial frames
Time dilation
proper time
Length contraction
proper length
Lorentz transformation
Velocity addition
differentials
metric tensor
four-vectors
4-vectors
Inner product
length
metric tensor
Minkowski metric
Space-time interval
dot product
spinors
four-vectors
Space-time
events
Momentum-energy invariance
Relativistic Doppler effect
Theory of relativity
Special relativity

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