240:
getters to the sodium, but even so wetting will fail below 200 °C. Before the cell can begin operation, it must be heated, which creates extra costs. To tackle this challenge, case studies to couple sodium–sulfur batteries to thermal solar energy systems. The heat energy collected from the sun would be used to pre-heat the cells and maintain the high temperatures for short periods between use. Once running, the heat produced by charging and discharging cycles is sufficient to maintain operating temperatures and usually no external source is required.
678:
energy, room temperature operation mitigates safety issues such as explosions which can occur due to failure of the solid electrolyte during operation at high temperatures. Research and development of sodium–sulfur batteries that can operate at room temperature is ongoing. Despite the higher theoretical energy density of sodium–sulfur cells at room temperature compared to high temperature, operation at room temperature introduces challenges like:
2000:
31:
99:. Poor market adoption of molten sodium-sulfur batteries is due to their safety and durability issues, such as a short cycle life of fewer than 1000 cycles on average (although there are reports of 15 year operation with 300 cycles per year). In 2023, only one company (NGK Insulators of Japan) produces molten NaS batteries on a commercial scale.
458:) are abundant in Japan. The first large-scale field testing took place at TEPCO's Tsunashima substation between 1993 and 1996, using 3 x 2 MW, 6.6 kV battery banks. Based on the findings from this trial, improved battery modules were developed and were made commercially available in 2000. The commercial NaS battery bank offers:
1143:
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periods. In addition to this power shifting, sodium-sulfur batteries could be used to assist in stabilizing the power output of the wind farm during wind fluctuations. These types of batteries present an option for energy storage in locations where other storage options are not feasible. For example,
677:
One of the main shortcomings of traditional sodium–sulfur batteries is that they require high temperatures to operate. This means that they must be preheated before use, and that they will consume some of their stored energy (up to 14%) to maintain this temperature when not in use. Aside from saving
501:
announced that they had developed a low temperature molten sodium ion battery that can output power at under 100 °C. The batteries have double the energy density of Li-ion and considerably lower cost. Sumitomo
Electric Industry CEO Masayoshi Matsumoto indicated that the company planned to begin
1413:
Y. Dong, I. W. Chen and J. Li, "Transverse and longitudinal degradations in ceramic solid electrolytes." Chemistry of
Materials, 34, 5749 (2022) 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c00329; L. C. De Jonghe, "Impurities and solid electrolyte failure." Solid State Ionics, 7, 61 (1982) 10.1016/0167-2738(82)90070-4;
239:
above 250 °C, but a poor conductor of electrons, and thus avoids self-discharge. Sodium metal does not fully wet the BASE below 400 °C due to a layer of oxide(s) separating them; this temperature can be lowered to 300 °C by coating the BASE with certain metals and/or by adding oxygen
519:
During charge, sodium metal dendrites tend to form (slowly after several cycles) and propagate (rather quickly once they nucleate) into the intergrain boundaries in the solid beta-alumina electrolyte, eventually leading to internal short-circuiting and immediate failure. In general, a significant
485:
announced that it would test a wind farm energy storage battery based on twenty 50 kW sodium–sulfur batteries. The 80 tonne, 2 semi-trailer sized battery is expected to have 7.2 MW·h of capacity at a charge and discharge rate of 1 MW. Since then, NGK announced several large-scale deployments
188:
For operation, the entire battery must be heated to, or above, the melting point of sulfur at 119 °C. Sodium has a lower melting point, around 98 °C, so a battery that holds molten sulfur holds molten sodium by default. This presents a serious safety concern; sodium can be spontaneously
527:
Beta-alumina surface layer on the Na side turns grey after > 100 cycles. This is caused by a slower growth of micron-size sodium metal globules in the triple-junctions between the grains of the solid electrolyte. This process is possible, because the electronic conductivity of beta-alumina is
783:
The problem occurs when the soluble polysulfide forms migrate to the anode, where they form the insoluble polysulfides. These insoluble polysulfides form as dendrites on the anode which can damage the battery and interfere with the movement of sodium ions into the electrolyte. Furthermore, the
1144:
https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hard-Road-Lithium-Ion-Electric/dp/1612497624/ref=sr_1_1?crid=176CB5599LUX6&keywords=long+hard+road+the+lithium-ion+battery+and+the+electric+car&qid=1697893528&sprefix=Long+Hard+Road%3A+The+Lithium-Ion+Battery+and+the+Electric+Car%2Caps%2C68&sr=8-1
535:
Darkening of the beta-alumina also occurs on the sulfur side upon passing electric current, albeit at a slower schedule that the darkening on the sodium side. It is believed to be due to the deposition of carbon, which is added to the bulk sulfur to provide electronic conductivity.
137:
catholyte in place of molten sodium polysulfide, has had greater commercial interest in the past, but As of 2023 there are no commercial manufacturers of ZEBRA. Room-temperature sodium–sulfur batteries are also known. They use neither liquid sodium nor liquid sulfur nor sodium
784:
insoluble polysulfides at the anode cannot be converted back into sulfur when the battery is being recharged, which means that less sulfur is available for the battery to function (capacity loss). Research is being conducted into how the shuttle effect can be avoided.
703:
The shuttle effect in sodium–sulfur batteries leads to a loss of capacity, which can be defined as a reduction in the amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery. When the battery is being discharged, sodium ions react with sulfur (which is in the
510:
Molten sodium beta-alumina batteries failed to meet the durability and safety expectations, that were the basis of several commercialization attempts in the 1980s. A characteristic lifetime of NaS batteries was determined as 1,000-2,000 cycles in a
389:-hours per gram. The material fully coated ("wetted") the electrolyte. After 100 charge/discharge cycles, a test battery maintained about 97% of its initial storage capacity. The lower operating temperature allowed the use of a less-expensive
247:, the Na ion migrates to the sulfur container. The electron drives an electric current through the molten sodium to the contact, through the electrical load and back to the sulfur container. Here, another electron reacts with sulfur to form S
68:, and is fabricated from inexpensive and non-toxic materials. However, due to the high operating temperature required (usually between 300 and 350 °C), as well as the highly corrosive and reactive nature of sodium and
95:(300-400 Wh/L), molten sodium–sulfur batteries have not achieved a wide-scale deployment: there have been only ca. 200 installations, with a combined energy of 4 GWh and power of 0.56 GW, worldwide. vs. 948 GWh for
445:
Ltd. declared their interest in researching the NaS battery in 1983, and became the primary drivers behind the development of this type ever since. TEPCO chose the NaS battery because all its component elements
597:
and solar generation plants. In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be discharged from the batteries during
1444:
Z. Munshi, P. S. Nicholson and D. Weaver, "Effect of localized temperature development at flaw tips on the degradation of na-β/β″-alumina." Solid State Ionics, 37, 271 (1990) 10.1016/0167-2738(90)90187-V
653:
mission concept is also considering the use of this type of battery, as the rover and its payload are being designed to function for about 50 days on the hot surface of Venus without a cooling system.
177:, from corrosion on the inside. This outside container serves as the positive electrode, while the liquid sodium serves as the negative electrode. The container is sealed at the top with an airtight
971:
106:: large cells have less relative heat loss, so maintaining their high operating temperatures is easier. Commercially available cells are typically large with high capacities (up to 500 Ah).
1435:
M. Liu and L. C. De Jonahe, "Chemical stability of sodium beta -alumina electrolyte in sulfur/sodium polysulfide melts." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 135, 741 (1988) 10.1149/1.2095734
1414:
D. Gourier, A. Wicker and D. Vivien, "E.S.R. Study of chemical coloration of β and β″ aluminates by metallic sodium." Materials
Research Bulletin, 17, 363 (1982) 10.1016/0025-5408(82)90086-1
634:
Because of its high energy density, the NaS battery has been proposed for space applications. Sodium–sulfur cells can be made space-qualified: in fact a test sodium-sulfur cell flew on the
961:
Spoerke, Erik D., Martha M. Gross, Stephen J. Percival, and Leo J. Small. "Molten Sodium
Batteries." Energy-Sustainable Advanced Materials (2021): 59-84. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-57492-5_3 .
367:
was not achieved during that time. Also, the battery life was estimated to be only 2 years. However, the program was terminated in 1995, after two of the leased car batteries caught fire.
1395:
A. C. Buechele, L. C. De Jonghe and D. Hitchcock, "Degradation of sodium β”-alumina: Effect of microstructure." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 130, 1042 (1983) 10.1149/1.2119881
1404:
D. C. Hitchcock and L. C. De Jonghe, "Time-dependent degradation in sodium-beta” alumina solid electrolytes." Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, 133, 355 (1986) 10.1149/1.2108578
557:
Passing current (e.g. >1 A/cm2) through beta-alumina can cause temperature gradient (e.g. > 50 °C/ 2 mm) in the electrolyte, which in turn results in a thermal stress.
528:
small but not zero. The formation of such sodium metal globules gradually increases the electronic conductivity of the electrolyte and causes electronic leakage and self-discharge;
585:
NaS batteries can be deployed to support the electric grid, or for stand-alone renewable power applications. Under some market conditions, NaS batteries provide value via energy
1386:
L. C. De Jonghe, L. Feldman and A. Beuchele, "Slow degradation and electron conduction in sodium/beta-aluminas." Journal of
Materials Science, 16, 780 (1981) 10.1007/BF02402796
1374:
Y. Dong, I. W. Chen, and J. Li, "Transverse and longitudinal degradations in ceramic solid electrolytes." Chemistry of
Materials, 34, 5749 (2022) 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c00329
669:
prototype in 1991. The high operating temperature of sodium-sulfur batteries presented difficulties for electric vehicle use, however. The
Ecostar never went into production.
550:
Disproportionation of sulfur into aluminium sulfate and sodium polysulfide has been suggested as a degradation pathway. This mechanism is not mentioned in later publications.
185:) membrane, which selectively conducts Na. In commercial applications the cells are arranged in blocks for better heat conservation and are encased in a vacuum-insulated box.
405:
as part of the "Moonlight Project" in 1980. This project sought to develop a durable utility power storage device meeting the criteria shown below in a 10-year project.
1349:"Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd. - Press Release (2014) Development of "sEMSA," a New Energy Management System for Business Establishment/Plant Applications"
1524:
1890:
691:
Formation of dendrites on the sodium anode which create short-circuits in the battery. This is contributed to by the shuttle effect which is explained below.
402:
287:
presents a hazard, because it spontaneously burns in contact with air and moisture, thus the system must be protected from water and oxidizing atmospheres.
478:
As of 2007, 165 MW of capacity were installed in Japan. NGK announced in 2008 a plan to expand its NaS factory output from 90 MW a year to 150 MW a year.
193:, equipped with such a battery, burst into flame during recharging, leading Ford to abandon the attempted development of molten NaS batteries for cars.
1365:
R. O. Ansell and J. I. Ansell, "Modeling the reliability of sodium-sulfur cells." Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf., 17, 127 (1987) 10.1016/0143-8174(87)90011-4
1537:
The facility offers energy-storage capabilities similar to those of pumped hydro facilities while helping to improve the balance of supply and demand
475:
Japan Wind Development opened a 51 MW wind farm that incorporates a 34 MW sodium-sulfur battery system at Futamata in Aomori Prefecture in May 2008.
1929:
1454:
142:, but rather operate on entirely different principles and face different challenges than the high-temperature molten NaS batteries discussed here.
1883:
335:. The car had a 100-mile driving range, which was twice as much as any other fully electric car demonstrated earlier. 68 of such vehicles were
1265:
1696:— originally presented as paper AIAA-2008-5796, 6th AIAA International Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., Cleveland OH, July 28–30, 2008.
1225:
2200:
2087:
76:
applications, rather than for use in vehicles. Molten Na-S batteries are scalable in size: there is a 1 MW microgrid support system on
77:
1472:
Walawalkar, R.; Apt, J.; Mancini, R. (2007). "Economics of electric energy storage for energy arbitrage and regulation in New York".
1588:
543:
Oxygen depletion in the alumina near the sodium electrode has been suggested as a possible cause for the following crack formation.
356:
2240:
1155:
303:
Mitsubishi Materials Corporation plant caught fire. Following the incident, NGK temporarily suspended production of NaS batteries.
2250:
1665:
2415:
2410:
822:
Wen, Z.; Hu, Y.; Wu, X.; Han, J.; Gu, Z. (2013). "Main Challenges for High Performance NAS Battery: Materials and Interfaces".
615:
604:
1095:
102:
Like many high-temperature batteries, sodium–sulfur cells become more economical with increasing size. This is because of the
2178:
360:
217:
182:
139:
1180:
169:
is usually made in a cylindrical configuration. The entire cell is enclosed by a steel casing that is protected, usually by
1735:
Wang, Yanjie; Zhang, Yingjie; Cheng, Hongyu; Ni, Zhicong; Wang, Ying; Xia, Guanghui; Li, Xue; Zeng, Xiaoyuan (2021-03-11).
589:(charging battery when electricity is abundant/cheap, and discharging into the grid when electricity is more valuable) and
2260:
1707:
626:, Japan. The facility offers energy storage to help manage energy levels during peak times with renewable energy sources.
619:
608:
576:
890:
Adelhelm, Philipp; Hartmann, Pascal; Bender, Conrad L; Busche, Martin; Eufinger, Christine; Janek, Juergen (2015-04-23).
1922:
1309:
494:
2225:
2092:
1282:
985:
2265:
2235:
2220:
2188:
798:
1125:
1008:"Liquid-metal electrode to enable ultra-low temperature sodium–beta alumina batteries for renewable energy storage"
869:
694:
Shorter cycle life which means that the cells must be replaced more often than their high-temperature counterparts.
352:
2027:
2295:
431:
2193:
580:
2300:
2245:
2230:
2163:
2122:
2097:
2077:
2057:
1549:
1330:
593:. NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support renewable energy generation, specifically
642:
of 150 W·h/kg (3 x nickel–hydrogen battery energy density), operating at 350 °C. It was launched on the
2420:
2183:
1915:
650:
385:
In 2014, researchers identified a liquid sodium–caesium alloy that operates at 150 °C and produces 420
1872:
520:
threshold current density needs to be exceeded before such rapid Mode I fracture-degradation is initiated.
275:
As the cell discharges, the sodium level drops. During the charging phase the reverse process takes place.
2389:
2290:
427:
344:
2151:
423:
2255:
2072:
793:
340:
320:
46:
2117:
1803:"Towards high performance room temperature sodium–sulfur batteries: Strategies to avoid shuttle effect"
393:
external casing instead of steel, offsetting some of the increased cost associated with using caesium.
1860:"AEP'S Appalachian Power unit to install first U.S. use of commercial-scale energy storage technology"
2133:
2102:
1938:
1814:
1617:
1425:-alumina solid electrolytes." Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 133, 6 (1986) 10.1149/1.2108548
1019:
438:
166:
103:
2285:
2270:
2205:
2173:
2168:
1984:
1571:
Koenig, A. A.; Rasmussen, J. R. (1990). "Development of a high specific power sodium sulfur cell".
1262:
1054:
Chen. (2015). A Combined Sodium Sulphur Battery/Solar Thermal Collector System for Energy Storage.
892:"From lithium to sodium: cell chemistry of room temperature sodium–air and sodium–sulfur batteries"
803:
572:
472:
A demonstration project used NaS battery at Japan Wind Development Co.'s Miura Wind Park in Japan.
96:
73:
65:
43:
1612:
Auxer, William (June 9–12, 1986). "The PB sodium sulfur cell for satellite battery applications".
162:, compared with liquid-metal batteries where the anode, the cathode and the membrane are liquids.
2275:
2146:
1999:
1957:
1802:
1594:
839:
623:
590:
328:
316:
69:
401:
The NaS battery was one of four battery types selected as candidates for intensive research by
295:
Early on the morning of September 21, 2011, a 2000 kilowatt NaS battery system manufactured by
2349:
2067:
2037:
1838:
1830:
1776:
1758:
1648:
1584:
1037:
929:
911:
2215:
2210:
2022:
1962:
1822:
1766:
1748:
1687:
1625:
1576:
1481:
1077:
1027:
919:
903:
831:
666:
498:
364:
300:
221:
205:
891:
2082:
2009:
1269:
639:
299:, owned by Tokyo Electric Power Company used for storing electricity and installed at the
178:
1818:
1621:
1103:
1023:
2318:
1972:
1771:
1736:
1081:
924:
442:
348:
296:
92:
61:
1056:
International Conference on Computer Science and Environmental Engineering (CSEE 2015)
2404:
1952:
1598:
1006:
Lu, X.; Li, G.; Kim, J. Y.; Mei, D.; Lemmon, J. P.; Sprenkle, V. L.; Liu, J. (2014).
635:
468:
Lifetime of 2,500 cycles at 100% depth of discharge (DOD), or 4,500 cycles at 80% DOD
324:
110:
1348:
1331:"The world's largest "virtual battery plant" is now operating in the Arabian desert"
1068:
Oshima, T.; Kajita, M.; Okuno, A. (2005). "Development of Sodium–Sulfur Batteries".
843:
363:. Despite the low materials cost, these batteries were expensive to produce, as the
17:
2156:
2112:
2047:
1989:
1967:
1629:
1500:
662:
332:
190:
88:
502:
production in 2015. Initial applications are envisaged to be buildings and buses.
370:
As of 2009, a lower temperature, solid electrode version was under development in
1201:
1142:
Long Hard Road: The Lithium-Ion Battery and the Electric Car. 2022. C.J. Murray.
220:(BASE) cylinder from the container of molten sulfur, which is fabricated from an
2384:
2369:
2107:
2032:
1485:
685:
Volume expansion of sulfur, which creates mechanical stresses within the battery
482:
252:
151:
1826:
1711:
1614:
Proceedings of the International Power Sources Symposium, 32nd, Cherry Hill, NJ
382:
membrane to allow operation at 90 °C with all components remaining solid.
2328:
2062:
2042:
1753:
646:
mission in November 1997, and demonstrated 10 days of experimental operation.
174:
1834:
1762:
1737:"Research Progress toward Room Temperature Sodium Sulfur Batteries: A Review"
1580:
915:
2374:
2364:
2354:
2323:
1979:
1678:
Landis, G.A.; Harrison, R. (2010). "Batteries for Venus Surface Operation".
599:
594:
586:
189:
inflammable in air, and sulfur is highly flammable. Several examples of the
57:
30:
1842:
1780:
1525:"Mitsubishi Installs 50 MW Energy Storage System to Japanese Power Company"
1288:
1041:
933:
835:
1859:
1202:"PNNL: News - 'Wetting' a battery's appetite for renewable energy storage"
946:
861:
2052:
907:
375:
331:
resumed its work on a Na-S battery powered electric car, which was named
244:
170:
1907:
216:
donates electrons to the external circuit. The sodium is separated by a
2359:
1423:
D. C. Hitchcock, "Oxygen depletion and slow crack growth in sodium beta
1032:
1007:
512:
455:
390:
379:
225:
159:
81:
1652:
643:
451:
447:
386:
336:
284:
229:
213:
202:
54:
50:
1691:
1643:
Garner, J. C.; Baker, W. E.; Braun, W.; Kim, J. (31 December 1995).
1240:"Japanese Companies Test System to Stabilize Output from Wind Power"
1239:
611:(CAES) requires some type of geologic feature such as a salt cave.
2344:
708:
form) at the cathode to form polysulfides in the following steps:
209:
155:
29:
1801:
Tang, Wenwen; Aslam, Muhammad Kashif; Xu, Maowen (January 2022).
515:
distribution with k=0.5. There are several degradation pathways:
1891:"Low-cost battery built with four times the capacity of lithium"
661:
The first large-scale use of sodium–sulfur batteries was in the
607:
facilities require significant space and water resources, while
371:
1911:
2379:
487:
236:
181:
lid. An essential part of the cell is the presence of a BASE (
1573:
Proceedings of the 34th International Power Sources Symposium
1455:"Aquion Energy to build microgrid battery system in Hawaii"
638:. The NaS flight experiment demonstrated a battery with a
1884:
Advanced Energy Storage for Renewable Energy Technologies
972:"Lithium Battery Production by Country: Top 12 Countries"
255:. The discharge process can be represented as follows:
1550:"World's largest sodium–sulphur ESS deployed in Japan"
1156:"New battery could change world, one house at a time"
486:
including a virtual plant distributed on 10 sites in
34:
Cut-away schematic diagram of a sodium–sulfur battery
1287:(in Japanese). Ngk.co.jp. 2008-07-28. Archived from
2337:
2309:
2131:
2007:
1945:
1616:. A88-16601 04–44. Electrochemical Society: 49–54.
1070:
International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology
682:
Poor conductivity of sulfur and sodium polysulfides
1668:Geoffrey Landis, NASA Glenn Research Center. 2012.
1645:Sodium Sulfur Battery Cell Space Flight Experiment
1310:"Xcel Energy to trial wind power storage system"
688:Low reaction rates between the sodium and sulfur
1873:"Giant battery smooths out variable wind power"
1183:. The American Ceramic Society. September 2009
1923:
1866:. American Electric Power. 19 September 2005.
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
8:
1730:
1728:
862:"Pourable batteries could store green power"
412:8 hour charge/8 hour discharge at rated load
72:, these batteries are primarily suited for
1930:
1916:
1908:
1263:"Can Batteries Save Embattled Wind Power?"
986:"Ford Unplugs Electric Vans After 2 Fires"
774:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
755:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
736:reacts further with sodium ions to form Na
1770:
1752:
1096:"Q&A Concerning the NAS Battery Fire"
1031:
923:
1807:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
673:Room-temperature sodium–sulfur batteries
1382:
1380:
957:
955:
855:
853:
814:
80:CA (USA) and a 50 MW/300 MWh system in
1100:NAS Battery Fire Incident and Response
725:, which is soluble in the electrolyte.
1102:. NGK Insulators, Ltd. Archived from
109:A similar type of battery called the
60:. This type of battery has a similar
7:
1001:
999:
896:Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology
744:, which is also electrolyte-soluble
235:BASE is a good conductor of sodium
1871:LaMonica, Martin (4 August 2010).
1126:"New battery packs powerful punch"
1082:10.1111/j.1744-7402.2004.tb00179.x
462:Capacity: 25–250 kWh per bank
418:Lifetime of 1,500 cycles or better
323:in the 1960s to power early-model
25:
490:totaling 108 MW/648 MWh in 2019.
357:Electric Power Research Institute
208:sodium at the core serves as the
1998:
1181:"Ceramatec's home power storage"
291:2011 Tsukuba Plant fire incident
1680:Journal of Propulsion and Power
872:from the original on 2009-03-28
616:Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
605:pumped-storage hydroelectricity
150:Typical batteries have a solid
1710:. Greencar.com. Archived from
437:A consortium formed by TEPCO (
422:The other three were improved
361:California Air Resources Board
228:. The sulfur is absorbed in a
218:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
183:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
140:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
1:
1499:Stahlkopf, Karl (June 2006).
1124:Davidson, Paul (2007-07-05).
824:Advanced Functional Materials
657:Transport and heavy machinery
620:largest sodium–sulfur battery
609:compressed-air energy storage
577:Battery storage power station
1708:"Ford Ecostar EV, Ron Cogan"
495:Sumitomo Electric Industries
201:During the discharge phase,
1486:10.1016/j.enpol.2006.09.005
1312:. BusinessGreen. 4 Mar 2008
567:Grid and standalone systems
415:Efficiency of 70% or better
40:sodium–sulfur (NaS) battery
27:Type of molten-salt battery
2437:
1827:10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.114
860:Bland, Eric (2009-03-26).
665:demonstration vehicle, an
570:
428:redox flow (vanadium type)
353:Southern California Edison
2088:Metal–air electrochemical
1996:
1754:10.3390/molecules26061535
1706:Cogan, Ron (2007-10-01).
618:commissioned the world's
243:When sodium gives off an
74:stationary energy storage
1895:The University of Sydney
1666:Venus Landsailing Rover.
1581:10.1109/IPSS.1990.145783
1501:"Taking Wind Mainstream"
1283:
1244:Japan for Sustainability
713:Sodium ions react with S
581:Stand-alone power system
1630:2027/uc1.31822015751399
1272:by Hiroki Yomogita 2008
990:Bloomberg Business News
651:Venus Landsailing Rover
87:Despite their very low
2416:Metal-sulfur batteries
2411:Rechargeable batteries
2390:Semipermeable membrane
2179:Lithium–iron–phosphate
836:10.1002/adfm.201200473
799:Lithium–sulfur battery
432:zinc–bromine batteries
345:Detroit Edison Company
35:
2261:Rechargeable alkaline
1939:Electrochemical cells
1012:Nature Communications
794:List of battery types
778:S, which is insoluble
763:, which is insoluble.
341:United Parcel Service
224:metal serving as the
154:membrane between the
97:lithium-ion batteries
66:lithium-ion batteries
33:
2241:Nickel–metal hydride
1284:2008年｜ニュース｜日本ガイシ株式会社
908:10.3762/bjnano.6.105
439:Tokyo Electric Power
18:Liquid-metal battery
2251:Polysulfide–bromide
2093:Nickel oxyhydroxide
1985:Thermogalvanic cell
1819:2022JCIS..606...22T
1622:1986poso.symp...49A
1160:Ammiraglio61's Blog
1024:2014NatCo...5.4578L
974:. 10 February 2023.
804:Molten-salt battery
573:Grid energy storage
409:1,000 kW class
212:, meaning that the
84:, Kyushu, (Japan).
70:sodium polysulfides
2014:(non-rechargeable)
1958:Concentration cell
1268:2011-09-27 at the
1238:jfs (2007-09-23).
1033:10.1038/ncomms5578
868:. Discovery News.
699:The Shuttle Effect
624:Fukuoka Prefecture
591:voltage regulation
317:Ford Motor Company
36:
2398:
2397:
465:Efficiency of 87%
49:that uses liquid
16:(Redirected from
2428:
2194:Lithium–titanate
2139:
2015:
2002:
1963:Electric battery
1932:
1925:
1918:
1909:
1904:
1902:
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1228:. ulvac-uc.co.jp
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1213:
1208:. August 1, 2014
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949:, NGK Insulators
947:NAS case studies
944:
938:
937:
927:
887:
881:
880:
878:
877:
857:
848:
847:
819:
667:electric vehicle
499:Kyoto University
365:economy of scale
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135:
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21:
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2333:
2312:
2305:
2226:Nickel–hydrogen
2184:Lithium–polymer
2140:
2137:
2136:
2127:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2003:
1994:
1941:
1936:
1899:
1897:
1889:
1870:
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1855:
1850:
1813:(Pt 1): 22–37.
1800:
1799:
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1692:10.2514/1.41886
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1527:. 11 March 2016
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1270:Wayback Machine
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640:specific energy
632:
583:
571:Main articles:
569:
564:
508:
493:In March 2011,
399:
314:
309:
293:
281:
270:
266:
262:
259:2 Na + 4 S → Na
250:
199:
148:
133:
130:
129:
128:
126:
121:
118:
117:
116:
114:
113:, which uses a
104:square–cube law
78:Catalina Island
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2434:
2432:
2424:
2423:
2421:Energy storage
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2326:
2321:
2319:Atomic battery
2315:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2291:Vanadium redox
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2266:Silver–cadmium
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2236:Nickel–lithium
2233:
2228:
2223:
2221:Nickel–cadmium
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2189:Lithium–sulfur
2186:
2181:
2176:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2149:
2143:
2141:
2138:(rechargeable)
2134:Secondary cell
2132:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2058:Edison–Lalande
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2005:
2004:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1973:Trough battery
1970:
1960:
1955:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1927:
1920:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1887:
1881:
1868:
1854:
1853:External links
1851:
1849:
1848:
1786:
1724:
1698:
1686:(4): 649–654.
1670:
1658:
1635:
1604:
1589:
1575:. p. 30.
1563:
1552:. 3 March 2016
1541:
1516:
1491:
1464:
1459:spacedaily.com
1446:
1437:
1428:
1416:
1406:
1397:
1388:
1376:
1367:
1358:
1353:global-sei.com
1340:
1337:. 30 Jan 2019.
1322:
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1255:
1230:
1218:
1193:
1172:
1147:
1135:
1116:
1087:
1060:
1047:
995:
992:. 6 June 1994.
977:
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951:
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718:
714:
710:
705:
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689:
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683:
674:
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663:Ford "Ecostar"
658:
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531:
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507:
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470:
469:
466:
463:
443:NGK Insulators
420:
419:
416:
413:
410:
398:
395:
349:US Post Office
319:pioneered the
313:
310:
308:
305:
301:Tsukuba, Japan
297:NGK Insulators
292:
289:
280:
277:
273:
272:
268:
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198:
195:
147:
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131:
119:
93:energy density
62:energy density
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2433:
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2287:
2284:
2282:
2281:Sodium–sulfur
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2256:Potassium ion
2254:
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2249:
2247:
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2239:
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2227:
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2076:
2074:
2073:Lithium metal
2071:
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2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
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2031:
2029:
2028:Aluminium–air
2026:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1971:
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1966:
1965:
1964:
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1954:
1953:Galvanic cell
1951:
1950:
1948:
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1933:
1928:
1926:
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1919:
1914:
1913:
1910:
1896:
1892:
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1878:
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1864:News Releases
1861:
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1768:
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1760:
1755:
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1729:
1725:
1714:on 2008-12-03
1713:
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1590:0-87942-604-7
1586:
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1578:
1574:
1567:
1564:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1506:
1505:IEEE Spectrum
1502:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1474:Energy Policy
1468:
1465:
1460:
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1341:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1291:on 2010-03-23
1290:
1286:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1264:
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1234:
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1203:
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1151:
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1145:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1117:
1106:on 2012-10-28
1105:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1057:
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1043:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
1000:
996:
991:
987:
981:
978:
973:
967:
964:
958:
956:
952:
948:
943:
940:
935:
931:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
902:: 1016–1055.
901:
897:
893:
886:
883:
871:
867:
863:
856:
854:
850:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
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818:
815:
809:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
787:
785:
765:
746:
727:
712:
711:
709:
698:
693:
690:
687:
684:
681:
680:
679:
672:
670:
668:
664:
656:
654:
652:
647:
645:
641:
637:
636:Space Shuttle
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
614:In 2016, the
612:
610:
606:
601:
596:
592:
588:
582:
578:
574:
566:
561:
556:
552:
551:
549:
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538:
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517:
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491:
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479:
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467:
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461:
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457:
453:
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444:
440:
435:
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429:
425:
417:
414:
411:
408:
407:
406:
404:
396:
394:
392:
388:
383:
381:
378:. They use a
377:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
325:electric cars
322:
318:
312:United States
311:
306:
304:
302:
298:
290:
288:
286:
278:
276:
258:
257:
256:
254:
246:
241:
238:
233:
231:
227:
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215:
211:
207:
204:
196:
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192:
186:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
145:
143:
141:
112:
111:ZEBRA battery
107:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
56:
52:
48:
45:
42:is a type of
41:
32:
19:
2296:Zinc–bromine
2280:
2103:Silver oxide
2038:Chromic acid
2010:Primary cell
1990:Voltaic pile
1968:Flow battery
1898:. Retrieved
1894:
1876:
1863:
1810:
1806:
1744:
1740:
1716:. Retrieved
1712:the original
1701:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1661:
1644:
1638:
1613:
1607:
1572:
1566:
1554:. Retrieved
1544:
1536:
1529:. Retrieved
1519:
1508:. Retrieved
1504:
1494:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1458:
1449:
1440:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1409:
1400:
1391:
1370:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1325:
1314:. Retrieved
1304:
1293:. Retrieved
1289:the original
1277:
1258:
1247:. Retrieved
1243:
1233:
1221:
1210:. Retrieved
1205:
1196:
1185:. Retrieved
1175:
1164:. Retrieved
1162:. 2010-01-15
1159:
1150:
1138:
1129:
1119:
1108:. Retrieved
1104:the original
1099:
1090:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1055:
1050:
1015:
1011:
989:
980:
966:
942:
899:
895:
885:
874:. Retrieved
865:
827:
823:
817:
782:
702:
676:
660:
648:
633:
613:
584:
562:Applications
509:
492:
480:
477:
474:
471:
436:
421:
400:
384:
369:
333:Ford Ecostar
315:
294:
282:
274:
242:
234:
200:
191:Ford Ecostar
187:
164:
149:
146:Construction
108:
101:
89:capital cost
86:
39:
37:
2385:Salt bridge
2370:Electrolyte
2301:Zinc–cerium
2286:Solid state
2271:Silver–zinc
2246:Nickel–zinc
2231:Nickel–iron
2206:Molten salt
2174:Dual carbon
2169:Lithium ion
2164:Lithium–air
2123:Zinc–carbon
2098:Silicon–air
2078:Lithium–air
1747:(6): 1535.
1480:(4): 2558.
830:(8): 1005.
483:Xcel Energy
387:milliampere
307:Development
253:polysulfide
152:electrolyte
53:and liquid
44:molten-salt
2405:Categories
2338:Cell parts
2329:Solar cell
2311:Other cell
2276:Sodium ion
2147:Automotive
1900:2022-12-13
1718:2010-04-12
1556:22 January
1531:22 January
1510:2010-04-12
1316:2010-04-12
1295:2010-04-12
1249:2010-04-12
1226:(Japanese)
1212:2016-06-25
1187:2014-06-26
1166:2014-06-26
1110:2014-06-26
1076:(3): 269.
1058:, 428–439.
876:2010-04-12
810:References
717:to form Na
595:wind farms
506:Challenges
327:. In 1989
175:molybdenum
58:electrodes
2375:Half-cell
2365:Electrode
2324:Fuel cell
2201:Metal–air
2152:Lead–acid
2068:Leclanché
1980:Fuel cell
1835:0021-9797
1763:1420-3049
1741:Molecules
1599:111022668
1130:USA Today
916:2190-4286
600:peak load
587:arbitrage
481:In 2010,
441:Co.) and
424:lead–acid
376:Ceramatec
251:, sodium
206:elemental
197:Operation
91:and high
2355:Catalyst
2216:Nanowire
2211:Nanopore
2157:gel–VRLA
2118:Zinc–air
2023:Alkaline
1843:34384963
1781:33799697
1266:Archived
1206:pnnl.gov
1042:25081362
1018:: 4578.
934:25977873
870:Archived
844:94930296
788:See also
245:electron
232:sponge.
171:chromium
2360:Cathode
2113:Zamboni
2083:Mercury
2048:Daniell
1815:Bibcode
1772:7999928
1618:Bibcode
1020:Bibcode
925:4419580
513:Weibull
456:alumina
391:polymer
380:NASICON
321:battery
226:cathode
179:alumina
160:cathode
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2350:Binder
2108:Weston
2033:Bunsen
1886:(gone)
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579:, and
454:, and
452:sulfur
448:sodium
430:, and
359:, and
337:leased
285:sodium
279:Safety
271:~ 2 V)
230:carbon
203:molten
55:sulfur
51:sodium
2345:Anode
2063:Grove
2043:Clark
1946:Types
1595:S2CID
866:MSNBC
840:S2CID
630:Space
397:Japan
283:Pure
222:inert
210:anode
156:anode
2380:Ions
1877:CNET
1839:PMID
1831:ISSN
1777:PMID
1759:ISSN
1649:OSTI
1585:ISBN
1558:2020
1533:2020
1038:PMID
930:PMID
912:ISSN
649:The
497:and
403:MITI
372:Utah
329:Ford
269:cell
237:ions
173:and
167:cell
165:The
158:and
127:AlCl
115:NiCl
2053:Dry
1823:doi
1811:606
1767:PMC
1749:doi
1688:doi
1626:hdl
1577:doi
1482:doi
1078:doi
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