28:
531:
Present telecommunication spacecraft platforms tend to benefit more from high specific impulse than high thrust. The less fuel is consumed to get into orbit, the more is available for station keeping when on station. This increase in the remaining propellant can be directly translated to an increase
465:
to be used for space applications, however to mitigate this risk, companies are investigating alternative propellants and engine designs. A change over to these alternative propellants is not straightforward, and issues such as performance, reliability and compatibility (e.g. satellite propulsion
539:
manoeuvre can be executed, the higher the efficiency of this manoeuvre, and the less propellant is required. This reduction in the propellant required can be directly translated to an increase in the bus and payload mass (at design stage), enabling better science return on these
492:
Though marketed to deliver a particular nominal thrust and nominal specific impulse at nominal propellant feed conditions, these engines actually undergo rigorous testing where performance is mapped over a range of operating conditions before being deemed
392:
1143:
Naicker, Lolan; Baker, Adam; Coxhill, Ian; Hammond, Jeff; Martin, Houston; Perigo, David; Solway, Nick; Wall, Ronan (2012). "Progress towards a 1.1 kN apogee engine for interplanetary propulsion".
851:
93:. Despite the name, an apogee engine can be used for a range of other manoeuvres, such as end-of-life deorbit, Earth orbit escape, planetary orbit insertion and planetary descent/ascent.
31:
A 400 N hypergolic liquid apogee engine, including heat shield and mounting structure, on display at DLR visitors center, Lampoldshausen, Germany. The engine was designed for use on
1125:
Houston, Martin; Smith, Pete; Naicker, Lolan; Perigo, David; Wall, Ronan (2014). "A high flow rate apogee engine solenoid valve for the next generation of ESA planetary missions".
519:. The useful life of an engine at a particular performance level is dictated by the useful life of the materials of construction, primarily those used for the combustion chamber.
544:
The actual engine chosen for a mission is dependent on the technical details of the mission. More practical considerations such as cost, lead time and export restrictions (e.g.
312:
Hypergolic propellant combinations ignite upon contact within the engine combustion chamber and offer very high ignition reliability, as well as the ability for reignition.
482:
The characteristic velocity is influenced by design details such as propellant combination, propellant feed pressure, propellant temperature, and propellant mixture ratio.
583:
497:. This means that a flight-qualified production engine can be tuned (within reason) by the manufacturer to meet particular mission requirements, such as higher thrust.
1019:
489:
A typical 500 N-class hypergolic liquid apogee engine has a vacuum specific impulse in the region of 320 s, with the practical limit estimated to be near 335 s.
35:
satellites. These were the first three-axis stabilised communication satellites in geostationary orbit to use a liquid bipropellant apogee engine for orbit insertion.
1104:
669:
859:
535:
Planetary exploration spacecraft, especially the larger ones, tend to benefit more from high thrust than high specific impulse. The quicker a high delta-
505:
Most apogee engines are operated in an on–off manner at a fixed thrust level. This is because the valves used only have two positions: open or closed.
545:
989:
916:
790:
775:
Stechman, Carl; Harper, Steve (2010). "Performance improvements in small earth storable rocket engines - an era of approaching the theoretical".
512:, depends both on the manoeuvre and the capability of the engine. Engines are qualified for a certain minimal and maximal single-burn duration.
754:
721:
653:
886:
Naicker, Lolan; Wall, Ronan; David, Perigo (2014). "An overview of development model testing for the LEROS 4 High Thrust Apogee Engine".
706:
Space
Technology Library Volume 1. An introduction to mission design for geostationary satellites. Chapter 4: The Apogee Manoeuvre
1074:
189:
To protect the spacecraft from the radiant heat of the combustion chamber, these engines are generally installed together with a
284:
155:
Derivatives of these original engines are still used today and are continually being evolved and adapted for new applications.
1184:
591:
1027:
959:
86:
835:
Hyde, Simon (2012). "A design optimisation study of a generic bi-propellant injector for additive manufacturing".
670:"Industrial Policy Committee, Robotic Exploration Plan, Programme of Work 2009-2014 and relevant Procurement Plan"
676:
527:
A simplified division can be made between apogee engines used for telecommunications and exploration missions:
316:
173:
injector assembly containing (though dependent on the injector) central oxidant gallery and outer fuel gallery,
78:
201:
Apogee engines typically use one fuel and one oxidizer. This propellant is usually, but not restricted to, a
152:
and The
Marquardt Company were all participants in developing engines for various satellites and spacecraft.
124:, however, uses solid propellant. These solid-propellant versions are not used on new-generation satellites.
1179:
179:
944:
Valencia-Bel, Ferran (2012). "Replacement of
Conventional Spacecraft Propellants with Green Propellants".
121:
202:
56:
997:
798:
1158:
Perigo, David (2012). "Large platform satellite propulsion with a focus on exploration applications".
232:
852:"Space propulsion - Moog sees higher-thrust liquid propellant engine as right fit for Mars missions"
515:
Engines are also qualified to deliver a maximal cumulative burn duration, sometimes referred to as
257:
90:
1049:
746:
645:
27:
750:
717:
649:
117:
738:
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637:
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in the service lifetime of the satellite, increasing the financial return on these missions.
475:
145:
82:
66:
derives from the type of manoeuvre for which the engine is typically used, i.e. an in-space
614:
141:
52:
1082:
478:
and vacuum thrust. However, there are many other details which influence performance:
1173:
739:
638:
557:
17:
485:
The thrust coefficient is influenced primarily by the nozzle supersonic area ratio.
341:
713:
190:
132:
The apogee engine traces its origin to the early 1960s, when companies such as
137:
967:
1105:"LEROS engine propels the Juno spacecraft on its historic voyage to Jupiter"
820:
Hyde, Simon (2012). "Combustion chamber design for additive manufacturing".
209:
185:
Thrust coefficient limited by supersonic area ratio of the expansion nozzle.
32:
163:
A typical liquid apogee engine scheme could be defined as an engine with:
474:
The performance of an apogee engine is usually quoted in terms of vacuum
149:
133:
67:
905:(AFRPL-TR-76-76 ed.). Martin Marietta Corporation. p. 2.3–3.
508:
The duration for which the engine is on, sometimes referred to as the
903:
USAF Propellant
Handbooks: Nitric Acid / Nitrogen Tetroxide Oxidizers
74:
96:
In some parts of the space industry an LAE is also referred to as a
26:
466:
system and launch-site infrastructure) require investigation.
737:
Ley, Wilfred; Wittmann, Klaus; Hallmann, Willi, eds. (2009).
182:
limited by thermal capability of combustion chamber material,
441:
will be prohibited or restricted in the near- to mid-term.
395:
regulations. In 2011 the REACH framework legislation added
108:(DMLAT). Despite the ambiguity with respect to the use of
167:
pressure-regulated hypergolic liquid bipropellant feed,
77:
of an elliptical orbit in order to circularise it. For
1160:
Space
Propulsion 2012 Conference, San Sebastian, Spain
791:"ESA investigates ALM for in-space satellite engines"
636:
Domingue, D. L.; Russell, C. T. (19 December 2007).
777:
46th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint
Propulsion Conference
170:
thermally isolated solenoid or torque motor valves,
1127:Space Propulsion 2014 Conference, Cologne, Germany
946:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
888:Space Propulsion 2014 Conference, Cologne, Germany
837:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
822:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
917:"Considering hydrazine-free satellite propulsion"
644:. Springer Science & Business Media. p.
89:and place the satellite on station in a circular
939:
937:
420:. This step increases the risk that the use of
120:(AKM) or apogee boost motor (ABM) such as the
116:in these names, all use liquid propellant. An
704:Pocha, J. J. (1987). "The Apogee Manoeuvre".
176:radiative and film-cooled combustion chamber,
8:
578:
576:
1138:
1136:
881:
879:
877:
770:
768:
766:
104:(LAT) and, depending on the propellant, a
699:
697:
584:"Unified Propulsion System - Background"
1145:Space Propulsion 2012, Bordeaux, France
745:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.
675:. European Space Agency. Archived from
615:"Juno Jupiter probe gets British boost"
572:
444:Exemptions are being sought to allow
7:
548:) also play a part in the decision.
346:), is used as a substitute for pure
1020:"400 N Bipropellant Apogee Motors"
85:is performed to transition from a
25:
391:is under threat in Europe due to
640:The MESSENGER Mission to Mercury
517:cumulative propellant throughput
106:dual-mode liquid apogee thruster
901:Wright, A. C. (February 1977).
418:substances of very high concern
51:, refers to a type of chemical
990:"Apogee/Upper Stage Thrusters"
1:
1075:"Satellite Propulsion System"
1050:"Bipropellant Rocket Engines"
613:Amos, Jonathan (2012-09-04).
850:Werner, Debra (2013-07-15).
741:Handbook of space technology
708:. Springer. pp. 51–66.
87:geostationary transfer orbit
714:10.1007/978-94-009-3857-1_4
57:main engine in a spacecraft
1201:
416:to its candidate list of
1024:Astrium Space Propulsion
588:Airbus Defence and Space
317:mixed oxides of nitrogen
79:geostationary satellites
180:characteristic velocity
319:(MON), such as MON-3 (
205:combination such as:
102:liquid apogee thruster
55:typically used as the
36:
1185:Spacecraft propulsion
30:
862:on November 15, 2014
41:liquid apogee engine
18:Liquid Apogee Engine
1085:on 24 November 2014
970:on 29 November 2014
98:liquid apogee motor
91:geostationary orbit
73:change made at the
960:"Green propulsion"
315:In many instances
37:
856:www.spacenews.com
756:978-0-470-69739-9
723:978-94-010-8215-0
655:978-0-387-77214-1
118:apogee kick motor
83:orbital manoeuvre
16:(Redirected from
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142:Reaction Motors
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81:, this type of
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12:
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5:
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1180:Rocket engines
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1054:www.rocket.com
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1079:www.ihi.co.jp
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1030:on 2014-04-26
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1000:on 2015-03-02
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594:on 2014-09-25
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558:Rocket engine
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510:burn duration
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64:apogee engine
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53:rocket engine
50:
49:apogee engine
46:
42:
34:
29:
19:
1159:
1153:
1144:
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1120:
1108:. Retrieved
1099:
1087:. Retrieved
1083:the original
1078:
1069:
1057:. Retrieved
1053:
1044:
1032:. Retrieved
1028:the original
1023:
1014:
1002:. Retrieved
998:the original
994:www.moog.com
993:
984:
972:. Retrieved
968:the original
963:
954:
945:
924:. Retrieved
920:
911:
902:
896:
887:
864:. Retrieved
860:the original
855:
845:
836:
830:
821:
815:
803:. Retrieved
799:the original
794:
785:
779:(2010–6884).
776:
740:
732:
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684:. Retrieved
677:the original
664:
639:
631:
619:. Retrieved
608:
596:. Retrieved
592:the original
587:
562:
543:
536:
526:
523:Applications
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1110:15 November
1089:15 November
1059:15 November
1034:15 November
1004:15 November
974:15 November
926:15 November
866:15 November
805:15 November
470:Performance
370:The use of
340:with 3 wt%
191:heat shield
1174:Categories
1147:(2394092).
1129:(2962486).
890:(2969298).
686:25 January
621:29 January
617:. BBC News
598:29 January
567:References
203:hypergolic
197:Propellant
138:Rocketdyne
795:LayerWise
540:missions.
501:Operation
100:(LAM), a
62:The name
33:Symphonie
552:See also
150:TRW Inc.
134:Aerojet
128:History
122:Waxwing
753:
749:–324.
720:
652:
159:Layout
110:engine
75:apogee
68:delta-
47:), or
680:(PDF)
673:(PDF)
393:REACH
114:motor
1112:2014
1091:2014
1061:2014
1036:2014
1006:2014
976:2014
928:2014
868:2014
807:2014
751:ISBN
718:ISBN
688:2015
650:ISBN
623:2015
600:2015
546:ITAR
285:UDMH
112:and
921:ESA
747:323
710:doi
646:197
258:MMH
45:LAE
1176::
1135:^
1077:.
1052:.
1022:.
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962:.
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348:N
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