547:
564:
535:
523:
286:
546:
294:
563:
38:
534:
556:
is extremely high. This causes heat in the body of the liquid to be transferred to its surface so quickly that vaporization takes place only at the free surface of the liquid. Thus, there are no gas bubbles in the body of the liquid.
522:
367:
into a normal fluid (mostly helium-3) that floats on a denser superfluid consisting mostly of helium-4. This phase separation happens because the overall mass of liquid helium can reduce its
168:. These are the only two stable isotopes of helium. See the table below for the values of these physical quantities. The density of liquid helium-4 at its boiling point and a pressure of one
420:
In 1961, Vignos and
Fairbank reported the existence of a different phase of solid helium-4, designated the gamma-phase. It exists for a narrow range of pressure between 1.45 and 1.78 K.
329:
can decrease by a naturally occurring increase in its average interatomic distance. However at greater distances, the effects of the interatomic forces in helium are even weaker.
1002:
Freezing
Physics: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and the Quest for Cold, Van Delft Dirk (2007). Edita - The Publishing House Of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1096:
377:
At extremely low temperatures, the superfluid phase, rich in helium-4, can contain up to 6% helium-3 in solution. This makes the small-scale use of the
1040:
861:
540:
Lambda point transition: as the liquid is cooled down through 2.17 K (−270.98 °C), the boiling suddenly becomes violent for a moment.
1007:
970:
993:
752:
399:
In 1908, Kamerlingh-Onnes succeeded in liquifying a small quantity of helium. In 1923, he provided advice to the
Canadian physicist
301:
The temperature required to produce liquid helium is low because of the weakness of the attractions between the helium atoms. These
332:
Because of the very weak interatomic forces in helium, the element remains a liquid at atmospheric pressure all the way from its
153:
1051:
698:
806:
Pricaupenko, L; Triener, J. (16 January 1995). "Phase
Separation of Liquid He–He Mixtures: Effect of Confinement".
771:
D. O. Edwards; D. F. Brewer; P. Seligman; M. Skertic & M. Yaqub (1965). "Solubility of He in Liquid He at 0K".
224:
220:
103:
1101:
1091:
236:
1106:
528:
Liquid helium (in a vacuum bottle) at 4.2 K (−268.95 °C) and 1 bar (15 psi) boiling slowly.
400:
1037:
1111:
1066:
228:
216:
189:
648:
378:
325:
of liquid helium is less if its atoms are less confined by their neighbors. Hence in liquid helium, its
240:
865:
1071:
892:
815:
780:
672:
553:
463:
446:
340:. At temperatures below their liquefaction points, both helium-4 and helium-3 undergo transitions to
302:
252:
169:
127:
1081:
638:
388:
344:. (See the table below.) Liquid helium can be solidified only under very low temperatures and high
326:
333:
285:
148:
form only at the extremely low temperature of −269 °C (−452.20 °F; 4.15 K). Its
1076:
1003:
989:
966:
862:"THE LIFE OF SIR JOHN CUNNINGHAM McLENNAN Ph.D, F.R.S.C, F.R.S., O.B.E., K.B.E. (1867 - 1935)"
831:
748:
409:
Important early work on the characteristics of liquid helium was done by the Soviet physicist
322:
310:
201:
193:
900:
823:
788:
740:
364:
318:
138:
66:
1086:
1044:
618:
608:
598:
414:
896:
819:
784:
552:
Superfluid phase at temperature below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C). In this state, the
406:
In 1932 Einstein reported that the liquid helium could help in creating an atomic bomb.
1031:
982:
603:
506:
497:
360:
97:
581:
below. This will repeat until the cup is empty—provided the liquid remains superfluid.
1060:
880:
744:
628:
613:
570:
459:
368:
337:
149:
131:
52:
293:
204:
had not yet been invented. In more recent decades, liquid helium has been used as a
965:. International cryogenics monograph series (2. ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
243:
contains superconducting magnets that are cooled with 120 tonnes of liquid helium.
48:
1026:
1021:
382:
314:
266:
208:
197:
123:
827:
792:
277:. These Cooper pairs are substantially larger than the interatomic separation.
904:
643:
623:
593:
493:
410:
341:
274:
212:
176:) is about 125 g/L (0.125 g/ml), or about one-eighth the density of
173:
79:
403:, who was the first to produce quantities of liquid helium almost on demand.
17:
306:
205:
835:
297:
Liquid helium 3 and 4 isotopes in phase diagram, showing the demixing zone.
669:"The Observed Properties of Liquid Helium at the Saturated Vapor Pressure"
668:
309:, but the interatomic attractions are reduced even more by the effects of
480:
439:
434:
371:
352:
345:
258:
165:
161:
577:
and down on the outside. A drop forms. It will fall off into the liquid
477:
262:
232:
157:
578:
356:
145:
141:
119:
391:
has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium.
188:
Helium was first liquefied on July 10, 1908, by the Dutch physicist
96:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
37:
735:
Horbaniuc, Bogdan D. (2004). "Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning".
292:
284:
270:
177:
702:
574:
44:
573:
phase. A thin invisible film creeps up the inside wall of the
381:
possible, which is capable of reaching temperatures of a few
488:
29 bar (420 psi) at 0.3 K (−272.850 °C)
351:
Liquid helium-4 and the rare helium-3 are not completely
215:), and liquid helium is produced commercially for use in
1036:
Kamerlingh Onnes's 1908 article, online and analyzed on
313:. These are significant in helium because of its low
305:
in helium are weak to begin with because helium is a
718:
716:
714:
712:
879:Vignos, James H.; Fairbank, Henry A. (1961-03-15).
981:
265:and at very low temperatures, they form two-atom
200:. At that time, helium-3 was unknown because the
699:"Cryogenics: Low temperatures, high performance"
864:. University of Toronto Physics. Archived from
253:Fermionic condensate § Helium-3 superfluid
766:
764:
649:2008 Large Hadron Collider liquid helium leak
8:
363:, a mixture of the two isotopes undergoes a
942:Dieter Vollhart & Peter Wölfle (1990).
413:, later extended by the American physicist
29:
1097:Science and technology in the Netherlands
984:The Properties of Liquid and Solid Helium
160:of helium is present: the common isotope
427:
660:
633:
518:
929:
917:
848:
722:
685:
7:
496:transition temperature at saturated
1022:He-3 and He-4 phase diagrams, etc.
51:, where it exhibits properties of
27:Liquid state of the element helium
25:
944:The Superfluid Phases of Helium 3
946:. Taylor and Francis. p. 3.
562:
545:
533:
521:
36:
100:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
43:Liquid helium in a transparent
1032:Onnes's liquifaction of helium
745:10.1016/B0-12-176480-X/00085-1
72:
1:
961:VanSciver, Steven W. (2012).
502:2.17 K (−270.98 °C)
471:3.2 K (−269.95 °C)
454:3.3 K (−269.85 °C)
1027:Helium-3 phase diagram, etc.
569:The liquid helium is in the
468:4.2 K (−268.95 °C)
451:5.2 K (−267.95 °C)
988:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
431:Properties of liquid helium
1128:
828:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.430
793:10.1103/PhysRevLett.15.773
485:25 bar (360 psi)
250:
235:, such as low temperature
231:(MEG), and experiments in
225:nuclear magnetic resonance
221:magnetic resonance imaging
137:At standard pressure, the
1052:CERN's cryogenic systems.
905:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.265
505:1 mK in the absence of a
289:Phase diagram of helium-4
130:. Liquid helium may show
94:
59:
35:
401:John Cunningham McLennan
885:Physical Review Letters
808:Physical Review Letters
217:superconducting magnets
118:is a physical state of
881:"New Solid Phase in H"
737:Encyclopedia of Energy
298:
290:
237:Mössbauer spectroscopy
229:magnetoencephalography
219:such as those used in
190:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
379:dilution refrigerator
296:
288:
241:Large Hadron Collider
128:atmospheric pressures
673:University of Oregon
554:thermal conductivity
447:Critical temperature
273:and condense into a
194:University of Leiden
164:or the rare isotope
920:, pp. 474–478.
897:1961PhRvL...6..265V
820:1995PhRvL..74..430P
785:1965PhRvL..15..773E
639:Superfluid helium-4
634:Superfluid helium-3
389:Superfluid helium-4
359:at their saturated
327:ground state energy
90: g·mol
47:, cooled below the
32:
1043:2018-02-18 at the
980:Wilks, J. (1967).
334:liquefaction point
303:interatomic forces
299:
291:
247:Liquified helium-3
211:(which is used in
104:Infobox references
30:
1048:
1008:978-90-6984-519-7
972:978-1-4419-9978-8
963:Helium cryogenics
512:
511:
323:zero point energy
319:atomic mass units
311:quantum mechanics
202:mass spectrometer
112:Chemical compound
110:
109:
16:(Redirected from
1119:
1102:Dutch inventions
1092:Industrial gases
1047:
999:
987:
976:
948:
947:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
908:
876:
870:
869:
858:
852:
846:
840:
839:
803:
797:
796:
768:
759:
758:
732:
726:
720:
707:
706:
695:
689:
683:
677:
676:
665:
566:
549:
537:
525:
428:
365:phase separation
156:depend on which
139:chemical element
89:
88:
74:
67:Chemical formula
40:
33:
21:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1107:1908 in science
1057:
1056:
1045:Wayback Machine
1018:
1013:
996:
979:
973:
960:
951:
941:
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
912:
878:
877:
873:
860:
859:
855:
847:
843:
805:
804:
800:
773:Phys. Rev. Lett
770:
769:
762:
755:
734:
733:
729:
721:
710:
705:. 28 June 2023.
697:
696:
692:
684:
680:
667:
666:
662:
658:
653:
619:Liquid hydrogen
609:Liquid nitrogen
599:Expansion ratio
589:
582:
567:
558:
550:
541:
538:
529:
526:
517:
426:
415:Richard Feynman
397:
374:by separating.
283:
281:Characteristics
255:
249:
186:
113:
106:
101:
86:
84:
69:
55:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1049:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1017:
1016:External links
1014:
1012:
1011:
1000:
994:
977:
971:
957:
956:
955:
950:
949:
934:
932:, p. 289.
922:
910:
891:(6): 265–267.
871:
868:on 2006-05-05.
853:
851:, p. 244.
841:
814:(3): 430–433.
798:
760:
753:
727:
708:
690:
678:
659:
657:
654:
652:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
616:
611:
606:
604:Industrial gas
601:
596:
590:
588:
585:
584:
583:
568:
561:
559:
551:
544:
542:
539:
532:
530:
527:
520:
516:
513:
510:
509:
507:magnetic field
503:
500:
498:vapor pressure
490:
489:
486:
483:
473:
472:
469:
466:
456:
455:
452:
449:
443:
442:
437:
432:
425:
422:
396:
393:
361:vapor pressure
317:of about four
282:
279:
248:
245:
185:
182:
154:critical point
111:
108:
107:
102:
98:standard state
95:
92:
91:
82:
76:
75:
70:
65:
62:
61:
57:
56:
42:
31:Liquid helium
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1124:
1113:
1112:Superfluidity
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1067:Liquid helium
1065:
1064:
1062:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
995:0-19-851245-7
991:
986:
985:
978:
974:
968:
964:
959:
958:
953:
952:
945:
938:
935:
931:
926:
923:
919:
914:
911:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
875:
872:
867:
863:
857:
854:
850:
845:
842:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
802:
799:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
765:
761:
756:
754:9780121764807
750:
746:
742:
738:
731:
728:
724:
719:
717:
715:
713:
709:
704:
700:
694:
691:
687:
682:
679:
674:
670:
664:
661:
655:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
629:Superfluidity
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
614:Liquid oxygen
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
591:
586:
580:
576:
572:
565:
560:
555:
548:
543:
536:
531:
524:
519:
514:
508:
504:
501:
499:
495:
492:
491:
487:
484:
482:
479:
475:
474:
470:
467:
465:
461:
460:Boiling point
458:
457:
453:
450:
448:
445:
444:
441:
438:
436:
433:
430:
429:
423:
421:
418:
416:
412:
407:
404:
402:
394:
392:
390:
386:
384:
380:
375:
373:
370:
369:thermodynamic
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
343:
339:
338:absolute zero
335:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
295:
287:
280:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
254:
246:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
183:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:boiling point
147:
143:
140:
135:
133:
132:superfluidity
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:Liquid helium
105:
99:
93:
83:
81:
78:
77:
71:
68:
64:
63:
58:
54:
53:superfluidity
50:
46:
39:
34:
19:
18:Liquid Helium
983:
962:
943:
937:
930:Wilks (1967)
925:
918:Wilks (1967)
913:
888:
884:
874:
866:the original
856:
849:Wilks (1967)
844:
811:
807:
801:
776:
772:
736:
730:
725:, p. 1.
723:Wilks (1967)
693:
688:, p. 7.
686:Wilks (1967)
681:
663:
419:
408:
405:
398:
387:
383:millikelvins
376:
355:. Below 0.9
350:
331:
300:
267:Cooper pairs
256:
187:
184:Liquefaction
178:liquid water
144:exists in a
136:
126:at standard
124:temperatures
122:at very low
115:
114:
49:Lambda point
1072:Noble gases
779:(20): 773.
739:: 261–289.
342:superfluids
315:atomic mass
213:cryocoolers
209:refrigerant
198:Netherlands
174:kilopascals
60:Properties
1082:Cryogenics
1061:Categories
656:References
644:Supersolid
624:Liquid air
594:Cryogenics
571:superfluid
494:Superfluid
464:atmosphere
411:Lev Landau
275:superfluid
269:which are
261:atom is a
251:See also:
170:atmosphere
80:Molar mass
346:pressures
307:noble gas
206:cryogenic
1077:Coolants
1041:Archived
836:10058756
587:See also
481:pressure
476:Minimum
440:Helium-3
435:Helium-4
372:enthalpy
353:miscible
336:down to
259:helium-3
166:helium-3
162:helium-4
954:General
893:Bibcode
816:Bibcode
781:Bibcode
675:. 2004.
515:Gallery
478:melting
462:at one
395:History
271:bosonic
263:fermion
233:physics
227:(NMR),
223:(MRI),
196:in the
192:at the
172:(101.3
158:isotope
1087:Helium
1038:BibNum
1006:
992:
969:
834:
751:
579:helium
357:kelvin
321:. The
239:. The
146:liquid
142:helium
120:helium
85:4.002
1004:ISBN
990:ISBN
967:ISBN
832:PMID
749:ISBN
703:CERN
575:bowl
424:Data
152:and
45:bowl
901:doi
824:doi
789:doi
741:doi
87:602
1063::
899:.
887:.
883:.
830:.
822:.
812:74
810:.
787:.
777:15
775:.
763:^
747:.
711:^
701:.
671:.
417:.
385:.
348:.
257:A
180:.
134:.
73:He
1010:.
998:.
975:.
907:.
903::
895::
889:6
838:.
826::
818::
795:.
791::
783::
757:.
743::
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
