Flagellum - Knowledge

620: 339: 1329:. Additional evidence for the evolution of bacterial flagella includes the existence of vestigial flagella, intermediate forms of flagella and patterns of similarities among flagellar protein sequences, including the observation that almost all of the core flagellar proteins have known homologies with non-flagellar proteins. Furthermore, several processes have been identified as playing important roles in flagellar evolution, including self-assembly of simple repeating subunits, gene duplication with subsequent divergence, recruitment of elements from other systems ('molecular bricolage') and recombination. 1291:(T3SS) found in many gram-negative bacteria, hence one likely evolved from the other. Because the T3SS has a similar number of components as a flagellar apparatus (about 25 proteins), which one evolved first is difficult to determine. However, the flagellar system appears to involve more proteins overall, including various regulators and chaperones, hence it has been argued that flagella evolved from a T3SS. However, it has also been suggested that the flagellum may have evolved first or the two structures evolved in parallel. Early single-cell organisms' need for 2373: 1513:("movement on purpose") the clockwise rotation of a flagellum is suppressed by chemical compounds favorable to the cell (e.g. food). When moving in a favorable direction, the concentration of such chemical attractants increases and therefore tumbles are continually suppressed, allowing forward motion; likewise, when the cell's direction of motion is unfavorable (e.g., away from a chemical attractant), tumbles are no longer suppressed and occur much more often, with the chance that the cell will be thus reoriented in the correct direction. 556: 602:, in the rotor. The flagellum is highly energy efficient and uses very little energy. The torque is transferred from the MotAB to the torque helix on FliG's D5 domain and with the increase in the requirement of the torque or speed more MotAB are employed. Because the flagellar motor has no on-off switch, the protein epsE is used as a mechanical clutch to disengage the motor from the rotor, thus stopping the flagellum and allowing the bacterium to remain in one place. 7006: 57: 1321:". However, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, though sometimes at reduced efficiency. Moreover, with many proteins unique to some number across species, diversity of bacterial flagella composition was higher than expected. Hence, the flagellar apparatus is clearly very flexible in evolutionary terms and perfectly able to lose or gain protein components. For instance, a number of mutations have been found that 73: 2358: 1533: 1181: 1558: 1544: 1663: 1525: 1233:

such a speed, a bacterium would take about 245 days to cover 1 km; although that may seem slow, the perspective changes when the concept of scale is introduced. In comparison to macroscopic life forms, it is very fast indeed when expressed in terms of number of body lengths per second. A cheetah, for example, only achieves about 25 body lengths per second.

1490:, two flagellar systems co-exist, using different sets of genes and different ion gradients for energy. The polar flagella are constitutively expressed and provide motility in bulk fluid, while the lateral flagella are expressed when the polar flagella meet too much resistance to turn. These provide swarming motility on surfaces or in viscous fluids. 8832: 1654:, polypeptide complexes extending from each of the outer nine microtubule doublets towards the central pair, with the "head" of the spoke facing inwards. The radial spoke is thought to be involved in the regulation of flagellar motion, although its exact function and method of action are not yet understood. 1501:

Flagella are left-handed helices, and when rotated counter-clockwise by their rotors, they can bundle and rotate together. When the rotors reverse direction, thus rotating clockwise, the flagellum unwinds from the bundle. This may cause the cell to stop its forward motion and instead start twitching

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Besides the axoneme and basal body, relatively constant in morphology, other internal structures of the flagellar apparatus are the transition zone (where the axoneme and basal body meet) and the root system (microtubular or fibrilar structures that extend from the basal bodies into the cytoplasm),

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The rotational speed of flagella varies in response to the intensity of the proton-motive force, thereby permitting certain forms of speed control, and also permitting some types of bacteria to attain remarkable speeds in proportion to their size; some achieve roughly 60 cell lengths per second. At

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is superficially similar to the bacterial flagellum; in the 1980s, they were thought to be homologous on the basis of gross morphology and behavior. Both flagella and archaella consist of filaments extending outside the cell, and rotate to propel the cell. Archaeal flagella have a unique structure

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and flagella are ultimately the same, they are sometimes classed by their pattern of movement, a tradition from before their structures have been known. In the case of flagella, the motion is often planar and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated three-dimensional

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Adl, Sina M.; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Lane, Christopher E.; Lukeš, Julius; Bass, David; Bowser, Samuel S.; Brown, Matthew W.; Burki, Fabien; Dunthorn, Micah; Hampl, Vladimir; Heiss, Aaron; Hoppenrath, Mona; Lara, Enrique; le Gall, Line; Lynn, Denis H.; McManus, Hilary; Mitchell, Edward A. D.;

2308:. Research into the structure of archaella made significant progress beginning in the early 2010s, with the first atomic resolution structure of an archaella protein, the discovery of additional functions of archaella, and the first reports of archaella in Nanoarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota. 522:, such as the hollow, rod-like "plug" in their centers extending out through the plasma membrane. The similarities between bacterial flagella and bacterial secretory system structures and proteins provide scientific evidence supporting the theory that bacterial flagella evolved from the 2182:, due to the pair of flagella of unequal length. It has taken on a specific meaning in referring to cells with an anterior straminipilous flagellum (with tripartite mastigonemes, in one or two rows) and a posterior usually smooth flagellum. It is also used to refer to the taxon 2276:

Bacterial flagella are thicker than archaella, and the bacterial filament has a large enough hollow "tube" inside that the flagellin subunits can flow up the inside of the filament and get added at the tip; the archaellum is too thin (12-15 nm) to allow

1553:. In the cell apex is the basal body that is the anchoring site for a flagellum. Basal bodies originate from and have a substructure similar to that of centrioles, with nine peripheral microtubule triplets (see structure at bottom center of image). 5816: 1638:

more variable and useful as indicators of phylogenetic relationships of eukaryotes. Other structures, more uncommon, are the paraflagellar (or paraxial, paraxonemal) rod, the R fiber, and the S fiber. For surface structures, see below.

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microscopy. The rotation of the filaments relative to the cell body causes the entire bacterium to move forward in a corkscrew-like motion, even through material viscous enough to prevent the passage of normally flagellated bacteria.

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Andersen, R. A.; Barr, D. J. S.; Lynn, D. H.; Melkonian, M.; Moestrup, Ø.; Sleigh, M. A. (February 1991). "Terminology and nomenclature of the cytoskeletal elements associated with the flagellar/ciliary apparatus in protists".

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During flagellar assembly, components of the flagellum pass through the hollow cores of the basal body and the nascent filament. During assembly, protein components are added at the flagellar tip rather than at the base.

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Bacterial flagellar motor assembly: Shown here is the C-ring at the base with FliG in red, FliM in yellow, and FliN in shades of purple; the MS-ring in blue; the MotAB in brown; the LP-ring in pink; and the rod in

2236:, the archaeal proteins (archaellins) are made with class 3 signal peptides and they are processed by a type IV prepilin peptidase-like enzyme. The archaellins are typically modified by the addition of N-linked 1295:(mobility) support that the more mobile flagella would be selected by evolution first, but the T3SS evolving from the flagellum can be seen as 'reductive evolution', and receives no topological support from the 3381:

Galkin, Vitold E.; Yu, Xiong; Bielnicki, Jakub; Heuser, John; Ewing, Cheryl P.; Guerry, Patricia; Egelman, Edward H. (18 April 2008). "Divergence of Quaternary Structures Among Bacterial Flagellar Filaments".

2346:, and a terminal plate is present in the transitional zone. An inner ring-like structure attached to the tubules of the flagellar doublets within the transitional zone has been observed in transverse section. 1426:

Counterclockwise rotation of a monotrichous polar flagellum pushes the cell forward with the flagellum trailing behind, much like a corkscrew moving inside cork. Water on the microscopic scale is highly

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Eukaryotic flagella or cilia, probably an ancestral characteristic, are widespread in almost all groups of eukaryotes, as a relatively perennial condition, or as a flagellated life cycle stage (e.g.,

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While bacterial cells often have many flagellar filaments, each of which rotates independently, the archaeal flagellum is composed of a bundle of many filaments that rotates as a single assembly.

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trees. The hypothesis that the two structures evolved separately from a common ancestor accounts for the protein similarities between the two structures, as well as their functional diversity.

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Hibberd, DJ (1976). "The ultrastructure and taxonomy of the Chrysophyceae and Prymnesiophyceae (Haptophyceae): a survey with some new observations on the ultrastructure of the Chrysophyceae".

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Rajagopala, Seesandra V; Titz, Björn; Goll, Johannes; Parrish, Jodi R; Wohlbold, Katrin; McKevitt, Matthew T; Palzkill, Timothy; Mori, Hirotada; Finley, Russell L; Uetz, Peter (January 2007).

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The flagellar filament is the long, helical screw that propels the bacterium when rotated by the motor, through the hook. In most bacteria that have been studied, including the gram-negative

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Aiming to emphasize the distinction between the bacterial flagella and the eukaryotic cilia and flagella, some authors attempted to replace the name of these two eukaryotic structures with "

349:, and the eukaryotic flagellum uses a complex sliding filament system. Eukaryotic flagella are ATP-driven, while prokaryotic flagella can be ATP-driven (Archaea) or proton-driven (Bacteria). 7604: 2284:, but the components of bacterial flagella and archaella share no sequence similarity. Instead, some components of archaella share sequence and morphological similarity with components of 1212: 2151:

heterodynamic: flagella with different beating patterns (usually with one flagellum functioning in food capture and the other functioning in gliding, anchorage, propulsion or "steering")

1463:, more than 30 individual flagella are organized outside the cell body, helically twining about each other to form a thick structure (easily visible with the light microscope) called a " 1408:, which act in concert to drive the bacteria in a single direction. In many cases, the bases of multiple flagella are surrounded by a specialized region of the cell membrane, called the 7624: 1317:

Some authors have argued that flagella cannot have evolved, assuming that they can only function properly when all proteins are in place. In other words, the flagellar apparatus is "

541:, that is, the scaffolding rings of the inner membrane (IM), the scaffolding pairs of the outer membrane (OM), and the rod/needle (injectisome) or rod/hook (flagellum) sections. 2892:

Streif, Stefan; Staudinger, Wilfried Franz; Marwan, Wolfgang; Oesterhelt, Dieter (December 2008). "Flagellar Rotation in the Archaeon Halobacterium salinarum Depends on ATP".

1252:, respectively. The two directions of rotation are not identical (with respect to flagellum movement) and are selected by a molecular switch. Clockwise rotation is called the 5138:

Mozley-Stanridge, Sharon E.; Parfrey, Laura W.; Pawlowski, Jan; Rueckert, Sonja; Shadwick, Laura; Schoch, Conrad L.; Smirnov, Alexey; Spiegel, Frederick W. (September 2012).

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Ng, Sandy Y.M.; Chaban, Bonnie; Jarrell, Ken F. (2006). "Archaeal Flagella, Bacterial Flagella and Type IV Pili: A Comparison of Genes and Posttranslational Modifications".

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are smaller, and thinner appendages, with different functions. Cilia are attached to the surface of flagella and are used to swim or move fluid from one region to another.

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Ruan, Juanfang; Kato, Takayuki; Santini, Claire-Lise; Miyata, Tomoko; Kawamoto, Akihiro; Zhang, Wei-Jia; Bernadac, Alain; Wu, Long-Fei; Namba, Keiichi (11 December 2012).

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and has a sharp bend just outside the outer membrane; this "hook" allows the axis of the helix to point directly away from the cell. A shaft runs between the hook and the

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Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000). "Section 19.4Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Movement".

1705:, and other proteins are moved up and down the length of the flagellum, is essential for proper functioning of the flagellum, in both motility and signal transduction. 1582:), preserving "flagella" for the bacterial structure. However, the discriminative usage of the terms "cilia" and "flagella" for eukaryotes adopted in this article (see 6084:

de Sousa Machado, J. Nuno; Vollmar, Leonie; Schimpf, Julia; Chaudhury, Paushali; Kumariya, Rashmi; van der Does, Chris; Hugel, Thorsten; Albers, Sonja-Verena (2021).

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Eukaryotic flagella. 1–axoneme, 2–cell membrane, 3–IFT (IntraFlagellar Transport), 4–Basal body, 5–Cross section of flagella, 6–Triplets of microtubules of basal body

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Atsumi, Tatsuo; McCartert, Linda; Imae, Yasuo (January 1992). "Polar and lateral flagellar motors of marine Vibrio are driven by different ion-motive forces".

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Singh, Prashant K.; Sharma, Pankaj; Afanzar, Oshri; Goldfarb, Margo H.; Maklashina, Elena; Eisenbach, Michael; Cecchini, Gary; Iverson, T. M. (17 April 2024).

129: 2372: 509:, the filament is made up of 11 protofilaments approximately parallel to the filament axis. Each protofilament is a series of tandem protein chains. However, 7657: 2357: 1509:

It is not known which stimuli drive the switch between bundling and tumbling, but the motor is highly adaptive to different signals. In the model describing

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Gophna, Uri; Ron, Eliora Z.; Graur, Dan (July 2003). "Bacterial type III secretion systems are ancient and evolved by multiple horizontal-transfer events".

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that move with a bending mechanism. Bacteria and archaea do not have dynein or microtubules in their flagella, and they move using a rotary mechanism.

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Flagella or cilia are completely absent in some groups, probably due to a loss rather than being a primitive condition. The loss of cilia occurred in

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Bundling is an event that can happen in multi-flagellated cells, bundling the flagella together and causing them to rotate in a coordinated manner.

1198: 294:, the flagellum has a different structure, protein composition, and mechanism of propulsion but shares the same function of providing motility. The 7020: 1650:

arms (an "inner" and an "outer" arm) to the adjacent microtubule; these produce force through ATP hydrolysis. The flagellar axoneme also contains

345:(bacterial and archaeal) flagella run in a rotary movement, while eukaryotic flagella run in a bending movement. The prokaryotic flagellum uses a 3330:

Diószeghy, Zoltán; Závodszky, Péter; Namba, Keiichi; Vonderviszt, Ferenc (18 June 2004). "Stabilization of flagellar filaments by HAP2 capping".

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Eukaryotic flagella—those of animal, plant, and protist cells—are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth. Eukaryotic flagella and

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Thomas, Nikhil A.; Bardy, Sonia L.; Jarrell, Ken F. (April 2001). "The archaeal flagellum: a different kind of prokaryotic motility structure".

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A number of terms related to flagella or cilia are used to characterize eukaryotes. According to surface structures present, flagella may be:

6027:"Getting a hold on archaeal type IV pili: an expanding repertoire of cellular appendages implicates complex regulation and diverse functions" 5234: 4338: 4144: 3739: 3628: 3279: 2516: 550: 372: 346: 386:) are superficially similar to bacterial flagella in that it also has a rotary motor, but are different in many details and considered non- 6086:"Autophosphorylation of the KaiC-like protein ArlH inhibits oligomerization and interaction with ArlI, the motor ATPase of the archaellum" 2273:

Bacterial flagella grow by the addition of flagellin subunits at the tip; archaeal flagella grow by the addition of subunits to the base.

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Canals, Rocío; Ramirez, Silvia; Vilches, Silvia; Horsburgh, Gavin; Shaw, Jonathan G.; Tomás, Juan M.; Merino, Susana (15 January 2006).

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Canals, Rocío; Altarriba, Maria; Vilches, Silvia; Horsburgh, Gavin; Shaw, Jonathan G.; Tomás, Juan M.; Merino, Susana (February 2006).

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Kudryashev, Mikhail; Cyrklaff, Marek; Baumeister, Wolfgang; Simon, Markus M.; Wallich, Reinhard; Frischknecht, Friedrich (March 2009).

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motion with a power and recovery stroke. Yet another traditional form of distinction is by the number of 9+2 organelles on the cell.

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Even if all flagella would rotate clockwise, however, they often cannot form a bundle due to geometrical and hydrodynamic reasons.

1205: 590:). The rotor transports protons across the membrane, and is turned in the process. The rotor alone can operate at 6,000 to 100,000 5671:

Corliss, J.O.; Lom, J (2000). "An annotated glossary of protozoological terms". In Lee, J.J.; Leedale, G.F.; Bradbury, P. (eds.).

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Minamino, Tohru; Imada, Katsumi; Namba, Keiichi (2008). "Mechanisms of type III protein export for bacterial flagellar assembly".

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tripartite (= straminipilous) hairs: with three regions (a base, a tubular shaft, and one or more terminal hairs). Occurs in most

7650: 594:, but with the flagellar filament attached usually only reaches 200 to 1000 rpm. The direction of rotation can be changed by the 619: 6532: 338: 2532:

Malo, Aurelio F; Gomendio, Montserrat; Garde, Julian; Lang-Lenton, Barbara; Soler, Ana J; Roldan, Eduardo R.S (22 June 2006).

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and flagella generate motion on a cellular level. Examples range from the propulsion of single cells such as the swimming of

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Beating pattern of eukaryotic "flagellum" and "cillum", a traditional distinction before the structures of the two are known.

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Through use of their flagella, bacteria are able to move rapidly towards attractants and away from repellents, by means of a

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Lowe, Graeme; Meister, Markus; Berg, Howard C. (February 1987). "Rapid rotation of flagellar bundles in swimming bacteria".

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Discoveries in the 1990s revealed numerous detailed differences between the archaeal and bacterial flagella. These include:

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Pallen, M.J.; Gophna, U. (2007). "Bacterial Flagella and Type III Secretion: Case Studies in the Evolution of Complexity".

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According to the number of flagella, cells may be: (remembering that some authors use "ciliated" instead of "flagellated")

6634: 1619: 1506:. Tumbling results in a stochastic reorientation of the cell, causing it to change the direction of its forward swimming. 534: 124: 7609: 6456: 6346: 77: 3978:

Pallen, Mark J.; Matzke, Nicholas J. (October 2006). "From The Origin of Species to the origin of bacterial flagella".

3678: 7643: 7534: 7045: 6367: 5701:"A Short Guide to Common Heterotrophic Flagellates of Freshwater Habitats Based on the Morphology of Living Organisms" 2281: 1288: 523: 1225:

The cylindrical shape of flagella is suited to locomotion of microscopic organisms; these organisms operate at a low

8894: 8855: 7524: 7025: 6990: 913: 568:) made up of protein, located at the flagellum's anchor point on the inner cell membrane. The engine is powered by 5502:

Lahr, Daniel J. G.; Parfrey, Laura Wegener; Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Katz, Laura A.; Lara, Enrique (22 July 2011).

7579: 5358:"Intraflagellar Transport and Cilia-Dependent Renal Disease: The Ciliary Hypothesis of Polycystic Kidney Disease" 1549: 1037: 1029: 918: 2296:

These differences support the theory that the bacterial flagella and archaella are a classic case of biological

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Kim, MunJu; Bird, James C.; Van Parys, Annemarie J.; Breuer, Kenneth S.; Powers, Thomas R. (23 December 2003).

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Sun, Qifang; Yuan, Chengzhi; Zhou, Sainan; Lu, Jing; Zeng, Meiyan; Cai, Xiong; Song, Houpan (19 October 2023).

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Ghosh, Abhrajyoti; Albers, Sonja-Verena (1 February 2011). "Assembly and function of the archaeal flagellum".

1273:, flagellar filaments assemble spontaneously in a solution containing purified flagellin as the sole protein. 8592: 7519: 7499: 6965: 5283:

Lindemann, CB; Lesich, KA (15 February 2010). "Flagellar and ciliary beating: the proven and the possible".

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Berg, Howard C.; Anderson, Robert A. (October 1973). "Bacteria Swim by Rotating their Flagellar Filaments".

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Silverman, Michael; Simon, Melvin (May 1974). "Flagellar rotation and the mechanism of bacterial motility".

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Asakura, Sho; Eguchi, Goro; Iino, Tetsuo (October 1964). "Reconstitution of bacterial flagella in vitro".

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for flagellar microtubules and is about 500 nanometers long. Basal bodies are structurally identical to

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Different species of bacteria have different numbers and arrangements of flagella, named using the term

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Wang, Qingfeng; Suzuki, Asaka; Mariconda, Susana; Porwollik, Steffen; Harshey, Rasika M (1 June 2005).

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akont: cells without flagella. It was also used to refer to taxonomic groups, as Aconta or Akonta: the

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Metlina, A. L. (November 2004). "Bacterial and archaeal flagella as prokaryotic motility organelles".

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stephanokont: cells with a crown of flagella near its anterior end, e.g., the gametes and spores of

2131:, flagella are laterally to terminally inserted, but are directed posteriorly during rapid swimming. 8889: 8677: 7569: 7504: 7271: 7260: 7137: 7120: 6492: 4697:

McCarter, Linda L. (2004). "Dual Flagellar Systems Enable Motility under Different Circumstances".

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Titz, Björn; Rajagopala, Seesandra V.; Ester, Claudia; Häuser, Roman; Uetz, Peter (November 2006).

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Kakkanat, Asha; Phan, Minh-Duy; Lo, Alvin W.; Beatson, Scott A.; Schembri, Mark A. (10 May 2017).

7758: 6333: 6279: 6007: 5924: 5887: 5308: 5205: 4941: 4722: 4581: 4003: 3774: 3697: 3604: 3585: 3472: 3415: 3363: 3252: 3209: 3096: 3045: 3002: 2949: 2305: 2252: 1308: 1062: 881: 671: 655: 644: 387: 376: 3435:"Structural Insights into Type III Secretion Systems of the Bacterial Flagellum and Injectisome" 2457:"Assembly and Motility of Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella. Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii" 1229:, where the viscosity of the surrounding water is much more important than its mass or inertia. 1734:

The first situation is found either in specialized cells of multicellular organisms (e.g., the

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at its base which can turn clockwise or counterclockwise. They provide two of several kinds of

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since the 1970s) or "cilia" for both (e.g., Hülsmann, 1992; Adl et al., 2012; most papers of

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At least 10 protein components of the bacterial flagellum share homologous proteins with the

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is characteristic of the eukaryotic flagellum. At the base of a eukaryotic flagellum is a

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isokont: cells with flagella of equal length. It was also formerly used to refer to the

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species have two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium

264: 256: 72: 6448: 5110: 5033: 4998: 4974: 4929: 4807: 4782: 4674: 4649: 4072: 3953: 3620: 3605:"The Bacterial Flagellar Motor: Structure and Function of a Complex Molecular Machine" 8878: 8836: 8754: 8587: 8559: 8463: 8436: 8433: 8367: 7861: 7835: 7785: 7594: 7564: 7449: 7444: 7171: 7148: 7085: 7055: 7050: 6763: 6723: 6698: 6614: 6527: 6502: 6337: 5768: 5155: 4758: 4741: 4665: 4625: 4616: 4600: 4568: 4551: 4112: 4095: 3495:"CryoEM structures reveal how the bacterial flagellum rotates and switches direction" 3476: 3433:

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Many components of bacterial flagella share sequence similarity to components of the

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4007: 3367: 3213: 3006: 1557: 1543: 1532: 308:" to describe its lash-like swimming motion. The flagellum in archaea is called the 300: 8774: 8744: 8604: 8255: 8107: 8102: 8004: 7940: 7804: 7670: 7666: 7589: 7484: 7411: 7366: 7338: 7235: 7211: 7060: 6985: 6955: 6950: 6940: 6743: 6715: 6693: 6686: 6666: 6606: 6522: 6507: 3589: 3419: 3149:

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acronematic: flagella with a single, terminal mastigoneme or flagellar hair (e.g.,

1923: 1899: 1867: 1812: 1804: 1774: 1651: 1611: 1571: 1442: 1402:) have multiple flagella located at the same spot on the bacterial surface such as 1296: 1118: 1107: 828: 808: 781: 776: 730: 718: 628: 394: 260: 255:, for example, uses its flagella to propel itself through the stomach to reach the 6429:"Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum" 4896: 4847: 4798: 3351: 3256: 397:

are identical in structure, but have different lengths, waveforms, and functions.

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almost instantaneously, caused by a slight change in the position of a protein,

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below) is still common (e.g., Andersen et al., 1991; Leadbeater et al., 2000).

1524: 8818: 8813: 8794: 8784: 8762: 8418: 8342: 8162: 8133: 8061: 8040: 7926: 7911: 7799: 7753: 7695: 7439: 7376: 7305: 7297: 7095: 7090: 7035: 6840: 6780: 6773: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6703: 6649: 6639: 6589: 6584: 6574: 6151: 5097:

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The "9+2" structure is visible in this cross-section micrograph of an axoneme.

1510: 1438: 1256:

with the body following the flagella. Counterclockwise rotation is called the

962: 813: 736: 724: 712: 706: 443: 383: 309: 240: 213: 6350: 6217: 6209: 6160: 6111: 6052: 6043: 4552:"Comparative cryo-electron tomography of pathogenic Lyme disease spirochetes" 4496: 3520: 3460: 2860: 2704: 2654: 446:, passing through protein rings in the cell's membrane that act as bearings. 17: 8799: 8672: 8662: 8508: 8483: 8452: 8413: 8265: 8245: 8231: 8210: 8138: 8035: 8018: 7921: 7900: 7846: 7738: 7717: 7509: 7494: 7434: 7416: 7396: 7371: 7332: 7160: 6861: 6823: 6796: 6768: 6661: 6644: 6579: 6552: 6484: 6262: 5675:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Society of Protozoologists. pp. 1346–85. 4964: 4832:"Analysis of the Lateral Flagellar Gene System of Aeromonas hydrophila AH-3" 4420: 3403: 2335: 2289: 2065: 2029: 1898:

whiplash flagella (= smooth, acronematic flagella): without hairs, e.g., in

1843: 1770: 1743: 1631: 1623: 1486: 1464: 1249: 742: 700: 519: 483: 435: 431: 291: 272: 205: 81: 62: 35: 6408: 6235: 6178: 6119: 6070: 6003: 5968: 5773:(2nd ed.). Ann Arbor: Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 5726: 5537: 5519: 5424: 5399:"Evolution of microtubule organizing centers across the tree of eukaryotes" 5383: 5304: 5173: 5118: 5083: 4983: 4914: 4865: 4767: 4718: 4634: 4577: 4515: 4439: 4348: 4303: 4244: 4195: 4121: 4080: 4045: 3999: 3961: 3926: 3891: 3840: 3638: 3538: 3468: 3411: 3359: 3316: 3248: 3205: 3170: 2913: 2878: 2772: 2723: 2672: 2608: 2567: 2549: 2490: 2441: 2292:(the nomenclature of pili and protein secretion systems is not consistent). 1678:

to the transport of fluid along a stationary layer of cells such as in the

5883: 5074: 5057: 5023: 4816: 4683: 3709: 3581: 3135: 3092: 2998: 2821: 2803: 2432: 2415: 1904:

hairy flagella (= tinsel, flimmer, pleuronematic flagella): with hairs (=

259:

where it may colonise the epithelium and potentially cause gastritis, and

8692: 8687: 8599: 8564: 8493: 8478: 8468: 8347: 8270: 8221: 8185: 8152: 8066: 7978: 7875: 7830: 7710: 7690: 7559: 7265: 7224: 7206: 6980: 6917: 6908: 6806: 6562: 6547: 6542: 6252:

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have been elucidated in great detail, especially with the development of

283: 232: 224: 4601:"Analysis of the Polar Flagellar Gene System of Vibrio parahaemolyticus" 4226: 3991: 2852: 8628: 8609: 8128: 8082: 7721: 7674: 7619: 7549: 7426: 7165: 6828: 6728: 6681: 6557: 6403: 6283: 6192:

Jarrell, Ken F; Albers, Sonja-Verena; Machado, J Nuno de Sousa (2021).

5960: 5481:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–24. 5296: 5201: 4177: 3778: 2325: 2297: 2228: 1883: 1836: 1751: 1739: 1595: 1537: 1428: 1384:)—both flagella rotate but coordinate to produce coherent thrust. 1087: 1008: 972: 427: 409: 405: 287: 236: 6135:"Towards Elucidating the Rotary Mechanism of the Archaellum Machinery" 6102: 6085: 5554:

Austin, CR (1995). Grudzinskas, Jurgis Gediminas; Yovich, J L (eds.).

5415: 5398: 4710: 4330: 3197: 2472: 537:. The best understood parts are the parts between the inner and outer 142: 8531: 8389: 8092: 7968: 7748: 7700: 7281: 7252: 6671: 6328: 6303: 4999:"Bacterial flagella rotating in bundles: a study in helical geometry" 3918: 3573: 3084: 3041: 2990: 2414:

Bardy, Sonia L.; Ng, Sandy Y. M.; Jarrell, Ken F. (1 February 2003).

2260: 2237: 1863: 1792: 1787: 1724: 1647: 1372:

bacteria have a single flagellum on each of two opposite ends (e.g.,

1013: 1003: 967: 578: 471: 463: 402: 398: 357: 353:

The three types of flagella are bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic.

319:

are identical in structure but have different lengths and functions.

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the cheetah's fastest recorded speed was 110 km/h (68 mph)

3770: 3295:

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1630:, so that the interior of the flagellum is accessible to the cell's 1445:

arising from opposite poles of the cell, and are located within the

529:

The atomic structure of both bacterial flagella as well as the TTSS

8835: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 4740:

Merino, Susana; Shaw, Jonathan G.; TomÃ¡s, Juan M. (October 2006).

2196:. Term introduced by Blackman & Tansley (1902) to refer to the 8503: 8071: 7733: 6194:"A comprehensive history of motility and Archaellation in Archaea" 2317: 2233: 1879: 1782: 1765:

Flagellated lifecycle stages are found in many groups, e.g., many

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27:

Cellular appendage functioning as locomotive or sensory organelle

7599: 2394: 2123:

opisthokont: cells with flagella inserted posteriorly, e.g., in

2097: 1754:

and many eukaryotes with a "flagellate condition" (or "monadoid

1720: 599: 565: 305: 7639: 6881: 6452: 2583:"Helicobacter pylori: ulcers and more: the beginning of an era" 518:

The basal body has several traits in common with some types of

6801: 4137:

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2363:

Multiple flagella in lophotrichous arrangement on surface of

2178:

heterokont: term introduced by Luther (1899) to refer to the

2168:

anisokont: cells with flagella of unequal length, e.g., some

184: 4211:"Novel Conserved Assembly Factor of the Bacterial Flagellum" 3732:

Living at Micro Scale: The Unexpected Physics of Being Small

1933:

with stiff hairs (= tubular hairs, retronemes, mastigonemes

1914:

with fine hairs (= non-tubular, or simple hairs): occurs in

8847:

Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

6877: 4930:"A macroscopic scale model of bacterial flagellar bundling" 1646:

Each of the outer 9 doublet microtubules extends a pair of

1418:

bacteria have flagella projecting in all directions (e.g.,

178: 169: 4742:"Bacterial lateral flagella: an inducible flagella system" 2455:

Silflow, Carolyn D.; Lefebvre, Paul A. (1 December 2001).

1999:

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Albers, Sonja-Verena; Jarrell, Ken F. (27 January 2015).

2639:"Sensing wetness: a new role for the bacterial flagellum" 2342:. Nine interconnected props attach the kinetosome to the 450:

organisms have two of these basal body rings, one in the

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2334:

the flagellum is 19–20 μm long. A nonfunctioning

564:

The bacterial flagellum is driven by a rotary engine (

371:

Bacterial flagella are helical filaments, each with a

246:

A microorganism may have from one to many flagella. A

5468: 5466: 4094:

McCann, Honour C.; Guttman, David S. (January 2008).

3660:"Inside nature's most efficient motor: the flagellar" 3272:

Pili and Flagella: Current Research and Future Trends

2509:

Pili and flagella: current research and future trends

2240:

which are necessary for proper assembly or function.

2137:

subakrokont: cells with flagella inserted subapically

2119:

According to the place of insertion of the flagella:

312:

to note its difference from the bacterial flagellum.

163: 5942: 5940: 5852:"The origin of eukaryotic and archaebacterial cells" 5643:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 4881:"Polar Flagellum Biogenesis in Aeromonas hydrophila" 2232:

which lacks a central channel. Similar to bacterial

1449:

as shown by breaking the outer-membrane and also by

181: 166: 8714: 8648: 8573: 8550: 8517: 8450: 8324: 8317: 8292: 8283: 8253: 8244: 8219: 8193: 8184: 8160: 8151: 8116: 8080: 8049: 8026: 8017: 7987: 7966: 7948: 7939: 7909: 7883: 7874: 7844: 7818: 7783: 7774: 7767: 7681: 7477: 7425: 7353: 7296: 7251: 7147: 7069: 7013: 6915: 6854: 6789: 6714: 6605: 6491: 2154:

isodynamic: flagella beating with the same patterns

1974:); some authors use the term as synonym of whiplash 172: 123: 111: 99: 94: 49: 5699:Jeuck, Alexandra; Arndt, Hartmut (November 2013). 5636: 2140:pleurokont: cells with flagella inserted laterally 1964:stichonematic flagella: with a single row of hairs 1547:Longitudinal section through the flagella area in 4599:Kim, Yun-Kyeong; McCarter, Linda L. (July 2000). 3270:Jarrell, K (2009). "Archaeal Flagella and Pili". 2148:gliding: a flagellum that trails on the substrate 1594:The core of a eukaryotic flagellum, known as the 5790:Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany 5473:Webster, John; Weber, Roland (25 January 2007). 5248: 5246: 4484:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3860:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 6247: 6245: 5444: 5278: 5276: 5256:Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology 4934:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4400:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2837:"Coordination of eukaryotic cilia and flagella" 2263:ions; archaeal flagella rotation is powered by 2134:akrokont: cells with flagella inserted apically 367:Other differences among these three types are: 275:, being sensitive to wetness outside the cell. 271:, the flagellum can also function as a sensory 8850:(1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. 5549: 5547: 5397:Yubuki, Naoji; Leander, Brian S. (July 2013). 4781:Belas, R; Simon, M; Silverman, M (July 1986). 2786:Haimo, L T; Rosenbaum, J L (1 December 1981). 2247:Bacterial flagella rotation is powered by the 1618:, "blepharoplast" or kinetosome, which is the 7651: 6893: 6464: 5362:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 3973: 3971: 3679:"Unlocking the secrets of nature's nanomotor" 2934:(Sixth ed.). New York, NY. p. 942. 1967:pantonematic flagella: with two rows of hairs 1940:bipartite hairs: with two regions. Occurs in 1731:, which may be produced continually or not). 1626:. The flagellum is encased within the cell's 1606:surrounding two central single microtubules ( 1206: 482:, and the S ring is directly attached to the 8: 5817:"Origin and evolution of flagellar movement" 3488: 3486: 2288:, which are assembled through the action of 486:. The filament ends with a capping protein. 6025:Chimileski, Scott; Papke, R. Thane (2015). 5324: 5322: 5226:Flagellates: Unity, Diversity and Evolution 5132: 5130: 5128: 4162:"The protein network of bacterial motility" 2925: 2923: 2158:Other terms related to the flagellar type: 1260:with the flagella lagging behind the body. 8321: 8289: 8250: 8190: 8157: 8023: 7945: 7880: 7780: 7771: 7658: 7644: 7636: 7359: 7153: 6900: 6886: 6878: 6471: 6457: 6449: 5929:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5856:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 5614:. London: Academic Press. pp. 57–79. 5332:Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Movement 5253:Barsanti, Laura; Gualtieri, Paolo (2006). 5140:"The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes" 2954:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2502: 2500: 2038:triflagellated: e.g., the gametes of some 1701:, the process by which axonemal subunits, 1583: 1303:Flagella and the intelligent design debate 1213: 1199: 604: 71: 55: 34:. For the flagella of male Solifugae, see 6402: 6327: 6225: 6168: 6150: 6101: 6060: 6042: 5746:. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 98–99. 5716: 5560:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5527: 5414: 5373: 5163: 5073: 5032: 5022: 4973: 4963: 4945: 4904: 4855: 4806: 4757: 4673: 4624: 4567: 4505: 4495: 4429: 4419: 4293: 4283: 4234: 4185: 4111: 3881: 3871: 3830: 3820: 3698:"Bacterial engines have their own clutch" 3528: 3510: 3450: 2868: 2811: 2762: 2713: 2703: 2662: 2598: 2557: 2480: 2431: 30:For the insect anatomical structure, see 5694: 5692: 4019: 4017: 1670:The regular beat patterns of eukaryotic 1661: 1556: 1531: 1244:brought about by rotating its flagellum 554: 412:found in both flagella and motile cilia. 204:for 'whip' or 'scourge') is a hair-like 6260:, a Chytrid Pathogenic to Amphibians". 3734:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2406: 2378:Physical model of a bacterial flagellum 2353: 612: 8864: 8853: 5922: 3603:Kojima, Seiji; Blair, David F (2004), 3309:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090832 3163:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.091014 2947: 2581:Lacy, BE; Rosemore, J (October 2001). 426:The bacterial flagellum is made up of 140: 46: 5056:Taylor, F J R Max (1 November 2003). 3789:. Struik Publishers. pp. 37–38. 1989:with undulating membrane: e.g., some 551:Rotating locomotion in living systems 478:layer, the M ring is embedded in the 7: 6349:. Oakland University. Archived from 5673:An illustrated guide to the protozoa 3730:Dusenbery, DB (2009). "Chapter 13". 2320:to have a single flagellum on their 1441:, in contrast, have flagella called 462:organisms have four such rings: the 6345:Lindemann, Charles (4 April 2008). 5356:Pazour, Gregory J. (October 2004). 4474:Echazarreta, MA; Klose, KE (2019). 4375:from the original on 9 October 2022 3785:Hunter, Luke; Hamman, Dave (2003). 3452:10.1146/annurev-micro-032521-025503 3128:10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.000321 2835:Wan, Kirsty Y. (21 November 2018). 2788:"Cilia, flagella, and microtubules" 2511:. Norfolk: Caister academic press. 1598:is a bundle of nine fused pairs of 193: 5996:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00575.x 5876:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb40596.x 5802:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1976.tb01352.x 5375:10.1097/01.ASN.0000141055.57643.E0 5144:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 2688:"The archaellum: how archaea swim" 2144:According to the beating pattern: 1803:(assexual zoospores and gametes), 25: 5611:The Fine Structure of Algal Cells 2534:"Sperm design and sperm function" 2416:"Prokaryotic motility structures" 576:set up by the cell's metabolism ( 8830: 7004: 6302:Berg, Howard C. (January 2000). 5949:Biochemical Society Transactions 5156:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x 5099:European Journal of Protistology 4759:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00403.x 4666:10.1128/jb.178.16.5024-5026.1996 4617:10.1128/JB.182.13.3693-3704.2000 4569:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06613.x 4113:10.1111/J.1469-8137.2007.02293.X 3696:Whitfield, John (19 June 2008). 3609:International Review of Cytology 2743:Emerging Topics in Life Sciences 2371: 2356: 1180: 1179: 618: 356:The flagella in eukaryotes have 159: 6676: 6427:Matzke, NJ (10 November 2003). 5907:Brock biology of microorganisms 5581:South, GR; Whittick, A (1987). 1839:fungi (zoospores and gametes). 613:Microbial and microbot movement 8405:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous 6347:"Mechanisms of sperm motility" 6254:Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis 3803:Meadows, Robin (10 May 2011). 2331:Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis 2044:quadriflagellated: e.g., some 1769:(zoospores and male gametes), 1: 8375:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid 6936:High lipid content microalgae 6635:Microtubule organizing center 6444:Cell Image Library - Flagella 6368:"Life at Low Reynolds Number" 6304:"Motile Behavior of Bacteria" 5111:10.1016/s0932-4739(11)80231-2 4897:10.1128/JB.188.2.542-555.2006 4848:10.1128/JB.188.3.852-862.2006 4799:10.1128/jb.167.1.210-218.1986 4073:10.1016/S0378-1119(03)00612-7 3954:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80026-7 3621:10.1016/s0074-7696(04)33003-2 3439:Annual Review of Microbiology 3352:10.1016/j.febslet.2004.05.029 3297:Annual Review of Microbiology 3151:Annual Review of Microbiology 3116:Annual Review of Microbiology 2932:Molecular biology of the cell 2507:Jarrell, Ken F., ed. (2009). 2227:possessed by some species of 1620:microtubule organizing center 1394:Greek combining term meaning 5905:Madigan, Michael T. (2019). 5718:10.1016/j.protis.2013.08.003 4285:10.1371/journal.pone.0176290 4139:. New York, NY: Free Press. 3942:Journal of Molecular Biology 3822:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001061 3677:Nagata, Yoshio (June 2014). 2894:Journal of Molecular Biology 2054:octoflagellated: e.g., some 1791:, as male gametes), centric 1584:§ Flagella versus cilia 227:), and from a wide range of 208:that protrudes from certain 7535:Fish diseases and parasites 7046:Photosynthetic picoplankton 6375:American Journal of Physics 5743:Protozoa and other Protists 5445:Leadbeater & Green 2000 5259:. Florida, USA: CRC Press. 4997:Macnab, RM (January 1977). 3980:Nature Reviews Microbiology 3658:Dean, Tim (2 August 2010). 2792:The Journal of Cell Biology 2014:uniflagellated: e.g., most 1289:type three secretion system 524:type-three secretion system 239:with flagella are known as 38:. For Eukaryotic only, see 8916: 7809: 7525:Dimethylsulfoniopropionate 7026:Heterotrophic picoplankton 5850:Cavalier-Smith, T (1987). 5557:Gametes - the spermatozoon 5440:"The flagellate condition" 3873:10.3389/fcimb.2023.1257817 3805:"How Bacteria Shift Gears" 3512:10.1038/s41564-024-01674-1 3274:. Caister Academic Press. 2282:type III secretion systems 1712: 1457:In certain large forms of 1306: 1280: 914:Bacteria collective motion 548: 515:has seven protofilaments. 438:-thick hollow tube. It is 29: 7580:Marine primary production 7362: 7156: 7002: 6152:10.3389/fmicb.2022.848597 6139:Frontiers in Microbiology 6031:Frontiers in Microbiology 5984:FEMS Microbiology Reviews 5827:: 137–138. Archived from 5584:Introduction to Phycology 4746:FEMS Microbiology Letters 4166:Molecular Systems Biology 4135:Behe, Michael J. (2007). 4038:10.1016/j.tim.2004.01.003 3664:Australian Life Scientist 3241:10.1007/s10541-005-0065-8 2906:10.1016/j.jmb.2008.08.057 2692:Frontiers in Microbiology 2290:type II secretion systems 2210:(Oltmanns, 1904), or the 2020:biflagellated: e.g., all 1827:(zoospores and gametes), 1799:(zoospores and gametes), 1550:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 1502:in place, referred to as 1038:Synthetic molecular motor 919:Collective cell migration 422:Structure and composition 401:are immotile, and have a 135: 70: 54: 7696:Mastigophora/Flagellates 7500:Algal nutrient solutions 7242:Thalassiosira pseudonana 7114:Flavobacterium columnare 7101:Enteric redmouth disease 6630:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton 6044:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00362 4497:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00131 2705:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00023 2655:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600668 2587:The Journal of Nutrition 2064:multiflagellated: e.g., 1983:with spines: e.g., some 1762:, an artificial group). 1709:Evolution and occurrence 1699:Intraflagellar transport 1694:Intraflagellar transport 839:Self-propelled particles 535:cryo-electron microscopy 315:Eukaryotic flagella and 8734:Baas-Becking hypothesis 7520:Diel vertical migration 7036:Microphyte (microalgae) 7021:Eukaryotic picoplankton 6966:Paradox of the plankton 5285:Journal of Cell Science 4965:10.1073/pnas.2633596100 4885:Journal of Bacteriology 4836:Journal of Bacteriology 4787:Journal of Bacteriology 4654:Journal of Bacteriology 4605:Journal of Bacteriology 4421:10.1073/pnas.1215274109 4215:Journal of Bacteriology 3404:10.1126/science.1155307 2930:Alberts, Bruce (2015). 2600:10.1093/jn/131.10.2789S 2255:or occasionally by the 1874:, in the sperm of some 1703:transmembrane receptors 1574:" (e.g., all papers by 1477:Vibrio parahaemolyticus 1451:electron cryotomography 866:Biohybrid microswimmers 797:Microbots and particles 248:gram-negative bacterium 8729:Microbial biogeography 7382:Gelatinous zooplankton 6210:10.1093/femsmc/xtab002 6090:Molecular Microbiology 5520:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289 4556:Molecular Microbiology 4026:Trends in Microbiology 3783:Although according to 2841:Essays in Biochemistry 2550:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0449 1667: 1562: 1554: 1540: 1529: 1333:Flagellar arrangements 1313:Irreducible complexity 596:flagellar motor switch 574:concentration gradient 561: 500:Caulobacter crescentus 496:Salmonella typhimurium 403:structurally different 350: 299: 137:Anatomical terminology 7749:Fungus-like organisms 7575:Marine microorganisms 7345:Velvet (fish disease) 7080:Aeromonas salmonicida 6946:Marine microorganisms 6620:Intermediate filament 6513:Endoplasmic reticulum 5075:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 5024:10.1073/pnas.74.1.221 3710:10.1038/news.2008.903 3229:Biochemistry (Moscow) 2804:10.1083/jcb.91.3.125s 2433:10.1099/mic.0.25948-0 2338:lies adjacent to the 2192:, the spores of some 1825:plasmodiophoromycetes 1777:(male gametes), some 1756:level of organization 1715:Evolution of flagella 1713:Further information: 1665: 1658:Flagella versus cilia 1560: 1546: 1535: 1527: 1283:Evolution of flagella 1124:cytoplasmic streaming 558: 549:Further information: 454:layer and one in the 341: 80:image of flagellated 8464:Simple cell membrane 8400:Pseudoparenchymatous 8388:Filamentous/trichal/ 8372:Colonial flagellated 8305:Collar of microvilli 7327:Pfiesteria piscicida 7127:Marine bacteriophage 7031:Marine microplankton 6867:Extracellular matrix 6366:Purcell, EM (1977). 5770:Aquatic phycomycetes 5767:Sparrow, FK (1960). 5438:Raven, J.A. (2000). 4699:Microbial Physiology 4480:Flagellar Synthesis" 4363:"Bacterial flagella" 3907:Molecular BioSystems 3758:Journal of Mammalogy 3615:, Elsevier: 93–134, 3186:Microbial Physiology 2755:10.1042/ETLS20180089 2302:convergent evolution 2127:(Vischer, 1945). In 1846:, some green algae ( 1835:(male gametes), and 1819:(probably gametes), 1685:Although eukaryotic 1536:Cross section of an 1381:Alcaligenes faecalis 1375:Campylobacter jejuni 1145:Molecular biophysics 877:bacterial biohybrids 512:Campylobacter jejuni 506:Vibrio alginolyticus 466:associates with the 434:. Its shape is a 20- 263:– a risk factor for 8678:Contractile vacuole 8629:Meiosis in protists 8610:Mitosis in protists 8588:Multinucleate cells 7810:Flagellar apparatus 7759:Ambiregnal protists 7701:Sarcodina/Amoeboids 7570:Ocean acidification 7505:Artificial seawater 7272:Coscinodiscophyceae 7138:Streptococcus iniae 7121:Pelagibacter ubique 6570:Cytoplasmic granule 6387:1977AmJPh..45....3P 6320:2000PhT....53a..24B 5868:1987NYASA.503...17C 5815:Sleigh, MA (1985). 5514:(1715): 2081–2090. 5015:1977PNAS...74..221M 4956:2003PNAS..10015481K 4940:(26): 15481–15485. 4412:2012PNAS..10920643R 4406:(50): 20643–20648. 4276:2017PLoSO..1276290K 4227:10.1128/JB.00820-06 3992:10.1038/nrmicro1493 3683:Nikkei Asian Review 3566:1992Natur.355..182A 3499:Nature Microbiology 3396:2008Sci...320..382G 3344:2004FEBSL.568..105D 3077:1973Natur.245..380B 3034:1987Natur.325..637L 2983:1974Natur.249...73S 2853:10.1042/ebc20180029 2593:(10): 2789S–2793S. 2365:Helicobacter pylori 2257:sodium-motive force 2249:proton motive force 2214:(Christensen, 1962) 1977:with scales: e.g., 1809:labyrinthulomycetes 1520:Eukaryotic flagella 1474:spp. (particularly 1405:Helicobacter pylori 1319:irreducibly complex 1160:Non-motile bacteria 1099:Axophilic migration 1048:Molecular propeller 1043:Molecular modelling 608:Part of a series on 570:proton-motive force 468:lipopolysaccharides 382:Archaeal flagella ( 252:Helicobacter pylori 8509:Periplast/pellicle 8232:Periplast/pellicle 8172:Cruciform division 6595:Weibel–Palade body 6479:Structures of the 5961:10.1042/BST0390064 5740:Sleigh, M (1989). 5659:lee tubular hairs. 5608:Dodge, JD (1973). 5297:10.1242/jcs.051326 5202:10.1007/bf01320809 4178:10.1038/msb4100166 2739:"Taxis in archaea" 2618:on 7 February 2009 2096:, the gametes (or 1854:except cycads and 1811:(zoospores), some 1742:, or the ciliated 1668: 1590:Internal structure 1563: 1555: 1541: 1530: 1309:Intelligent design 1238:biased random walk 1063:Molecular tweezers 882:protist biohybrids 721:(electric current) 672:Protist locomotion 645:Bacterial motility 562: 417:Bacterial flagella 377:bacterial motility 351: 118:H1.00.01.1.01032 8895:Protein complexes 8863:Missing or empty 8856:cite encyclopedia 8842:Chambers, Ephraim 8827: 8826: 8724:Microbial ecology 8710: 8709: 8706: 8705: 8683:Eyespot apparatus 8313: 8312: 8295:Choanoflagellates 8279: 8278: 8240: 8239: 8180: 8179: 8147: 8146: 8013: 8012: 7935: 7934: 7870: 7869: 7633: 7632: 7473: 7472: 7460:Siphonostomatoida 7455:Poecilostomatoida 7407:Crustacean larvae 7311:Choanoflagellates 7292: 7291: 7282:Bacillariophyceae 7277:Fragilariophyceae 7196:Emiliania huxleyi 7041:Nanophytoplankton 6961:Milky seas effect 6875: 6874: 6655:Spindle pole body 6431:. talkdesign.org. 6103:10.1111/mmi.14781 5475:"Spores of Fungi" 5416:10.1111/tpj.12145 5403:The Plant Journal 5368:(10): 2528–2536. 5236:978-1-4822-6822-5 4711:10.1159/000077866 4660:(16): 5024–5026. 4611:(13): 3693–3704. 4340:978-3-8055-8340-4 4331:10.1159/000107602 4221:(21): 7700–7706. 4146:978-0-7432-9620-5 3913:(11): 1105–1115. 3741:978-0-674-03116-6 3704:: news.2008.903. 3630:978-0-12-364637-8 3560:(6356): 182–184. 3390:(5874): 382–385. 3281:978-1-904455-48-6 3235:(11): 1203–1212. 3198:10.1159/000094053 3071:(5425): 380–382. 3028:(6105): 637–640. 2649:(11): 2034–2042. 2518:978-1-904455-48-6 2473:10.1104/pp.010807 2350:Additional images 2219:Archaeal flagella 2208:Bacillariophyceae 2024:, the gametes of 1680:respiratory tract 1447:periplasmic space 1356:bacteria such as 1341:, from the Greek 1223: 1222: 1150:Molecular machine 1058:molecular shuttle 951:Biological motors 929:Swarming motility 902:Collective motion 269:swarming bacteria 151: 150: 146: 32:Antenna (biology) 16:(Redirected from 8907: 8872: 8866: 8861: 8859: 8851: 8834: 8833: 8698:Mastigont system 8651: 8576: 8553: 8542:Gliding motility 8520: 8457: 8402:/plektenchymatic 8358:Amoeboflagellate 8331: 8322: 8298: 8290: 8259: 8251: 8225: 8199: 8191: 8165: 8158: 8122: 8086: 8055: 8029: 8024: 7993: 7972: 7951: 7946: 7915: 7889: 7881: 7850: 7824: 7788: 7781: 7772: 7660: 7653: 7646: 7637: 7387:Hunting copepods 7360: 7185:Chaetocerotaceae 7154: 7071:Bacterioplankton 7008: 6902: 6895: 6888: 6879: 6473: 6466: 6459: 6450: 6432: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6413: 6407:. Archived from 6406: 6372: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6341: 6331: 6329:10.1063/1.882934 6288: 6287: 6249: 6240: 6239: 6229: 6189: 6183: 6182: 6172: 6154: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6105: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6064: 6046: 6022: 6016: 6015: 5979: 5973: 5972: 5944: 5935: 5934: 5928: 5920: 5902: 5896: 5895: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5836: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5720: 5696: 5687: 5686: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5642: 5635:Lee, RE (2008). 5632: 5626: 5625: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5551: 5542: 5541: 5531: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5470: 5461: 5460: 5447:, pp. 27–48 5435: 5429: 5428: 5418: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5377: 5353: 5347: 5346: 5326: 5317: 5316: 5291:(Pt 4): 519–28. 5280: 5271: 5270: 5250: 5241: 5240: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5167: 5134: 5123: 5122: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5077: 5068:(6): 1707–1714. 5053: 5047: 5046: 5036: 5026: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4977: 4967: 4949: 4947:cond-mat/0312562 4925: 4919: 4918: 4908: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4859: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4810: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4761: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4677: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4628: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4571: 4562:(6): 1415–1434. 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4509: 4499: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4454:"tricho- prefix" 4450: 4444: 4443: 4433: 4423: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4374: 4367: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4297: 4287: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4238: 4206: 4200: 4199: 4189: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4021: 4012: 4011: 3975: 3966: 3965: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3919:10.1039/b808065h 3902: 3896: 3895: 3885: 3875: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3834: 3824: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3782: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3574:10.1038/355182a0 3549: 3543: 3542: 3532: 3514: 3505:(5): 1271–1281. 3490: 3481: 3480: 3454: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3338:(1–3): 105–109. 3327: 3321: 3320: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3192:(3–5): 167–191. 3181: 3175: 3174: 3146: 3140: 3139: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3085:10.1038/245380a0 3060: 3054: 3053: 3042:10.1038/325637a0 3017: 3011: 3010: 2991:10.1038/249073a0 2966: 2960: 2959: 2953: 2945: 2927: 2918: 2917: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2872: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2815: 2798:(3): 125s–130s. 2783: 2777: 2776: 2766: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2717: 2707: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2666: 2643:The EMBO Journal 2634: 2628: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2617: 2611:. Archived from 2602: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2561: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2504: 2495: 2494: 2484: 2467:(4): 1500–1507. 2461:Plant Physiology 2452: 2446: 2445: 2435: 2411: 2375: 2360: 2204:Zygnematophyceae 2084:Hemimastigophora 2050:Collodictyonidae 1848:Zygnematophyceae 1815:(gametes), some 1795:(male gametes), 1773:(male gametes), 1325:the motility of 1246:counterclockwise 1242:runs and tumbles 1215: 1208: 1201: 1188: 1183: 1182: 1053:molecular sensor 1030:Synthetic motors 942:Molecular motors 733:(magnetic field) 622: 605: 492:Escherichia coli 474:associates with 408:rather than the 195: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 168: 165: 143:edit on Wikidata 75: 59: 47: 21: 8915: 8914: 8910: 8909: 8908: 8906: 8905: 8904: 8875: 8874: 8862: 8852: 8840: 8831: 8828: 8823: 8716: 8702: 8649: 8644: 8574: 8569: 8551: 8546: 8518: 8513: 8454: 8451: 8446: 8328: 8325: 8309: 8293: 8275: 8254: 8236: 8220: 8215: 8194: 8176: 8161: 8143: 8117: 8112: 8081: 8076: 8052:Dinoflagellates 8050: 8045: 8027: 8009: 7988: 7983: 7967: 7962: 7949: 7931: 7910: 7905: 7884: 7866: 7845: 7840: 7819: 7814: 7784: 7763: 7684:classifications 7683: 7677: 7664: 7634: 7629: 7560:Marine mucilage 7515:Biological pump 7469: 7421: 7392:Ichthyoplankton 7349: 7316:Dinoflagellates 7288: 7247: 7218:Nannochloropsis 7202:Eustigmatophyte 7190:Coccolithophore 7143: 7065: 7009: 7000: 6931:CLAW hypothesis 6911: 6906: 6876: 6871: 6850: 6785: 6710: 6601: 6518:Golgi apparatus 6494: 6487: 6477: 6440: 6435: 6426: 6417: 6415: 6411: 6395:10.1119/1.10903 6370: 6365: 6356: 6354: 6344: 6301: 6297: 6295:Further reading 6292: 6291: 6276:10.2307/3761366 6251: 6250: 6243: 6191: 6190: 6186: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6083: 6082: 6078: 6024: 6023: 6019: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5946: 5945: 5938: 5921: 5917: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5849: 5848: 5844: 5834: 5832: 5831:on 3 March 2016 5814: 5813: 5809: 5787: 5786: 5782: 5766: 5765: 5761: 5754: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5698: 5697: 5690: 5683: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5655: 5634: 5633: 5629: 5622: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5568: 5553: 5552: 5545: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5472: 5471: 5464: 5457: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5396: 5395: 5391: 5355: 5354: 5350: 5343: 5328: 5327: 5320: 5282: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5252: 5251: 5244: 5237: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5136: 5135: 5126: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5055: 5054: 5050: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4829: 4828: 4824: 4780: 4779: 4775: 4739: 4738: 4734: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4647: 4646: 4642: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4341: 4319:Genome Dynamics 4316: 4315: 4311: 4270:(5): e0176290. 4257: 4256: 4252: 4208: 4207: 4203: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4134: 4133: 4129: 4100:New Phytologist 4093: 4092: 4088: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4023: 4022: 4015: 3986:(10): 784–790. 3977: 3976: 3969: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3853: 3852: 3848: 3815:(5): e1001061. 3802: 3801: 3797: 3784: 3771:10.2307/1376265 3754: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3714: 3712: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3641: 3631: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3492: 3491: 3484: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3019: 3018: 3014: 2977:(5452): 73–74. 2968: 2967: 2963: 2946: 2942: 2929: 2928: 2921: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2736: 2735: 2731: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2621: 2619: 2616:(abstract page) 2615: 2580: 2579: 2575: 2538:Biology Letters 2531: 2530: 2526: 2519: 2506: 2505: 2498: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2386: 2379: 2376: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2314: 2221: 1937:), divided in: 1911:), divided in: 1892: 1717: 1711: 1696: 1660: 1644: 1628:plasma membrane 1592: 1568: 1522: 1496: 1431:, unlike usual 1410:polar organelle 1364:polar flagellum 1359:Vibrio cholerae 1335: 1315: 1307:Main articles: 1305: 1285: 1279: 1266: 1227:Reynolds number 1219: 1178: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1155:Nanoengineering 1130: 1115: 1103: 1090: 1077: 1069: 1068: 1067: 1032: 1022: 1021: 1020: 994: 952: 935: 934: 933: 903: 895: 894: 893: 870: 860: 852: 851: 850: 834:Janus particles 798: 790: 789: 788: 766: 756: 755: 754: 695: 685: 684: 683: 667: 647: 639: 553: 547: 520:secretory pores 480:plasma membrane 456:plasma membrane 424: 419: 336: 162: 158: 147: 90: 66: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8913: 8911: 8903: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8877: 8876: 8844:, ed. (1728). 8825: 8824: 8822: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8810: 8809: 8808: 8807: 8802: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8772: 8771: 8770: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8752: 8738: 8737: 8736: 8731: 8720: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8708: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8701: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8654: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8643: 8642: 8641: 8640: 8637: 8634: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8618: 8615: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8585: 8579: 8577: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8567: 8562: 8556: 8554: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8523: 8521: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8460: 8458: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8444: 8431: 8430: 8429: 8428: 8427: 8426:Siphonocladous 8424: 8416: 8409:Multinucleated 8406: 8403: 8397: 8395:Parenchymatous 8392: 8386: 8385: 8384: 8379: 8376: 8373: 8362: 8361: 8360: 8355: 8350: 8345: 8334: 8332: 8319: 8315: 8314: 8311: 8310: 8308: 8307: 8301: 8299: 8287: 8281: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8274: 8273: 8268: 8262: 8260: 8248: 8242: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8235: 8234: 8228: 8226: 8217: 8216: 8214: 8213: 8208: 8202: 8200: 8196:Kinetoplastids 8188: 8182: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8175: 8174: 8168: 8166: 8155: 8149: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8142: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8125: 8123: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8089: 8087: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8058: 8056: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8043: 8038: 8032: 8030: 8021: 8015: 8014: 8011: 8010: 8008: 8007: 8002: 7996: 7994: 7985: 7984: 7982: 7981: 7975: 7973: 7964: 7963: 7961: 7960: 7954: 7952: 7943: 7937: 7936: 7933: 7932: 7930: 7929: 7924: 7918: 7916: 7907: 7906: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7892: 7890: 7878: 7872: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7862:Phycobilisomes 7859: 7857:Pit connection 7853: 7851: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7836:Phycobilisomes 7833: 7827: 7825: 7816: 7815: 7813: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7791: 7789: 7786:Chloroplastida 7778: 7776:Archaeplastida 7769: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7730: 7729: 7724: 7715: 7714: 7713: 7708: 7698: 7687: 7685: 7679: 7678: 7665: 7663: 7662: 7655: 7648: 7640: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7585:Pseudoplankton 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7481: 7479: 7478:Related topics 7475: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7431: 7429: 7427:Copepod orders 7423: 7422: 7420: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7335: 7330: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7302: 7300: 7294: 7293: 7290: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7263: 7257: 7255: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7238: 7233: 7231:Prasinophyceae 7228: 7221: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7175: 7168: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7117: 7110: 7107:Flavobacterium 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7075: 7073: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7010: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6922: 6920: 6913: 6912: 6907: 6905: 6904: 6897: 6890: 6882: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6864: 6858: 6856: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6799: 6793: 6791: 6790:Other internal 6787: 6786: 6784: 6783: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6726: 6720: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6708: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6664: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6611: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6499: 6497: 6489: 6488: 6478: 6476: 6475: 6468: 6461: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6439: 6438:External links 6436: 6434: 6433: 6424: 6414:on 5 June 2011 6363: 6353:on 16 May 2008 6342: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6270:(2): 219–227. 6241: 6184: 6125: 6096:(3): 943–956. 6076: 6017: 5990:(2): 147–174. 5974: 5936: 5915: 5897: 5842: 5807: 5780: 5759: 5752: 5732: 5711:(6): 842–860. 5688: 5681: 5663: 5653: 5627: 5620: 5600: 5593: 5573: 5566: 5543: 5494: 5487: 5462: 5455: 5430: 5409:(2): 230–244. 5389: 5348: 5341: 5318: 5272: 5265: 5242: 5235: 5215: 5179: 5150:(5): 429–514. 5124: 5105:(3): 253–257. 5089: 5048: 4989: 4920: 4891:(2): 542–555. 4871: 4842:(3): 852–862. 4822: 4793:(1): 210–218. 4773: 4752:(2): 127–135. 4732: 4705:(1–2): 18–29. 4689: 4640: 4591: 4542: 4521: 4466: 4445: 4386: 4354: 4339: 4309: 4250: 4201: 4152: 4145: 4127: 4086: 4051: 4032:(3): 113–115. 4013: 3967: 3932: 3897: 3846: 3795: 3765:(4): 481–495. 3747: 3740: 3722: 3688: 3669: 3650: 3629: 3595: 3544: 3482: 3445:(1): 669–698. 3425: 3373: 3322: 3287: 3280: 3262: 3219: 3176: 3141: 3106: 3055: 3012: 2961: 2940: 2919: 2884: 2847:(6): 829–838. 2827: 2778: 2749:(4): 535–546. 2729: 2678: 2629: 2573: 2544:(2): 246–249. 2524: 2517: 2496: 2447: 2426:(2): 295–304. 2405: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2398: 2397: 2392: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2377: 2370: 2368: 2362: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2313: 2310: 2304:, rather than 2294: 2293: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2234:type IV pilins 2220: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2200: 2186: 2176: 2174:Prasinophyceae 2170:Euglenophyceae 2166: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2117: 2116: 2062: 2060:Prasinophyceae 2052: 2046:Prasinophyceae 2042: 2036: 2022:Dinoflagellata 2018: 2008: 2007: 1997: 1991:kinetoplastids 1987: 1981: 1979:Prasinophyceae 1975: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1946:Prasinophyceae 1931: 1920:Dinoflagellata 1916:Euglenophyceae 1902: 1891: 1888: 1821:foraminiferans 1710: 1707: 1695: 1692: 1659: 1656: 1643: 1640: 1591: 1588: 1580:Cavalier-Smith 1567: 1564: 1521: 1518: 1495: 1492: 1480:) and related 1424: 1423: 1413: 1385: 1367: 1362:have a single 1334: 1331: 1304: 1301: 1281:Main article: 1278: 1275: 1265: 1262: 1221: 1220: 1218: 1217: 1210: 1203: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1137: 1131: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1104: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1085: 1083:Brownian motor 1079: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1006: 999:Motor proteins 995: 993: 992: 991: 990: 985: 983:intraflagellar 980: 975: 970: 965: 954: 953: 950: 949: 946: 945: 937: 936: 932: 931: 926: 924:Quorum sensing 921: 916: 911: 905: 904: 901: 900: 897: 896: 892: 891: 890: 889: 884: 879: 871: 869: 868: 862: 861: 858: 857: 854: 853: 849: 848: 846:Swarm robotics 843: 842: 841: 836: 831: 821: 816: 811: 806: 800: 799: 796: 795: 792: 791: 787: 786: 785: 784: 779: 768: 767: 762: 761: 758: 757: 753: 752: 746: 740: 734: 728: 722: 716: 710: 704: 697: 696: 691: 690: 687: 686: 682: 681: 680: 679: 668: 666: 665: 664: 663: 658: 653: 651:run-and-tumble 641: 640: 637: 636: 633: 632: 624: 623: 615: 614: 610: 609: 586:rather than a 546: 543: 423: 420: 418: 415: 414: 413: 391: 380: 335: 332: 265:stomach cancer 229:microorganisms 149: 148: 139: 133: 132: 127: 121: 120: 115: 109: 108: 103: 97: 96: 92: 91: 76: 68: 67: 60: 52: 51: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8912: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8885:Cell movement 8883: 8882: 8880: 8873: 8870: 8857: 8849: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8837:public domain 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8797: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8777: 8776: 8773: 8769: 8766: 8765: 8764: 8760: 8756: 8755:Fertilization 8753: 8751: 8748: 8747: 8746: 8742: 8739: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8726: 8725: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8713: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8655: 8653: 8647: 8638: 8635: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8627: 8623:Pleuromitosis 8622: 8619: 8616: 8613: 8612: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8594: 8591: 8590: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8580: 8578: 8572: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8560:Hydrogenosome 8558: 8557: 8555: 8549: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8516: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8449: 8442: 8438: 8435: 8434:Multicellular 8432: 8425: 8422: 8421: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8411: 8410: 8407: 8404: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8380: 8377: 8374: 8371: 8370: 8369: 8366: 8363: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8340: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8323: 8320: 8316: 8306: 8303: 8302: 8300: 8296: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8282: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8263: 8261: 8257: 8256:Dictyostelids 8252: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8233: 8230: 8229: 8227: 8223: 8218: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8197: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8183: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8150: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8120: 8119:Apicomplexans 8115: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8090: 8088: 8084: 8079: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8059: 8057: 8053: 8048: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8016: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7991: 7986: 7980: 7977: 7976: 7974: 7970: 7965: 7959: 7956: 7955: 7953: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7941:Stramenopiles 7938: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7913: 7908: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7891: 7887: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7873: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7822: 7817: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7773: 7770: 7766: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7719: 7716: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7703: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7693: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7661: 7656: 7654: 7649: 7647: 7642: 7641: 7638: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7595:Tychoplankton 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7565:Microbial mat 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7476: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7450:Monstrilloida 7448: 7446: 7445:Harpacticoida 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7424: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7402:Marine larvae 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7328: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7299: 7295: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7254: 7253:Diatom orders 7250: 7244: 7243: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7222: 7220: 7219: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7180: 7176: 7174: 7173: 7172:Bacteriastrum 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7149:Phytoplankton 7146: 7140: 7139: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7122: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7111: 7109: 7108: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7086:Cyanobacteria 7084: 7082: 7081: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7056:Picoeukaryote 7054: 7052: 7051:Picobiliphyte 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7007: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6914: 6910: 6903: 6898: 6896: 6891: 6889: 6884: 6883: 6880: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6826: 6825: 6822: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6788: 6782: 6779: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6764:Proteinoplast 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6724:Mitochondrion 6722: 6721: 6719: 6717: 6716:Endosymbionts 6713: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6699:Lamellipodium 6697: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6637: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6615:Microfilament 6613: 6612: 6610: 6608: 6604: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6572: 6571: 6568: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6535: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6528:Autophagosome 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6503:Cell membrane 6501: 6500: 6498: 6496: 6493:Endomembrane 6490: 6486: 6482: 6474: 6469: 6467: 6462: 6460: 6455: 6454: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6437: 6430: 6425: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6369: 6364: 6352: 6348: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6308:Physics Today 6305: 6300: 6299: 6294: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6198:FEMS Microbes 6195: 6188: 6185: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6126: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6080: 6077: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6021: 6018: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5978: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5932: 5926: 5918: 5916:9781292235103 5912: 5908: 5901: 5898: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5843: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5811: 5808: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5781: 5776: 5772: 5771: 5763: 5760: 5755: 5753:9780521428057 5749: 5745: 5744: 5736: 5733: 5728: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5684: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5654:9781139469876 5650: 5646: 5641: 5640: 5631: 5628: 5623: 5621:9780323158237 5617: 5613: 5612: 5604: 5601: 5596: 5594:9781444314205 5590: 5586: 5585: 5577: 5574: 5569: 5567:9780521479967 5563: 5559: 5558: 5550: 5548: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5498: 5495: 5490: 5488:9781139461504 5484: 5480: 5476: 5469: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5456:9781482268225 5452: 5449:. CRC Press. 5448: 5446: 5441: 5434: 5431: 5426: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5390: 5385: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5352: 5349: 5344: 5342:0-7167-3136-3 5338: 5334: 5333: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5266:9780203492598 5262: 5258: 5257: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5238: 5232: 5228: 5227: 5219: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5183: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5093: 5090: 5085: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5049: 5044: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4924: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4872: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4826: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4543: 4531: 4525: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4479: 4470: 4467: 4455: 4449: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4390: 4387: 4371: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4205: 4202: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4156: 4153: 4148: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4052: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3948:(1): 42–IN9. 3947: 3943: 3936: 3933: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3850: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3759: 3751: 3748: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3726: 3723: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3692: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3651: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3303:(1): 77–100. 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3145: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3013: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2962: 2957: 2951: 2943: 2941:9780815344643 2937: 2933: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2733: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2630: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2514: 2510: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2451: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2410: 2407: 2400: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2383: 2374: 2369: 2366: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2245: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2180:Xanthophyceae 2177: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2159: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2110:pteridophytes 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2076: 2075:Stephanopogon 2071: 2067: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1942:Cryptophyceae 1939: 1938: 1936: 1935:sensu stricto 1932: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1895: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1868:apicomplexans 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1831:(zoospores), 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1813:apicomplexans 1810: 1807:(zoospores), 1806: 1805:hyphochytrids 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775:pteridophytes 1772: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1716: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1664: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1652:radial spokes 1649: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1559: 1552: 1551: 1545: 1539: 1534: 1526: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1479: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1421: 1417: 1414: 1411: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1388:Lophotrichous 1386: 1383: 1382: 1377: 1376: 1371: 1370:Amphitrichous 1368: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1352: 1351: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1314: 1310: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1258:thruster mode 1255: 1254:traction mode 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1228: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1197: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1187: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1073: 1072: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1025: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 1000: 997: 996: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 960: 959: 956: 955: 948: 947: 944: 943: 939: 938: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 909:Active matter 907: 906: 899: 898: 888: 887:robotic sperm 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 874: 873: 872: 867: 864: 863: 856: 855: 847: 844: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 826: 825: 824:Microparticle 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 801: 794: 793: 783: 780: 778: 775: 774: 773: 770: 769: 765: 760: 759: 751:(temperature) 750: 747: 744: 741: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 723: 720: 717: 714: 711: 708: 705: 702: 699: 698: 694: 689: 688: 678: 675: 674: 673: 670: 669: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 648: 646: 643: 642: 635: 634: 631: 630: 629:Microswimmers 626: 625: 621: 617: 616: 611: 607: 606: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 580: 575: 571: 567: 557: 552: 544: 542: 540: 536: 532: 527: 525: 521: 516: 514: 513: 508: 507: 502: 501: 497: 493: 487: 485: 481: 477: 476:peptidoglycan 473: 469: 465: 461: 460:Gram-negative 457: 453: 452:peptidoglycan 449: 448:Gram-positive 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 421: 416: 411: 407: 404: 400: 399:Primary cilia 396: 392: 389: 385: 381: 378: 374: 370: 369: 368: 365: 363: 359: 354: 348: 344: 340: 333: 331: 329: 325: 322: 318: 313: 311: 307: 303: 302: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 280:three domains 276: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 257:mucous lining 254: 253: 249: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 189: 156: 144: 138: 134: 131: 128: 126: 122: 119: 116: 114: 110: 107: 104: 102: 98: 93: 88: 87: 86:Chlamydomonas 83: 79: 74: 69: 64: 61:Structure of 58: 53: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Lophotrichous 8865:|title= 8845: 8829: 8775:Heterotrophy 8745:Reproduction 8620:Orthomitosis 8605:Heterokaryon 8552:Mitochondria 8526: 8453:Cell surface 8329:organization 8285:Opisthokonta 8108:Micronucleus 8103:Macronucleus 8005:Pneumatocyst 7821:Glaucophytes 7805:Phragmoplast 7744:Thallophytes 7671:Protistology 7667:Microbiology 7590:Stromatolite 7485:Aeroplankton 7412:Salmon louse 7367:Chaetognatha 7339:Symbiodinium 7337: 7325: 7320: 7240: 7236:Raphidophyte 7223: 7216: 7212:Stramenopile 7194: 7177: 7170: 7136: 7119: 7112: 7105: 7078: 7061:Picoplankton 6986:Spring bloom 6956:Mycoplankton 6951:Meroplankton 6941:Holoplankton 6744:Gerontoplast 6694:Pseudopodium 6687:Radial spoke 6667:Undulipodium 6607:Cytoskeleton 6523:Parenthesome 6416:. Retrieved 6409:the original 6378: 6374: 6355:. Retrieved 6351:the original 6314:(1): 24–29. 6311: 6307: 6267: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6201: 6197: 6187: 6142: 6138: 6128: 6093: 6089: 6079: 6034: 6030: 6020: 5987: 5983: 5977: 5955:(1): 64–69. 5952: 5948: 5906: 5900: 5862:(1): 17–54. 5859: 5855: 5845: 5833:. Retrieved 5829:the original 5824: 5820: 5810: 5796:(2): 55–80. 5793: 5789: 5783: 5769: 5762: 5742: 5735: 5708: 5704: 5672: 5666: 5658: 5638: 5630: 5610: 5603: 5583: 5576: 5556: 5511: 5507: 5497: 5478: 5443: 5433: 5406: 5402: 5392: 5365: 5361: 5351: 5331: 5288: 5284: 5255: 5225: 5218: 5196:(1–3): 1–8. 5193: 5189: 5182: 5147: 5143: 5102: 5098: 5092: 5065: 5061: 5051: 5009:(1): 221–5. 5006: 5002: 4992: 4937: 4933: 4923: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4839: 4835: 4825: 4790: 4786: 4776: 4749: 4745: 4735: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4657: 4653: 4643: 4608: 4604: 4594: 4559: 4555: 4545: 4533:. Retrieved 4524: 4487: 4483: 4477: 4469: 4457:. Retrieved 4448: 4403: 4399: 4389: 4377:. Retrieved 4357: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4218: 4214: 4204: 4169: 4165: 4155: 4136: 4130: 4106:(1): 33–47. 4103: 4099: 4089: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4029: 4025: 3983: 3979: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3863: 3859: 3849: 3812: 3809:PLOS Biology 3808: 3798: 3790: 3786: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3731: 3725: 3713:. Retrieved 3701: 3691: 3682: 3672: 3663: 3653: 3642:, retrieved 3612: 3608: 3598: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3502: 3498: 3442: 3438: 3428: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3335: 3332:FEBS Letters 3331: 3325: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3271: 3265: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3189: 3185: 3179: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3122:(1): 21–58. 3119: 3115: 3109: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3025: 3021: 3015: 2974: 2970: 2964: 2931: 2897: 2893: 2887: 2844: 2840: 2830: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2746: 2742: 2732: 2695: 2691: 2681: 2646: 2642: 2632: 2620:. Retrieved 2613:the original 2590: 2586: 2576: 2541: 2537: 2527: 2508: 2464: 2460: 2450: 2423: 2420:Microbiology 2419: 2409: 2364: 2329: 2315: 2295: 2286:type IV pili 2259:– a flow of 2251:– a flow of 2242: 2222: 2212:Rhodophyceae 2198:Oedogoniales 2194:Bryopsidales 2190:Oedogoniales 2157: 2143: 2129:Haptophyceae 2125:Opisthokonta 2118: 2102:Oedogoniales 2091: 2088:Caryoblastea 2080:Parabasalida 2073: 2040:Foraminifera 2032:and of some 2026:Charophyceae 2016:Opisthokonta 2009: 1995:parabasalids 1934: 1924:Haptophyceae 1908: 1906:mastigonemes 1900:Opisthokonta 1893: 1855: 1841: 1829:myxogastrids 1817:radiolarians 1786: 1764: 1733: 1718: 1697: 1684: 1669: 1645: 1636: 1607: 1603: 1600:microtubules 1593: 1569: 1548: 1515: 1508: 1500: 1497: 1485: 1475: 1471: 1469: 1458: 1456: 1443:endoflagella 1437: 1425: 1419: 1416:Peritrichous 1415: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1379: 1373: 1369: 1363: 1357: 1354:Monotrichous 1353: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1336: 1326: 1322: 1316: 1297:phylogenetic 1286: 1270: 1267: 1257: 1253: 1235: 1231: 1224: 1108:Cytoskeleton 978:motor switch 957: 940: 829:Nanoparticle 809:Nanorobotics 782:photokinesis 777:chemokinesis 745:(fluid flow) 731:Magnetotaxis 719:Electrotaxis 627: 577: 563: 528: 517: 510: 504: 490: 488: 430:subunits of 425: 395:motile cilia 373:rotary motor 366: 362:microtubules 355: 352: 347:rotary motor 314: 277: 250: 245: 197: 154: 152: 89:sp. (10000×) 84: 44: 8805:Necrotrophy 8790:Saprotrophy 8780:Phagotrophy 8768:Phototrophy 8761:Nutrition: 8750:Life cycles 8741:Development 8715:Ecology and 8583:Nucleomorph 8537:Pseudopodia 8338:Unicellular 8222:Euglenoidea 8206:Kinetoplast 7990:Brown algae 7958:Mastigoneme 7896:Mastigoneme 7886:Cryptophyta 7796:green algae 7754:Slime molds 7555:Manta trawl 7540:Heterotroph 7490:Algaculture 7355:Zooplankton 7298:Flagellates 7179:Chaetoceros 7132:SAR11 clade 6991:Thin layers 6976:Planktology 6971:Planktivore 6926:Algal bloom 6846:Magnetosome 6812:Spliceosome 6739:Chromoplast 6734:Chloroplast 6625:Microtubule 6404:2433/226838 6381:(1): 3–11. 6204:: xtab002. 5835:21 February 5190:Protoplasma 4379:29 December 4067:: 151–163. 3702:Nature News 2344:plasmalemma 2184:Heterokonta 2164:Chlorophyta 2114:gymnosperms 2106:Chlorophyta 2056:Diplomonada 2001:apusomonads 1985:brown algae 1956:Heterokonta 1950:Heterokonta 1948:, and some 1872:amoebozoans 1860:angiosperms 1852:gymnosperms 1823:(gametes), 1797:brown algae 1779:gymnosperms 1767:green algae 1736:choanocytes 1676:spermatozoa 1612:9+2 axoneme 1572:undulipodia 1566:Terminology 1460:Selenomonas 1439:Spirochetes 1165:Virophysics 1113:prokaryotic 1094:Endocytosis 819:DNA machine 804:Microbotics 749:Thermotaxis 715:(chemicals) 588:proton pump 566:Mot complex 531:injectisome 410:9+2 axoneme 406:9+0 axoneme 343:Prokaryotic 321:Prokaryotic 278:Across the 241:flagellates 231:to provide 214:sperm cells 212:and animal 95:Identifiers 8890:Organelles 8879:Categories 8819:Auxotrophy 8814:Mixotrophy 8795:Parasitism 8785:Osmotrophy 8763:Autotrophy 8717:physiology 8593:Plasmodium 8519:Locomotion 8455:structures 8419:Coenocytic 8163:Phytomyxea 8134:Apicoplast 8062:Dinokaryon 8041:Trichocyst 7912:Haptophyte 7800:Phycoplast 7768:Morphology 7739:Cryptogams 7550:Macroalgae 7510:Autotrophs 7440:Cyclopoida 7377:Ctenophora 7306:Brevetoxin 7096:Cyanotoxin 7091:Cyanobiont 6841:Proteasome 6834:Inclusions 6781:Nitroplast 6774:Apicoplast 6759:Elaioplast 6754:Amyloplast 6749:Leucoplast 6704:Filopodium 6650:Basal body 6640:Centrosome 6590:Peroxisome 6585:Glyoxysome 6575:Melanosome 6485:organelles 6418:19 October 5821:Cell Motil 5682:1891276239 4172:(1): 128. 3157:: 249–73. 2900:(1): 1–8. 2401:References 2390:Ciliopathy 2340:kinetosome 2225:archaellum 2093:Multicilia 2070:Ciliophora 2030:bryophytes 2028:, of most 1928:Pavlovales 1909:sensu lato 1862:, pennate 1771:bryophytes 1760:Flagellata 1624:centrioles 1616:basal body 1511:chemotaxis 1390:bacteria ( 1119:eukaryotic 963:archaellum 859:Biohybrids 814:Nanomotors 737:Phototaxis 725:Gravitaxis 713:Chemotaxis 707:Anemotaxis 444:basal body 388:homologous 310:archaellum 267:. In some 8800:Biotrophy 8673:Extrusome 8663:Cytostome 8527:Flagellum 8484:Cell wall 8443:/histonal 8423:Siphonous 8414:Syncytial 8382:Coenobial 8378:Sarcinoid 8327:Levels of 8266:Macrocyst 8246:Amoebozoa 8211:Glycosome 8139:Microneme 8019:Alveolata 7927:Haptonema 7922:Coccolith 7901:Periplast 7847:Red algae 7831:Cyanelles 7718:Infusoria 7495:Algal mat 7435:Calanoida 7417:Sea louse 7397:Jellyfish 7372:Ciguatera 7333:Saxitoxin 7321:Flagellum 7270:Classes: 7261:Centrales 7161:Auxospore 6862:Cell wall 6824:Cytoplasm 6797:Nucleolus 6769:Tannosome 6677:Flagellum 6662:Myofibril 6645:Centriole 6580:Microbody 6553:Phagosome 6338:178516210 6263:Mycologia 6218:2633-6685 6161:1664-302X 6112:0950-382X 6053:1664-302X 5925:cite book 5639:Phycology 4325:: 30–47. 3521:2058-5276 3477:261963968 3461:0066-4227 2950:cite book 2861:0071-1365 2336:centriole 2316:The only 2112:and some 2066:Opalinata 2034:metazoans 1878:, and in 1876:metazoans 1844:red algae 1833:metazoans 1801:oomycetes 1750:), as in 1748:metazoans 1744:epithelia 1729:zoospores 1642:Mechanism 1632:cytoplasm 1602:known as 1487:Aeromonas 1277:Evolution 1250:clockwise 988:evolution 958:Flagellum 743:Rheotaxis 727:(gravity) 701:Aerotaxis 677:amoeboids 656:twitching 484:cytoplasm 436:nanometer 432:flagellin 384:archaella 301:flagellum 292:Eukaryota 273:organelle 225:zoospores 206:appendage 155:flagellum 82:eukaryote 65:flagellum 63:bacterial 50:Flagellum 36:Solifugae 8900:Bacteria 8693:Axostyle 8688:Pyrenoid 8668:Fimbriae 8600:Dikaryon 8565:Mitosome 8494:Skeleton 8479:Frustule 8469:Mucilage 8441:tissular 8365:Colonial 8348:Amoeboid 8343:Monadoid 8271:Sorocarp 8186:Excavate 8153:Rhizaria 8083:Ciliates 8067:Dinocyst 8028:General: 7979:Frustule 7950:General: 7876:Hacrobia 7727:Sporozoa 7722:Ciliates 7711:Heliozoa 7691:Protozoa 7675:Protists 7266:Pennales 7225:Navicula 7207:Frustule 6981:Red tide 6918:plankton 6909:Plankton 6855:External 6807:Ribosome 6563:Acrosome 6548:Endosome 6543:Lysosome 6258:sp. nov. 6256:gen. et 6236:37334237 6227:10117864 6179:35387068 6120:34219289 6071:25999922 6012:34411164 6004:11250034 5969:21265748 5892:38405158 5727:24239731 5538:21429931 5425:23398214 5384:15466257 5313:18673550 5305:20145000 5210:40755371 5174:23020233 5119:23195228 5084:14657097 4984:14671319 4915:16385045 4866:16428388 4768:16978346 4727:21963003 4719:15170400 4635:10850984 4586:19650892 4578:19210619 4535:26 March 4516:31119103 4459:26 March 4440:23184985 4370:Archived 4349:18753783 4304:28489862 4264:PLOS ONE 4245:16936039 4196:17667950 4122:18078471 4081:12909351 4046:15001186 4008:24057949 4000:16953248 3962:14222895 3927:18931786 3892:37928189 3883:10621068 3841:21572986 3644:23 April 3639:15037363 3539:38632342 3530:11087270 3469:37713458 3412:18420936 3368:33886010 3360:15196929 3317:12730325 3249:15627373 3214:30386932 3206:16983194 3171:14527279 3007:10370084 2914:18786541 2879:30464007 2773:33525831 2724:25699024 2673:15889148 2609:11584108 2568:17148374 2491:11743094 2442:12624192 2384:See also 2326:chytrids 2324:are the 2306:homology 2108:), some 2005:bodonids 1972:bodonids 1890:Typology 1884:chytrids 1882:(except 1752:ciliates 1610:). 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