20:
206:
Protestant class who possessed the means to leave the city for safety. Left behind were
African American residents and a large circle of Irish Catholics who lacked the wealth to uproot from their homes located in the poorest sectors of town. The departure of white Protestants not only fueled the animosity that existed between the Catholics of the city and themselves, but also left Memphis ill-equipped in the manpower needed to sustain fever relief efforts. Consequently, the integral role Catholic clergy came to play in aiding fever victims was largely a product of the gap left by white Protestant flight.
226:. Sometimes known as "Yellow Jack", and "Bronze John", devastated Mississippi socially and economically. Entire families were killed, while others fled their homes for the presumed safety of other parts of the state. Quarantine regulations, passed to prevent the spread of the disease, brought trade to a stop. Some local economies never recovered. Beechland, near Vicksburg, became a ghost town because of the epidemic. By the end of the year, 3,227 people had died from the disease.
210:
insufficiently aided otherwise. Despite their extensive service during the epidemic years in
Memphis, the involvement of Catholic clergy in fever relief efforts has largely gone undocumented. No explanation for their absence from fever records is confirmed. However, the death the Catholic community experienced was a blow from which their population would never recover, effecting a change in the character of Memphis felt deeply in the years after the fever had run its course.
194:
reducing spread. Beyond the quarantine, other common precautions included avoiding coming in contact with the "excreta" or bodily fluids of fever victims due to the misconception that the virus could be transferred through these liquids. While the impact of the mosquito remained unnoticed, ill-prepared citizens continued to operate unprotected under these poor defenses, adding to the ever-growing number of fever victims.
214:
persons remaining in the city, an estimated 17,000 contracted the fever, of whom 5,150 died. There were at least 11,000 cases among 14,000 blacks, resulting in 946 deaths. By contrast, virtually all of the 6,000 whites were stricken, and 4,204 cases proved fatal. The disaster's economic cost to the city was later calculated to be upward of fifteen million dollars."
145:, which further spread the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. The city saw roughly 20,000 total infections during the epidemic with 5,000 resulting in deaths, and saw a loss of more than $ 15 million due to the disruptions in trade from the epidemic. Many of the city's prominent citizens succumbed to the epidemic; among them was former Confederate General
153:
restrictions, as they were only allowed to be given to households that had yellow fever and could provide proof via a doctor's certificate or given to people considered "destitute." These restrictions led to many citizens having to go without federal aid, resulting in roughly 10,000 people receiving aid despite there being 20,000 cases of yellow fever alone.
117:. The epidemic in the Lower Mississippi Valley also greatly affected trade in the region, with orders of steamboats to be tied up in order to reduce the amount of travel along the Mississippi River, railroad lines were halted, and all the workers to be laid off. Carrigan states that "An estimated 15,000 heads of households were unemployed in
162:
172:
suffered several epidemics during the 1870s, culminating in the 1879 epidemic following the most severe bout of the fever, the 1878 wave. During this year, there were more than 5,000 fatalities in the city. Some contemporary accounts said that commercial interests had prevented the rapid reporting of
193:
in
Memphis. Once the spread of the virus to Memphis became imminent, a city-wide quarantine was instated which barred entry into the city. Unknown to public officials in Memphis, the virus had already arrived to the city by the time the quarantine went into effect, making this a futile approach to
176:
These misconceptions regarding the mechanism of the virus exacerbated the rising death toll in
Memphis as people operated under false notions of safety in the fever-ridden zones of the city. According to J.M. Keating, renowned for his highly-referenced history of the 1878 yellow fever epidemic in
229:
In the town of
Grenada located in northern Mississippi, about 1,000 people of the town's population fled while the remaining population suffered "approximately 1,050 cases and 350 deaths." The town was a known railroad town, and it was found that the refugees from railroad towns often spread the
213:
In addition to extensive mortality, Memphis also saw an economic crisis during the epidemic, where trade was halted entirely in the city, and the lack of commerce led to mass starvations throughout the city, inciting riots and looting. All in all, Ellis states that " of the approximately 20,000
209:
In light of this reality, Catholic intervention in the path of the fever in
Memphis becomes crucial to understanding the story of these devastating months. Catholic clergy opened their churches and convents to render aid on a non-discriminatory basis, aiding a community that would have remained
205:
in August led to the mass withdrawal of an estimated 25,000 residents from the city of
Memphis within four days, which led to further spread of the virus across the Lower Mississippi Valley. This exodus of a large proportion of the population of Memphis consisted primarily of those of the white
54:
was occupied with Union troops, and the local populace believed that yellow fever would only kill the northern troops. These rumors instilled fear into the Union troops, and they actively practiced sanitation and quarantine procedures during their occupation in 1862 until the government pulled
244:
mosquitoes, the primary carrier of yellow fever, away or into hibernation. It was not until
November 19 when the epidemic was officially declared to be over. Ellis states that "according to estimates, there were around 120,000 cases of yellow fever and approximately 20,000 deaths." The Lower
177:
Memphis, his text underscores the lack of consensus among medical professionals at this time. He spends the first two chapters of his anthology explaining the conflicting theories regarding the epidemiology of the virus and makes no mention of what is now known to be the real culprit, the
152:
Due to the struggles of the remaining citizens, numerous organizations formed relief committees that relied heavily on aid from the federal government in the form of relief rations and money donations from unaffected cities in the
Northern United States. The federal relief came with heavy
181:
mosquito. Unknown to physicians at the time, yellow fever was spread through the bite of an infected mosquito which proliferated in warm, moist areas of high population density. Given its urban and largely unsanitary environment in a vital trading location on the
80:
health officials ordered the detainment of all vessels from the Cuban and
Brazilian regions. It is unknown what exactly led to the outbreak in the Mississippi River Valley as causes ranged from unchecked vessels from the fruit trade to refugees from the
71:
federal government to assume control over the state in quarantines, but the law did not allow for the federal government to intercede on local medical authorities or health boards. In March of that year, a virulent strain of Yellow Fever was found in
1714:
19:
1585:
63:, where 769 people died between August and November, the states in the Lower Mississippi Valley began to take precautions for any following epidemics. After the epidemic in Shreveport, the
1750:
173:
the outbreak of the epidemic, increasing the total number of deaths. People still did not understand how the disease developed or was transmitted, and did not know how to prevent it.
254:
1942:
569:"Historic Disease Data as Epidemiological Resource: Searching for the Origin and Local Basic Reproduction Number of the 1878 Yellow Fever Epidemic in Memphis, Tennessee"
1962:
727:
Stronger than death; Historical notes on the heroic sacrifices of Catholic priests and religious during the yellow fever epidemics at Memphis in 1873, 1878 and 1879
1862:
1530:
1248:
1628:
197:
For those who wished to avoid the grip of the fever in the city, flight from Memphis was appealing to a majority of the city's population. The news of deaths in
137:
in May, roughly 40,000 residents that represent 20% of the city population fled the city, many of whom fled via the new railroads systems constructed during the
1440:
1548:
1720:
1391:
1744:
1684:
1660:
1592:
1512:
1344:
1690:
1254:
1038:
89:, which was experiencing a rise in yellow fever cases. However, investigations at the time suggest that the epidemic originated from the steamer
1379:
1284:
1212:
1157:
843:
507:
482:
454:
315:
287:
1634:
1578:
1403:
1350:
1409:
1290:
1188:
1108:
55:
federal troops out of the city in 1877. The withdrawal of Union troops resulted in the relaxation of sanitation and quarantine efforts in
1518:
1314:
1308:
909:
1572:
1332:
1218:
245:
Mississippi Valley also experienced roughly $ 30 million in economic losses due to the disruption of commerce caused by the epidemic.
1755:
1726:
1616:
1560:
1476:
873:
818:
774:
749:
679:
390:
365:
1868:
1672:
1542:
1506:
1494:
1397:
1320:
1622:
1952:
1947:
1738:
1732:
1702:
1654:
1524:
1464:
1427:
1415:
1326:
1151:
937:
1850:
1838:
1832:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1696:
1640:
1610:
1598:
1566:
1482:
1084:
1242:
1236:
1145:
1536:
1356:
1920:
1914:
1458:
1114:
1708:
1678:
1488:
1338:
125:, and several thousands more in scattered small towns - representing a total of over 100,000 persons in dire need."
1967:
1500:
1169:
1139:
699:
259:
1224:
202:
1892:
1874:
186:, Memphis became the ideal locale for the virus to take root after spreading from its origin in New Orleans.
1898:
1802:
1796:
1163:
1096:
1078:
902:
64:
1844:
1790:
1195:
1181:
998:
110:
1957:
1826:
1784:
1362:
522:
60:
24:
1433:
1230:
1175:
1090:
887:
332:
1666:
1296:
1061:
1014:
1008:
790:
Stephens Nuwer, Deanne (1999). "The 1878 Yellow Fever Epidemic along the Mississippi Gulf Coast".
1647:
1554:
1302:
1133:
1102:
895:
637:
596:
588:
422:
169:
142:
138:
122:
114:
47:
35:
1904:
1604:
1385:
1050:
987:
869:
839:
814:
770:
745:
675:
645:
503:
478:
450:
386:
361:
311:
283:
183:
82:
1886:
1020:
975:
926:
580:
527:
The American Plague: The Untold Story of Yellow Fever, the Epidemic That Shaped Our History
1470:
1026:
981:
954:
189:
Similar to the preventative measures taken in New Orleans was the implementation of the
962:
146:
1936:
1880:
1032:
600:
240:
178:
68:
161:
31:
584:
540:
23:"Tennessee-Memphis under quarantine rule; scenes in the plague-stricken city" by
1856:
1044:
542:
history of the yellow fever: the yellow fever epidemic of 1878, in Memphis, Tenn
223:
198:
118:
106:
77:
56:
51:
1421:
1269:
190:
238:
The epidemic lasted until late October when lower temperatures drove off the
102:
649:
449:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Statue University Press. p. 108.
1776:
922:
918:
502:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. p. 125.
477:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. p. 124.
838:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. p. 96.
641:
592:
310:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. p. 97.
282:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. p. 97.
625:
568:
426:
410:
415:
Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association
105:
south was affected, and tens of thousands fled the stricken cities of
868:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 56.
813:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 43.
769:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 57.
744:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 47.
674:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 43.
626:"YELLOWJACK: The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 in Memphis, Tennessee"
360:. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 37.
73:
385:. Lexington Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 39.
160:
18:
836:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
500:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
475:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
447:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
308:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
280:
Yellow Fever, Race, and Ecology in Nineteenth-century New Orleans
86:
891:
222:
The 1878 epidemic was the worst that occurred in the state of
411:"Impact of Epidemic Yellow Fever on Life in Louisiana"
255:
List of notable disease outbreaks in the United States
1775:
1451:
1372:
1277:
1268:
1205:
1126:
1071:
1060:
997:
953:
946:
165:
Yellow Fever Burials in Memphis at Elmwood Cemetery
573:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
866:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
811:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
767:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
742:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
672:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
383:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
358:Yellow Fever and Public Health in the New South
1908:
903:
333:"Report of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1873"
8:
1943:1878 natural disasters in the United States
1274:
1068:
950:
910:
896:
888:
562:
560:
340:Louisiana Equitable Life Insurance Company
1091:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
101:The entire Mississippi River Valley from
59:. Following the yellow fever epidemic in
729:. Memphis: Franciscan Herald. p. 3.
693:
691:
619:
617:
270:
230:illness with them along the railroads.
1963:Disease outbreaks in the United States
1158:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
859:
857:
855:
700:"The Immigrant Population of Memphis"
133:When the epidemic broke out from the
97:Effects of the epidemic on the region
16:Disease outbreak in the United States
7:
468:
466:
440:
438:
436:
404:
402:
351:
349:
301:
299:
630:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
834:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
498:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
473:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
445:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
306:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
278:Willoughby, Urmi Engineer (2017).
14:
706:. Shelby County Register of Deeds
42:Events leading up to the epidemic
34:epidemic swept through the lower
1863:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
704:West Tennessee Historical Papers
1641:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
938:List of epidemics and pandemics
1:
966:
585:10.1080/00045608.2015.1059167
545:. Memphis: Howard Association
792:Gulf South Historical Review
67:was passed that allowed the
567:Kennedy, S. Wright (2015).
1984:
1751:2024 Latin American dengue
1531:Western African meningitis
1345:Pacific Northwest smallpox
260:1853 yellow fever epidemic
201:and in the nearby town of
1357:Buenos Aires yellow fever
1255:Philadelphia yellow fever
1225:Great Plague of Marseille
1219:Great Northern War plague
1213:Iceland smallpox epidemic
933:
624:Baker, Thomas H. (1968).
409:Carrigan, Jo Ann (1963).
1921:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
1915:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
1875:Seventh cholera pandemic
1833:Fourth cholera pandemic
1815:Second cholera pandemic
1661:Γquateur province Ebola
1249:North American smallpox
1164:Great Plague of Seville
864:Ellis, John H. (1992).
765:Ellis, John H. (1992).
740:Ellis, John H. (1992).
670:Ellis, John H. (1992).
381:Ellis, John H. (1992).
356:Ellis, John H. (1992).
1953:19th-century epidemics
1948:1878 disease outbreaks
1851:Sixth cholera pandemic
1839:Fifth cholera pandemic
1821:Third cholera pandemic
1809:First cholera pandemic
1791:Second plague pandemic
1351:Barcelona yellow fever
1196:Great Plague of Vienna
1182:Great Plague of London
1152:Massachusetts smallpox
539:Keating, J.M. (1879).
166:
65:Quarantine Act of 1878
27:
1827:Third plague pandemic
1785:First plague pandemic
1579:Western African Ebola
1489:Chikungunya outbreaks
1441:Malaysian Nipah virus
1309:Great Plains smallpox
331:Smith, Henry (1874).
164:
61:Shreveport, Louisiana
22:
1887:Russian flu pandemic
1629:Angolan yellow fever
1380:San Francisco plague
1333:Broad Street cholera
1231:Great Plague of 1738
809:Ellis, John (1992).
725:Kalmer, Leo (1928).
1793:(1348β19th century)
1721:New Zealand measles
1549:Darfur yellow fever
1392:LA pneumonic plague
1009:Plague of Justinian
1803:Influenza pandemic
1797:Influenza pandemic
1745:Bangsamoro measles
1727:Singaporean dengue
1691:Pacific NW measles
1685:Philippine measles
1673:Madagascar measles
1655:Kerala Nipah virus
1648:Saudi Arabian MERS
1561:Singaporean dengue
1507:Zimbabwean cholera
1477:Singaporean dengue
1321:Copenhagen cholera
1303:Groningen epidemic
1097:Influenza pandemic
1079:Influenza pandemic
429:– via JSTOR.
167:
143:American Civil War
48:American Civil War
36:Mississippi Valley
30:In 1878, a severe
28:
25:Columbus Moise Jr.
1968:Mississippi River
1930:
1929:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1703:Kuala Koh measles
1617:South Korean MERS
1605:Polio declaration
1593:Madagascar plague
1525:Gujarat hepatitis
1513:Madagascar plague
1465:Midwest monkeypox
1416:Yugoslav smallpox
1386:Manchurian plague
1327:Stockholm cholera
1264:
1263:
1051:Sweating sickness
1039:Japanese smallpox
988:Plague of Cyprian
927:disease outbreaks
845:978-0-8071-6774-8
698:Tracy, Sterling.
509:978-0-8071-6774-8
484:978-0-8071-6774-8
456:978-0-8071-6774-8
317:978-0-8071-6774-8
289:978-0-8071-6774-8
184:Mississippi River
141:period after the
93:on May 22, 1878.
1975:
1910:
1697:New York measles
1651:
1611:Indian swine flu
1599:Odisha hepatitis
1589:
1543:Pakistani dengue
1495:Pakistani dengue
1444:
1410:WrocΕaw smallpox
1363:Hong Kong plague
1297:Caragea's plague
1275:
1192:
1085:Mexican smallpox
1069:
1021:Plague of Sheroe
976:Plague of Athens
971:
968:
951:
912:
905:
898:
889:
880:
879:
861:
850:
849:
831:
825:
824:
806:
800:
799:
787:
781:
780:
762:
756:
755:
737:
731:
730:
722:
716:
715:
713:
711:
695:
686:
685:
667:
661:
660:
658:
656:
621:
612:
611:
609:
607:
564:
555:
554:
552:
550:
536:
530:
520:
514:
513:
495:
489:
488:
470:
461:
460:
442:
431:
430:
406:
397:
396:
378:
372:
371:
353:
344:
343:
337:
328:
322:
321:
303:
294:
293:
275:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1763:
1646:
1584:
1567:Swansea measles
1519:Bolivian dengue
1447:
1439:
1428:Indian smallpox
1398:Croydon typhoid
1368:
1260:
1201:
1187:
1122:
1063:
1056:
1027:Plague of Amwas
1000:
993:
982:Antonine Plague
969:
942:
929:
916:
885:
883:
876:
863:
862:
853:
846:
833:
832:
828:
821:
808:
807:
803:
789:
788:
784:
777:
764:
763:
759:
752:
739:
738:
734:
724:
723:
719:
709:
707:
697:
696:
689:
682:
669:
668:
664:
654:
652:
623:
622:
615:
605:
603:
566:
565:
558:
548:
546:
538:
537:
533:
521:
517:
510:
497:
496:
492:
485:
472:
471:
464:
457:
444:
443:
434:
408:
407:
400:
393:
380:
379:
375:
368:
355:
354:
347:
335:
330:
329:
325:
318:
305:
304:
297:
290:
277:
276:
272:
268:
251:
236:
220:
159:
149:and his wife.
135:Emily B. Souder
131:
99:
91:Emily B. Souder
44:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1981:
1979:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1902:
1896:
1895:(1981βpresent)
1890:
1884:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1781:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1748:
1747:(2023βpresent)
1742:
1739:Jamaica dengue
1736:
1730:
1724:
1718:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1670:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1644:
1638:
1635:Yemeni cholera
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1586:DR Congo Ebola
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1291:Maltese plague
1288:
1285:Ottoman plague
1281:
1279:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1243:Persian Plague
1240:
1237:Russian plague
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1189:Maltese plague
1185:
1179:
1173:
1170:Maltese plague
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1146:Italian plague
1143:
1140:Maltese plague
1137:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1112:
1109:Maltese plague
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1075:
1073:
1066:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1005:
1003:
995:
994:
992:
991:
985:
979:
973:
963:Hittite plague
959:
957:
948:
944:
943:
941:
940:
934:
931:
930:
917:
915:
914:
907:
900:
892:
882:
881:
874:
851:
844:
826:
819:
801:
782:
775:
757:
750:
732:
717:
687:
680:
662:
613:
579:(5): 989β990.
556:
531:
515:
508:
490:
483:
462:
455:
432:
398:
391:
373:
366:
345:
323:
316:
295:
288:
269:
267:
264:
263:
262:
257:
250:
247:
235:
232:
219:
216:
158:
155:
147:John Bell Hood
139:Reconstruction
130:
127:
98:
95:
83:Ten Years' War
43:
40:
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1907:(2019βpresent
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1881:Hong Kong flu
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1709:Tonga measles
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1679:Samoa measles
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1537:Haiti cholera
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1501:Iraqi cholera
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1483:Indian dengue
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1339:Guam smallpox
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1176:Naples Plague
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1134:London plague
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1115:London plague
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1103:London plague
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1033:Plague of 664
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875:0-8131-1781-X
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820:0-8131-1781-X
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681:0-8131-1781-X
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523:Crosby, M. C.
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179:Aedes aegypti
174:
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69:United States
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53:
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41:
39:
37:
33:
26:
21:
1958:Yellow fever
1733:Uganda Ebola
1452:21st century
1434:Surat plague
1404:NYC smallpox
1373:20th century
1278:19th century
1206:18th century
1127:17th century
1093:(1545, 1576)
1072:16th century
1015:Roman Plague
984:(165β180 AD)
978:(429β426 BC)
925:and notable
884:
865:
835:
829:
810:
804:
795:
791:
785:
766:
760:
741:
735:
726:
720:
708:. Retrieved
703:
671:
665:
653:. Retrieved
633:
629:
604:. Retrieved
576:
572:
547:. Retrieved
541:
534:
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518:
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418:
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382:
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196:
188:
175:
168:
151:
134:
132:
100:
90:
74:Havana, Cuba
45:
32:yellow fever
29:
1923:(2023β2024)
1917:(2022β2023)
1901:(2009β2010)
1889:(1977β1979)
1883:(1968β1970)
1877:(1961β1975)
1871:(1957β1958)
1865:(1919β1930)
1859:(1918β1920)
1857:Spanish flu
1853:(1899β1923)
1847:(1889β1890)
1845:Russian flu
1841:(1881β1896)
1835:(1863β1879)
1829:(1855β1860)
1823:(1852β1860)
1817:(1829β1851)
1811:(1816β1826)
1805:(1557β1559)
1735:(2022β2023)
1723:(2019β2020)
1717:(2019β2020)
1715:DRC measles
1669:(2018β2020)
1637:(2016β2022)
1625:(2015β2016)
1581:(2013β2016)
1575:(2013β2014)
1573:Chikungunya
1539:(2010β2019)
1533:(2009β2010)
1515:(2008β2017)
1509:(2008β2009)
1473:(2003β2005)
1461:(2002β2004)
1443:(1998β1999)
1424:(1972β1973)
1388:(1910β1911)
1382:(1900β1904)
1347:(1862β1863)
1317:(1847β1848)
1311:(1837β1838)
1293:(1813β1814)
1287:(1812β1819)
1257:(1793β1798)
1251:(1780β1782)
1239:(1770β1772)
1227:(1720β1722)
1221:(1710β1712)
1215:(1707β1708)
1191:(1675β1676)
1184:(1665β1666)
1166:(1647β1652)
1160:(1633β1644)
1148:(1629β1631)
1117:(1592β1593)
1111:(1592β1593)
1105:(1563β1564)
1099:(1557β1559)
1053:(1485β1551)
1047:(1346β1353)
1045:Black Death
970: 1330
798:(2): 51β73.
710:29 November
655:29 November
606:29 November
549:29 November
421:(1): 5β34.
224:Mississippi
218:Mississippi
199:New Orleans
129:New Orleans
121:, 8,000 in
119:New Orleans
107:New Orleans
78:New Orleans
57:New Orleans
52:New Orleans
46:During the
1937:Categories
1667:Kivu Ebola
1422:London flu
636:(3): 257.
266:References
241:A. Aegypti
191:quarantine
1899:Swine flu
1869:Asian flu
1787:(541β767)
1756:Argentina
1041:(735β737)
1035:(664β689)
1029:(638β639)
1023:(627β628)
1011:(541β542)
1001:classical
990:(250β266)
923:epidemics
919:Pandemics
601:132497340
234:Aftermath
111:Vicksburg
103:St. Louis
1905:COVID-19
1893:HIV/AIDS
1471:Bird flu
642:44450733
593:24537966
525:(2006),
249:See also
955:Ancient
650:4874077
427:4230697
203:Hickman
170:Memphis
157:Memphis
123:Memphis
115:Memphis
1799:(1510)
1777:Global
1758:(2024)
1741:(2023)
1729:(2020)
1711:(2019)
1705:(2019)
1699:(2019)
1693:(2019)
1687:(2019)
1681:(2019)
1675:(2018)
1663:(2018)
1657:(2018)
1650:(2018)
1643:(2017)
1631:(2016)
1619:(2015)
1613:(2015)
1607:(2014)
1601:(2014)
1595:(2014)
1588:(2014)
1569:(2013)
1563:(2013)
1557:(2012)
1551:(2012)
1545:(2011)
1527:(2009)
1521:(2009)
1503:(2007)
1497:(2006)
1491:(2006)
1485:(2006)
1479:(2005)
1467:(2003)
1436:(1994)
1430:(1974)
1418:(1972)
1412:(1963)
1406:(1947)
1400:(1937)
1394:(1924)
1365:(1894)
1359:(1871)
1353:(1870)
1341:(1856)
1335:(1854)
1329:(1853)
1323:(1853)
1315:Typhus
1305:(1829)
1299:(1813)
1270:Modern
1245:(1772)
1233:(1738)
1198:(1679)
1178:(1656)
1172:(1655)
1154:(1633)
1142:(1623)
1136:(1603)
1087:(1520)
1081:(1510)
1064:modern
872:
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113:, and
76:, and
1062:Early
1017:(590)
999:Post-
947:Local
638:JSTOR
597:S2CID
589:JSTOR
423:JSTOR
336:(PDF)
1623:Zika
1555:MERS
1459:SARS
870:ISBN
840:ISBN
815:ISBN
771:ISBN
746:ISBN
712:2022
676:ISBN
657:2022
646:PMID
608:2022
551:2022
504:ISBN
479:ISBN
451:ISBN
387:ISBN
362:ISBN
312:ISBN
284:ISBN
87:Cuba
972:BC)
581:doi
577:105
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967:c.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
