Louis A. Johnson - Knowledge (XXG)

892:

recriminations exchanged by the Air Force and the Navy during the controversy, which went far beyond the initial question of the supercarrier to more fundamental issues of strategic doctrine, service roles and missions, and the authority of the secretary of defense. Moreover, Johnson's ill-conceived budget cutbacks on force readiness would soon bear bitter fruit with the coming of the Korean War. Most historians attribute Johnson's efforts to significantly reduce, if not eliminate, US naval aviation in both the Navy and Marine Corps as one of the important factors in bringing about the invasion of South Korea, supported by both China and the Soviet Union. After the initial onslaught on to the Korean peninsula by North Korean forces, no air bases on the Korean peninsula were available for the USAF to fight back from. As a result, all air support during those disastrous months came from

688:, telling an American Legion convention that he was "happy to report ... that 80 percent of the problems that beset unification immediately disappeared when the President signed the bill increasing the authority and the responsibility of the Secretary of Defense." Believing that the amendments would help him achieve additional budget cuts, Johnson estimated that one year after their passage the Defense Department would be achieving savings at the rate of $ 1 billion per year (he later claimed that he had attained this goal). One of his slogans was that the taxpayer was going to get "a dollar's worth of defense for every dollar spent" by the Pentagon, an approach that Truman approved. 2845: 2838: 2293: 33: 4325: 600:, Truman was known to approach defense budgetary requests in the abstract, without regard to defense response requirements in the event of conflicts with potential enemies. Truman would begin by subtracting from total receipts the amount needed for domestic needs and recurrent operating costs, with any surplus going to the defense budget for that year. From the beginning, Johnson and Truman assumed that the United States' monopoly on the 1017:"inordinate egotistical desire to run the whole government." Truman later noted how Johnson had "offended every member of the cabinet... He never missed an opportunity to say mean things about my personal staff." Finally, concerned about public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson's resignation. On September 19, 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and Truman quickly replaced him with 849:

appropriate for the Navy. The committee, disapproving of Johnson's "summary manner" of terminating the carrier and failure to consult congressional committees before acting, stated that "national defense is not strictly an executive department undertaking; it involves not only the Congress but the American people as a whole speaking through their Congress. The committee can in no way condone this manner of deciding public questions."

2138: 993:

the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained US military forces. Johnson's failure to plan adequately for US conventional force commitments, to train and equip current forces adequately, or even to budget funds for storage of surplus Army and Navy war materiel for future use in the event of conflict would prove fateful after the Korean War had started.

4313: 724:. The Navy had been planning the ship for several years and construction had already begun. Johnson, supported by a slim majority of the JCS and by Truman, stressed the need to cut costs. At least by implication, Johnson had scuttled the Navy's hope to participate in strategic nuclear air operations through use of the carrier. Neither the Department of the Navy nor Congress had been consulted in the termination of 3827: 621:

added, "To the limit the present law allows, I promise you there will be unification as rapidly as the efficiency of the service permits it." Later, in one of his frequent speeches on unification, Johnson stated that "this nation can no longer tolerate the autonomous conduct of any single service ... a waste of the resources of America in spendthrift defense is an invitation to disaster for America."

3927: 971:, and the acquisition of the hydrogen bomb and to produce a paper based on their new analysis. Johnson went about that task reluctantly, as he had promised Truman that he would hold the line on increased defense spending. Johnson was also upset that the State Department had first taken the lead on the policy assessment and had heavily influenced the contents of the resultant report 3839: 840:

long-range strategic bombers would deter war, but that if war nevertheless broke out, an immediate atomic offensive against the enemy would contribute to the success of surface actions and reduce US casualties. Strategic bombing, the USAF contended, provided the major counterbalance to the Soviet Union's vastly superior ground forces.

692:

and storage depots for reconditioning and storage. Johnson even resisted budget requests for reserve stockpiles of small arms and anti-tank ammunition, anti-tank weapons, or amphibious infantry training for the Army's newly acquired ex-Navy landing craft, which promptly began to deteriorate from lack of proper maintenance. Though the

4301: 996:

Ironically, only the US Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment though they still were woefully under-strength and in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Johnson

983:

and Truman. Johnson publicly professed belief that "the advance guard in the campaign for peace that America wages today must be the State Department," but his disagreements with Acheson and his restrictions on Defense Department contacts with the State Department persisted until the realities of the

761:

jet interceptors, aircraft that would greatly surprise US officials when they later appeared over North Korea. Once engaged in the conflict in Korea that would evolve into the Korean War, the role of USAF heavy bombers evolved into an extension of their role during World War II, support of in-theater

753:

Subsequently, declassified material proved the USAF to be technically correct in its immediate assessment of the capabilities of the B-36 at the time of the Revolt of the Admirals. At the time, it was indeed virtually invulnerable to interception due to the great height at which it flew. However, the

663:

Both Truman and Johnson extended their opposition to the Navy in their treatment of the US Marine Corps. Truman had a well-known dislike of the Marines from his Army service in World War I and would say in August 1950, "The Marine Corps is the Navy's police force and as long as I am President that is

1016:

The US reverses in Korea and the continued priority accorded to European security resulted in rapid, substantive changes in US defense policies, including a long-term expansion of the armed forces and increased emphasis on military assistance to US allies. In addition, Truman recoiled from Johnson's

1012:

1951 in which Johnson had at first supported Truman's recommendation of a $ 13.3 billion defense budget. However, a month after the Korean War had started, the secretary hastily proposed a supplemental appropriation request of $ 10.5 billion (an increase of 79%), which brought the total requested to

992:

By 1950, Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following Truman's defense economization policy and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats posed by the Soviet Union and its allied Communist regimes. He consequently received much of

691:

Johnson did not limit his budget-cutting campaign to the Navy or Marine Corps. Johnson ordered nearly all of the Army inventories of surplus World War II tanks, communications equipment, personnel carriers and small arms be scrapped or sold off to other countries instead of being shipped to ordnance

839:

against large urban areas when a war started. The Navy argued that such an approach would not harm military targets, and that tactical air power, ground troops and sea power were the elements necessary to defend the United States and Europe against attack. The USAF countered that atomic weapons and

1053:

On December 7, 1950, The Louis A. Johnson VA Medical Center was dedicated in honor of Johnson. The medical center rests on a 16-acre site adjacent to the Veterans Memorial Park and the West Virginia State Nursing Home in the city of Clarksburg, West Virginia. This medical center has been an active

978:

Truman was less than enthusiastic about the large defense cost projections for NSC 68 and its implications for existing domestic budgetary spending priorities, and initially sent it back without comment to its authors for further analysis. Although Truman took no immediate formal action on NSC 68,

887:

reported at the time, "Secretary of the Navy Matthews does not have the confidence of the Navy and can not win it.... Moreover, Mr. Matthews has forfeited the confidence of Congress by firing Admiral Denfeld." Matthews resigned as Secretary of the Navy in July 1951 to become Ambassador to Ireland.

852:

The committee expressed solid support for effective unification, but stated that "there is such a thing as seeking too much unification too fast" and observed that "there has been a Navy reluctance in the interservice marriage, an over-ardent Army, a somewhat exuberant Air Force.... It may well be

791:

from the fleet for lack of operating funds. The US Navy and Marine Corps, which had been the world's preeminent amphibious force just a few years earlier, lost most of its amphibious capabilities and landing craft which were scrapped or sold as surplus (the remaining craft were reserved solely for

658:

Admiral, the Navy is on its way out. There's no reason for having a Navy and a Marine Corps. General Bradley tells me amphibious operations are a thing of the past. We'll never have any more amphibious operations. That does away with the Marine Corps. And the Air Force can do anything the Navy can

620:

Johnson was also an advocate of defense unification, which he saw as a means to further reduce defense spending requirements. At a press conference the day after he took office, Johnson promised a drastic cut in the number of National Military Establishment boards, committees, and commissions, and

769:

In the long run, Navy arguments for the supercarrier prevailed, though not for the reasons originally cited. A relative failure as a strategic nuclear deterrent, the large aircraft carrier would prove invaluable as an element of conventional rapid deployment tactical air forces, requiring neither

584:

Secretary Johnson entered office sharing the president's commitment to achieve further military unification and to drastically reduce budget expenditures on defense in favor of other government programs. As one of Truman's staunchest political supporters, Johnson was viewed by Truman as the ideal

616:

soon caused fierce controversies within the upper ranks of the armed forces. From fiscal year 1948 onwards, the defense department budget was capped at the amount set in FY 1947 ($ 14.4 billion), and was progressively reduced in succeeding fiscal years until January 1950, when it was reduced yet

1794:

The inability of U.S. forces to stop the initial North Korean offensive of 1950 cost the Eighth Army 4,280 killed in action, 12,377 wounded, 2,107 missing and 401 confirmed captured between July 5 and September 16, 1950, in addition to the lives of tens of thousands of South Korean soldiers and

880:

because of Denfield's testimony and a challenge to effective representative government. Matthews's perceived vindictiveness towards much of the Navy's uniformed senior leadership during his tenure led to a perception by both the public and the Congress of the Navy's civilian leadership woes, a

891:

Although Johnson emerged from the Revolt of the Admirals with his reputation intact, the controversy weakened his position with the services and probably with the President. Notwithstanding Johnson's emphasis on unification, it was debatable how far it had really progressed, given the bitter

997:

had transferred most of the remaining craft from the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units). As US and South Korean forces lacked sufficient armor and artillery to repel the North Korean forces, Army and Marine Corps ground troops were instead committed to a series of costly

848:

and that the services jointly should not pass judgment on weapons proposed by one service. On the cancelation of the supercarrier, the committee questioned the qualifications of the Army and Air Force chiefs of staff, who had testified in support of Johnson's decision, to determine vessels

958:

Concluding that the hydrogen bomb was now required as deterrent as well as an offensive weapon, on January 31, 1950, Truman decided to proceed with development, which was supported by Johnson. Meanwhile, Truman directed the Secretaries of State and Defense to review and to reassess US

1830:

stated that 'Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight... from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man.... That we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a

1013:$ 23.8 billion. In making the additional request, Johnson informed a House appropriations subcommittee that "in light of the actual fighting that is now in progress, we have reached the point where the military considerations clearly outweigh the fiscal considerations." 677:, be deleted from the official roll of chiefs of service branches authorized a driver and limousine, and for whom a special gun salute was prescribed on ceremonial occasions. He further specified that there would be no future official recognition or celebration of the 1538:(1980), p. 102: In reality, reductions in Army budget requests from 1948 onwards caused not only reductions in troop levels, but also forced an 80 percent reduction in equipment requirements, thus deferring Army equipment modernization plans for the next three years. 1050:: "When the hurly burly's done and the battle is won, I trust the historian will find my record of performance creditable, my services honest and faithful commensurate with the trust that was placed in me and in the best interests of peace and our national defense." 955:. Initially, Johnson suspected, despite confirming air sample, that the Soviets had not really tested an atomic device at all. He theorized that perhaps an accidental laboratory explosion had occurred and that no reassessments of US defense capabilities were needed. 529:

Having aspired to the position of Secretary, which he felt he had earned, Johnson felt betrayed by Roosevelt. During the war, Johnson had no major responsibilities within the government involving military matters, but he agreed to participate in the

672:

by transferring its air assets to other services and proposed to progressively eliminate the Marine Corps altogether in a series of budget cutbacks and decommissioning of forces. Johnson ordered that the highest-ranking Marine officer, the

1713:

Repeated cuts in active-duty Fleet Marine Forces (FMF), planned combat deployments in the Atlantic and Persian Gulf (in the event of war with the Soviet Union), and 6th Fleet deployments in the Mediterranean left only the under-strength

979:

the paper gained considerable support when North Korea invaded South Korea. Johnson's obstinate attitude toward the State Department's role in the preparation of the paper adversely affected his relations with both Secretary of State

843:

In its final report, the House Armed Services Committee found no substance to the charges relating to Johnson's and Symington's roles in aircraft procurement. It held that evaluation of the B-36's worth was the responsibility of the

483:, where he compiled a long report to the War Department on Army management and materiel requisition practices. After the war, he resumed his law practice, was active in veterans' affairs, and served as National Commander of the 4390: 1054:

teaching facility since 1960 by participating in residency and academic affiliations with West Virginia University, Fairmont State University, Alderson-Broaddus College, and other nearby institutions of higher education.

834:

and JCS procedures on weapons development, and ultimately examined the whole course of unification. In addition to disparaging the B-36, Navy representatives questioned the current US military plan for immediate use of

1036:

in 1966 in Washington, DC, at the age of 75. He is buried at the Elkview Masonic Cemetery in Clarksburg, West Virginia. He was survived by his wife, Ruth Frances Maxwell Johnson and daughters Lillian and Katherine.

3218: 754:

B-36 was a pre-World War II design and by the time it was actually operational and fully deployed to Air Force active duty bombardment wings and bombardment squadrons, the B-36 was hopelessly vulnerable to modern

927:, creating a regional organization that became the heart of a comprehensive collective security system. After initial reservations, Johnson supported the new alliance and the program of military assistance for 875:

fired Denfeld on October 27, 1949, explaining that he and Denfeld disagreed widely on strategic policy and unification. The House Armed Services Committee concluded that Denfeld's removal by Matthews was a

636:

under Johnson, Bradley reversed course and publicly supported Johnson's decisions, telling Congress that he would be doing a "disservice to the nation" if he asked for a larger military force. General

681:. More ominously, Johnson barred the Commandant of the Marine Corps from attending JCS meetings in his role of chief of service (including meetings involving Marine readiness or deployments). 4440: 647:

Johnson promptly began proposing mothballing or scrapping much of the Navy's conventional surface fleet and amphibious forces. Shortly after his appointment, Johnson had a conversation with

735:

expressed concern about the future of the US Marine Corps and both Marine and Navy aviation and Johnson's determination to eliminate those services through progressive program cuts.

746:." In congressional hearings and other public arenas, the Navy reacted angrily to Johnson's action by openly questioning the ability of the Air Force's latest strategic bomber, the 4425: 4365: 1240: 1458:

Dunford, J.F. (Lt. Col.) The Strategic Implications of Defensive Operations at the Pusan Perimeter July–September 1950, Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College (7 April 1999) p. 6

4445: 4415: 4395: 3830: 3204: 792:

Army use in amphibious operations exercises, which did not utilize them in that role). To cheaply rectify the issue, Johnson oversaw the unpopular seizure of the ocean liner

738:

Faced with such large-scale budgetary reductions, competition between the service branches for remaining defense funds grew increasingly acrimonious. The cancelation of the

750:, to penetrate Soviet airspace. The USAF countered with data supporting the B-36 and minimized the importance of a naval role for surface ships in future major conflicts. 1199: 3842: 943:

In August 1949, earlier than US intelligence analysts had expected, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic device. That event and the almost-concurrent retreat of the

1756: 4435: 820: 4405: 4420: 1008:

The impact of the Korean War on Johnson's defense planning was glaringly evident in the Defense Department's original and supplemental budgetary requests for

674: 564:'s election campaign; the money raised by Johnson proved crucial to Truman's come-from-behind victory in the November elections. As a regular visitor to the 4400: 4380: 624:

To ensure congressional approval of proposed DOD budget requests, both Truman and Johnson demanded public acquiescence, if not outright support, from the

4370: 4355: 1734: 1947: 3006: 2844: 640:

went even further when testifying before a House Appropriations committee, stating that Truman administration reductions in Army force levels made it

3876: 3166: 2658: 824: 678: 557: 496: 424: 100: 923:

transportation and as an example of the fruits of unification. A week after Johnson took office, the United States and 11 other nations signed the

4158: 3972: 3518: 628:(JCS) and other military department commanders when making public statements or testifying before Congress. In 1948, JCS Chief of Staff General 572:. He was also a staunch supporter of Truman's desire to 'hold the line' on defense spending. After a series of conflicts with Defense Secretary 4189: 1325: 1063: 355: 3211: 668:'s." Johnson exploited this ill feeling of Truman's to reduce or eliminate many Marine Corps' budget requests. Johnson attempted to eliminate 2463: 1819: 1309: 783:

However, a more ominous (if less publicized) development than the supercarrier debate was Johnson's steady reduction of force in Navy ships,

633: 1566: 4410: 2853: 2803: 534:'s war mobilization of US industry. Later, he served as Alien Property custodian for the American operations of the German chemical giant 4385: 4220: 4139: 3901: 2866: 2837: 2337: 2212: 729: 714:

Johnson's defense cuts, which began on April 23, 1949, were accelerated after he announced the cancellation of the 65,000-ton flushdeck

669: 4034: 2324: 2127: 2118: 2052: 1873: 1646: 1068: 420: 335: 48: 799:

to convert her to a troop transport. The move further alienated naval-related elements of the US Government, including the shipyard,

604:

was adequate protection against any and all external threats. Johnson's unwillingness to budget conventional readiness needs for the

4375: 1535: 1446: 1301: 1188: 1110: 1091: 804: 531: 780:, and later designs, continue in service with the US Navy into the 21st century, forming the core of its offensive striking power. 1275: 4251: 4108: 3935: 2448: 845: 771: 468: 250: 868:, who accepted cancellation of the supercarrier but testified critically on defense planning and administration of unification. 4360: 2345: 823:

launched an investigation into charges, emanating unofficially from Navy sources, of malfeasance in office against Johnson and

696:(USAF) faced fewer program cancellations and cuts, Johnson refused USAF requests for a doubling of active air groups until the 500: 4430: 4071: 4003: 3889: 2548: 2358: 2333: 1148: 1129: 508: 1353:, 6 June 1949: Reportedly, that was a case of Delhi belly, a common gastrointestinal illness suffered by newcomers to India. 1826:

Analyzing the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea through the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General

807:, and the press. This was the second time Johnson intervened with the shipyard, as the cancelation of the aircraft carrier 932: 685: 590: 551: 349: 4291: 770:

overflight permissions or overseas basing rights with host nations. The successors to the canceled supercarrier, the new

3885: 3869: 1681: 732: 2292: 1903:: "When shall we three meet again? In thunder, lightning, or in rain? When the hurly-burly's done. When the battle's 2723: 381: 3273: 911:

Momentous international events that demanded difficult national security decisions also marked Johnson's term. The

718: 613: 1774: 632:

stated that "the Army of 1948 could not fight its way out of a paper bag." Yet the following year, after becoming

576:

over defense budget cutbacks, Truman asked for Forrestal's resignation, replacing him with Johnson early in 1949.

2921: 883: 865: 460: 452: 568:, Johnson not only continued to express an interest in defense matters, but actively campaigned for the post of 4023: 3021: 3016: 2881: 2876: 2823: 2818: 2728: 2708: 2648: 1951: 964: 893: 586: 2678: 1742: 1032:

His political career at an end, Johnson returned to his law practice, which he pursued until his death from a

1907:. That will be ere the set of sun ... Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air." 3862: 3462: 2931: 2598: 2433: 1974: 693: 569: 476: 376: 4265: 3247: 3031: 2936: 2758: 2317: 2111: 743: 709: 585:

candidate to push Truman's defense budget economization policy in the face of continued resistance by the

448: 295: 1164:(Master of Military Arts thesis). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. 654:

that revealed his attitudes towards the US Navy and US Marine Corps and any need for non-nuclear forces:

3943: 2901: 2738: 2688: 2478: 2453: 2443: 1750: 1234: 924: 869: 625: 519: 121: 32: 1040:

In his last speech as Secretary of Defense, the day before he left office, Johnson made a reference to

700:

and favored reduction of tactical air force readiness in favor of the strategic nuclear bomber forces.

1248: 4350: 4345: 4329: 3980: 3525: 3071: 2916: 2773: 2768: 2743: 2673: 2633: 2458: 2202: 2167: 1807: 1663: 511: 456: 133: 1639:

A Man and His Ship: America's Greatest Naval Architect and His Quest to Build the S.S. United States

1576: 4234: 4017: 3854: 3481: 3469: 3240: 3136: 3111: 3096: 3051: 2946: 2941: 2813: 2783: 2713: 2683: 2643: 2578: 2543: 2413: 2177: 1782: 1715: 1041: 1018: 872: 827: 145: 4209: 4172: 4128: 4122: 4097: 4054: 3992: 3955: 3176: 3156: 3131: 3076: 2793: 2718: 2618: 2588: 2583: 2518: 2513: 2473: 2428: 2403: 2157: 2069: 2045: 1483:

Blair, Clay, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953, Naval Institute Press (2003), p. 290

1021: 830:. The hearings also looked into the capability of the B-36, the cancellation of the supercarrier 800: 763: 651: 609: 605: 573: 325: 93: 3316: 2302: 4240: 4197: 4091: 3401: 3101: 3086: 3056: 2996: 2966: 2896: 2891: 2763: 2623: 2558: 2533: 2528: 2378: 2310: 2217: 2197: 2104: 1869: 1815: 1642: 1531: 1442: 1305: 1297: 1214: 1184: 1165: 1144: 1125: 1106: 1087: 968: 960: 637: 504: 440: 219: 3196: 1955: 542:, until an intestinal illness caused him to resign his post and return to the United States. 4305: 4271: 4228: 4203: 4178: 4060: 4011: 3915: 3634: 3352: 3309: 3290: 3259: 3171: 3126: 3106: 3091: 2991: 2951: 2753: 2733: 2638: 2593: 2568: 2563: 2553: 2538: 2468: 2368: 2237: 2162: 1969: 1861: 1770: 1730: 1001:

actions as the enemy steadily progressed down the Korean Peninsula and eventually encircled

861: 793: 777: 715: 471:

in 1916, he served as majority floor leader and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. During

416: 396: 299: 236: 2137: 951:

hastened debate within the administration as to whether the United States should develop a

4317: 4259: 4166: 4147: 4116: 4042: 3949: 3892: 3713: 3423: 3389: 3335: 3266: 3228: 3116: 3041: 2961: 2748: 2668: 2613: 2603: 2483: 2418: 2247: 2207: 2182: 2172: 2147: 2058: 2030: 2019: 1571: 1365: 912: 561: 484: 428: 310: 187: 154: 81: 69: 4079: 3986: 3547: 3430: 3302: 3181: 3151: 3036: 3026: 2976: 2788: 2698: 2508: 2398: 2393: 2222: 2187: 2096: 2083: 1827: 948: 916: 597: 515: 464: 4312: 1253:

Wolk, Herman S., "The Blueprint for Cold War Defense", Air Force Magazine (March 2000)

899:, the only aircraft carrier left in the Western Pacific when South Korea was invaded. 881:

perception that also did not go totally unnoticed by the news media of the period. As

4339: 3121: 3081: 3066: 3061: 2956: 2911: 2693: 2608: 2523: 2503: 2498: 2488: 2423: 2388: 2383: 2242: 952: 836: 788: 784: 523: 240: 1381: 811:

allowed the ocean liner of the same name to begin construction in the same drydock.

4085: 3961: 3141: 2981: 2408: 2282: 2257: 2252: 2192: 1964: 980: 755: 747: 739: 629: 535: 447:, to Marcellus and Catherine (née Arthur) Johnson. He earned a law degree from the 1918: 3161: 3046: 2926: 2906: 2628: 2493: 2262: 2227: 1677: 1159: 1009: 915:

ended in May 1949, when the Soviets lifted the blockade. Johnson pointed to the

742:

precipitated a bitter controversy between the Navy and the USAF, the so-called "

601: 565: 538:. In 1942, Johnson briefly served as the president's personal representative in 472: 371: 514:

over military aid to Britain. In mid-1940, after Woodring had resigned and the

3691: 3146: 2986: 2971: 2886: 2703: 2573: 2438: 2373: 2277: 2272: 2267: 1960: 944: 697: 412: 1218: 1169: 903:

was soon joined by the other two aircraft carriers remaining in the Pacific.

787:, and equipment needed for conventional force readiness. Ship after ship was 3755: 2232: 1247:

Summers, Harry G. (Lt. Col.), "The Korean War: A Fresh Perspective" (1996).

998: 920: 664:

what it will remain. They have a propaganda machine that is almost equal to

1988: 522:

bypassed Johnson for the position of Secretary of War but instead choosing

1506:

A General's Life: An AutoBiography by General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

1469:

A General's Life: An AutoBiography by General of the Army Omar N. Bradley

877: 854: 444: 762:

tactical ground forces. The USAF heavy bomber aircraft employed was the

1294:

Louis Johnson and the Arming of America: The Roosevelt and Truman Years

1180:

Louis Johnson and the Arming of America: The Roosevelt And Truman Years

1046: 648: 1033: 972: 758: 665: 480: 1270: 1268: 766:

of the Second World War, and the B-36 would see no combat in Korea.

411:(January 10, 1891 – April 24, 1966) was an American 1002: 539: 1980: 1178: 4391:

Democratic Party members of the West Virginia House of Delegates

928: 3858: 3200: 2306: 2100: 2087: 1992: 1718:– a reserve unit – available for combat in the western Pacific. 1491: 1489: 1161:

Steel for Bodies: Ammunition Readiness During the Korean War

984:

Korean War caused his fall from favor with the White House.

518:

had revealed the precarious state of the nation's defenses,

1479: 1477: 684:

Johnson welcomed the passage of the 1949 amendments to the

860:

Finally, the committee condemned the dismissal of Admiral

427:

from 1937 to 1940 and the 15th national commander of the

1775:"Stand or Die – 1950 Defense of Korea's Pusan Perimeter" 1426:

Tanks and the Korean War: A case study of unpreparedness

963:

policy in the light of the Soviet atomic explosion, the

1741:. U.S. Naval Academy Alumni Association. Archived from 1122:

First to Fight: An Inside View of the U.S. Marine Corps

1280:

Office of the Secretary of Defense – Historical Office

919:

as a technological triumph important to the future of

4289: 1814:. New York: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 82. 1711:. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 139–140. 4250: 4219: 4188: 4157: 4138: 4107: 4070: 4033: 4002: 3971: 3934: 3900: 3005: 2865: 2852: 2802: 2657: 2357: 2344: 1731:

Krulak, Lieutenant General Victor H., USMC, retired

1641:. Simon & Schuster. pp. 232–235, 240–241. 1276:"Louis A. Johnson - Harry S. Truman Administration" 392: 364: 341: 331: 321: 316: 306: 291: 283: 256: 246: 226: 202: 197: 181: 171: 151: 139: 127: 117: 99: 87: 75: 65: 46: 23: 1919:"Louis A. Johnson VA Medical Center - Our History" 1428:, Armor, Vol. 109 Issue 5 (Sep/Oct 2000), pp. 7-12 4441:Military personnel from Clarksburg, West Virginia 1735:"You Can't Get There From Here: The Inchon Story" 931:and other US allies, which was instituted by the 1249:Military History. Volume 17, Number 2, June 2000 1239:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 1221:. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017 1868:. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 792. 853:stated that the committee finds no unification 499:from 1937 to 1940, Johnson advocated universal 1207:Parameters: Journal of the US Army War College 1124:. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 1084:The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953 3870: 3212: 2318: 2112: 1213:(2). Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania: 53–63. 560:, Johnson was chief fundraiser for President 8: 1755:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1623: 1621: 1177:McFarland, Keith D.; Roll, David L. (2005). 1141:America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1992 1069:List of United States secretaries of defense 61:March 28, 1949 – September 19, 1950 4426:University of Virginia School of Law alumni 4366:United States Army personnel of World War I 1948:West Virginia & Regional History Center 1411: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1403: 4446:Politicians from Clarksburg, West Virginia 4416:United States Assistant Secretaries of War 4396:National commanders of the American Legion 3877: 3863: 3855: 3219: 3205: 3197: 2862: 2354: 2325: 2311: 2303: 2119: 2105: 2097: 2084: 2001: 1989: 31: 20: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1393: 1391: 1183:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 439:Johnson was born on January 10, 1891, in 1382:"Felix A. Larkin Oral History Interview" 1292:McFarland, Keith D. and Roll, David L., 451:. After graduation, he practiced law in 273: 101:United States Assistant Secretary of War 4296: 1567:"THE PRESIDENCY: When I Make a Mistake" 1264: 1143:(7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 4436:Lawyers from Clarksburg, West Virginia 1748: 1232: 1064:List of members of the American Legion 4406:Truman administration cabinet members 7: 4421:United States secretaries of defense 3838: 2128:United States Secretaries of Defense 2089:Articles related to Louis A. Johnson 1575:. September 18, 1950. Archived from 659:do, so that does away with the Navy. 1709:American Spartans: The U.S. Marines 1530:, New Brunswick: Transaction Press 1441:, New Brunswick: Transaction Press 491:Assistant Secretary of War, 1937–40 4401:Politicians from Roanoke, Virginia 4381:Commanders of the Legion of Honour 2005:Non-profit organization positions 1981:Louis A. Johnson VA Medical Center 1667:87, no. 10 (5 November 1949): 250. 1296:, Indiana University Press (2005) 507:. He feuded with the isolationist 421:United States Secretary of Defense 49:United States Secretary of Defense 14: 4371:American people of the Korean War 4356:20th-century American politicians 1682:"Is Naval Aviation Culture Dead?" 1200:"The 1949 Revolt of the Admirals" 821:House Committee on Armed Services 4323: 4311: 4299: 3925: 3837: 3826: 3825: 2843: 2836: 2334:United States Secretaries of War 2291: 2136: 1504:Bradley, Omar, and Blair, Clay, 1467:Bradley, Omar, and Blair, Clay, 846:Weapons Systems Evaluation Group 475:, Johnson saw action as an Army 469:West Virginia House of Delegates 16:American politician and attorney 503:, rearmament, and expansion of 501:military education and training 269: 675:Commandant of the Marine Corps 423:from 1949 to 1950. He was the 1: 933:Mutual Defense Assistance Act 686:National Security Act of 1947 552:Presidency of Harry S. Truman 459:eventually opened offices in 1528:The Post-imperial Presidency 1495:Hofmann, George F., pp. 7-12 1439:The Post-imperial Presidency 1198:McFarland, Keith D. (1980). 1103:The Post-imperial Presidency 1101:Davis, Vincent, ed. (1980). 4411:United States Army officers 1812:The American Culture of War 617:again to $ 13.5 billion. 4462: 4386:Medal for Merit recipients 3923: 1363:"Master of the Pentagon". 1349:"Master of the Pentagon", 1336:"Master of the Pentagon", 1320:"Master of the Pentagon", 1120:Krulak, Victor H. (1984). 825:Secretary of the Air Force 707: 558:1948 presidential campaign 549: 497:Assistant Secretary of War 425:Assistant Secretary of War 152:15th National Commander of 4159:Secretary of the Interior 3973:Secretary of the Treasury 3820: 3235: 2834: 2289: 2143: 2134: 2094: 2066: 2053:U.S. Secretary of Defense 2050: 2042: 2037: 2027: 2015: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1707:Warren, James A. (2005). 1086:. New York: Times Books. 884:The Washington Daily News 866:Chief of Naval Operations 580:Defense budget reductions 461:Charleston, West Virginia 453:Clarksburg, West Virginia 419:who served as the second 402: 193: 160: 106: 54: 42: 30: 4376:Burials in West Virginia 4190:Secretary of Agriculture 4024:Kenneth Claiborne Royall 1994:Offices and distinctions 1952:West Virginia University 1637:Ujifusa, Steven (2013). 1139:LaFeber, Walter (1993). 532:Roosevelt administration 348:305th Ammunition Train, 3227:National commanders of 1975:The Political Graveyard 1956:Louis A. Johnson papers 1380:Hess, Jerry N. (1972). 1158:Lane, Peter J. (2003). 694:United States Air Force 596:According to historian 4361:American Episcopalians 4266:Lewis B. Schwellenbach 2017:National Commander of 1897:Shakespeare, William, 1842:McFarland, pp. 193–196 1688:. U.S. Naval Institute 1517:Davis, Vincent, p. 102 744:Revolt of the Admirals 728:. Abruptly resigning, 710:Revolt of the Admirals 704:Revolt of the Admirals 661: 449:University of Virginia 296:University of Virginia 4431:West Virginia lawyers 4221:Secretary of Commerce 4140:Secretary of the Navy 3944:Edward Stettinius Jr. 2659:Assistant Secretaries 2012:Henry L. Stevens, Jr. 1745:on November 13, 2002. 1664:Army and Navy Journal 1105:. New York: Praeger. 925:North Atlantic Treaty 870:Secretary of the Navy 730:Secretary of the Navy 679:Marine Corps birthday 670:Marine Corps aviation 656: 626:Joint Chiefs of Staff 587:Department of Defense 550:Further information: 520:Franklin D. Roosevelt 457:Steptoe & Johnson 122:Franklin D. Roosevelt 4035:Secretary of Defense 3981:Henry Morgenthau Jr. 1783:Weider History Group 1424:Hofmann, George F., 1082:Blair, Clay (2003). 570:Secretary of Defense 546:Secretary of Defense 512:Harry Hines Woodring 409:Louis Arthur Johnson 207:Louis Arthur Johnson 134:Harry Hines Woodring 4235:W. Averell Harriman 4018:Robert P. Patterson 3229:The American Legion 2038:Government offices 2020:The American Legion 1716:4th Marine Division 1579:on October 26, 2012 1042:William Shakespeare 1019:General of the Army 873:Francis P. Matthews 828:W. Stuart Symington 815:House investigation 805:Maritime Commission 634:Chairman of the JCS 431:from 1932 to 1933. 155:The American Legion 146:Robert P. Patterson 4252:Secretary of Labor 4210:Charles F. Brannan 4173:Julius Albert Krug 4129:Jesse M. Donaldson 4123:Robert E. Hannegan 4109:Postmaster General 4098:James P. McGranery 4055:George C. Marshall 3993:John Wesley Snyder 3956:George C. Marshall 3936:Secretary of State 2070:George C. Marshall 2046:James V. Forrestal 1901:Act One, Scene One 1680:(September 2011). 1022:George C. Marshall 857:in the Pentagon." 819:In June 1949, the 764:B-29 Superfortress 652:Richard L. Conolly 574:James V. Forrestal 336:Lieutenant Colonel 326:United States Army 94:George C. Marshall 4287: 4286: 4281: 4280: 4241:Charles W. Sawyer 4198:Claude R. Wickard 4092:J. Howard McGrath 3852: 3851: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3189: 3007:Under Secretaries 2832: 2831: 2804:Under Secretaries 2300: 2299: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2075: 2067:Succeeded by 2061: 2028:Succeeded by 1923:clarksburg.va.gov 1862:McCullough, David 1851:McFarland, p. 315 1821:978-0-415-97975-7 1771:Zabecki, David T. 1606:McFarland, p. 203 1384:. Truman Library. 1310:978-0-253-34626-1 969:Chinese Civil War 965:Chinese Communist 961:national security 778:aircraft carriers 698:invasion of Korea 638:J. Lawton Collins 505:military aviation 406: 405: 220:Roanoke, Virginia 4453: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4316: 4315: 4304: 4303: 4302: 4295: 4272:Maurice J. Tobin 4229:Henry A. Wallace 4204:Clinton Anderson 4179:Oscar L. Chapman 4072:Attorney General 4061:Robert A. Lovett 4049:Louis A. Johnson 4012:Henry L. Stimson 4004:Secretary of War 3929: 3928: 3916:Alben W. Barkley 3879: 3872: 3865: 3856: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3833: 3829: 3828: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3426: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3269: 3262: 3255: 3250: 3243: 3221: 3214: 3207: 3198: 2863: 2847: 2840: 2355: 2327: 2320: 2313: 2304: 2295: 2140: 2121: 2114: 2107: 2098: 2085: 2056: 2043:Preceded by 2022: 2010:Preceded by 2002: 1990: 1970:Louis A. Johnson 1961:Louis A. Johnson 1934: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1915: 1909: 1895: 1889: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1858: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1808:Lewis, Adrian R. 1804: 1798: 1797: 1791: 1789: 1779:Military History 1767: 1761: 1760: 1754: 1746: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1704: 1698: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1674: 1668: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1634: 1628: 1625: 1616: 1613: 1607: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1563: 1557: 1554: 1539: 1526:Davis, Vincent, 1524: 1518: 1515: 1509: 1502: 1496: 1493: 1484: 1481: 1472: 1465: 1459: 1456: 1450: 1437:Davis, Vincent, 1435: 1429: 1422: 1416: 1413: 1398: 1395: 1386: 1385: 1377: 1371: 1370: 1360: 1354: 1347: 1341: 1334: 1328: 1318: 1312: 1290: 1284: 1283: 1272: 1244: 1238: 1230: 1228: 1226: 1204: 1194: 1173: 1154: 1135: 1116: 1097: 988:Failure in Korea 862:Louis E. Denfeld 733:John L. Sullivan 716:aircraft carrier 509:Secretary of War 397:Legion of Honour 382:Defensive Sector 354:397th Infantry, 317:Military service 277: 275: 271: 237:Washington, D.C. 233: 217:January 10, 1891 216: 214: 198:Personal details 184: 174: 165: 142: 130: 111: 90: 78: 59: 35: 21: 4461: 4460: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4336: 4335: 4334: 4324: 4322: 4310: 4300: 4298: 4290: 4288: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4260:Frances Perkins 4246: 4215: 4184: 4167:Harold L. Ickes 4153: 4148:James Forrestal 4134: 4117:Frank C. Walker 4103: 4066: 4043:James Forrestal 4029: 3998: 3967: 3950:James F. Byrnes 3930: 3926: 3921: 3896: 3893:Harry S. Truman 3883: 3853: 3848: 3836: 3824: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3524: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3480: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3327: 3322: 3315: 3308: 3301: 3296: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3265: 3258: 3253: 3246: 3239: 3231: 3225: 3195: 3186: 3008: 3001: 2868: 2858: 2855: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2828: 2805: 2798: 2660: 2653: 2360: 2350: 2347: 2340: 2331: 2301: 2296: 2287: 2141: 2130: 2125: 2090: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2063: 2059:Harry S. Truman 2055: 2048: 2033: 2031:Edward A. Hayes 2024: 2018: 2013: 1995: 1986: 1943: 1938: 1937: 1927: 1925: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1822: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1787: 1785: 1769: 1768: 1764: 1747: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1691: 1689: 1676: 1675: 1671: 1660: 1656: 1649: 1636: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1542: 1525: 1521: 1516: 1512: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1487: 1482: 1475: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1453: 1436: 1432: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1401: 1396: 1389: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1369:. June 6, 1949. 1362: 1361: 1357: 1348: 1344: 1335: 1331: 1319: 1315: 1291: 1287: 1274: 1273: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1231: 1224: 1222: 1202: 1197: 1191: 1176: 1157: 1151: 1138: 1132: 1119: 1113: 1100: 1094: 1081: 1077: 1075:Further reading 1060: 1030: 990: 967:victory in the 941: 909: 817: 801:naval designers 712: 706: 582: 562:Harry S. Truman 554: 548: 493: 485:American Legion 467:Elected to the 437: 429:American Legion 393:Military awards 388: 360: 311:Medal for Merit 307:Civilian awards 279: 267: 263: 247:Political party 235: 231: 222:, United States 218: 212: 210: 209: 208: 188:Edward A. Hayes 182: 172: 166: 161: 153: 140: 128: 112: 107: 88: 82:James Forrestal 76: 70:Harry S. Truman 60: 55: 38: 37:Johnson in 1949 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4459: 4457: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4332: 4320: 4308: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4256: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4245: 4244: 4238: 4232: 4225: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4163: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4144: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4132: 4126: 4120: 4113: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4080:Francis Biddle 4076: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4039: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4028: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4008: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3990: 3987:Fred M. Vinson 3984: 3977: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3966: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3940: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3913: 3906: 3904: 3902:Vice President 3898: 3897: 3884: 3882: 3881: 3874: 3867: 3859: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3834: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3478: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3427: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3398: 3393: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3306: 3299: 3294: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3263: 3256: 3251: 3244: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3226: 3224: 3223: 3216: 3209: 3201: 3192: 3191: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3013: 3011: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2873: 2871: 2860: 2859:(1947–present) 2850: 2849: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2810: 2808: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2655: 2654: 2652: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2365: 2363: 2352: 2342: 2341: 2332: 2330: 2329: 2322: 2315: 2307: 2298: 2297: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2144: 2142: 2135: 2132: 2131: 2126: 2124: 2123: 2116: 2109: 2101: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2088: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2073: 2068: 2065: 2057:Served under: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2034: 2029: 2026: 2014: 2011: 2007: 2006: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1984: 1983: 1978: 1967: 1958: 1942: 1941:External links 1939: 1936: 1935: 1910: 1890: 1881: 1875:978-0671456542 1874: 1853: 1844: 1835: 1828:Floyd L. Parks 1820: 1799: 1762: 1722: 1699: 1669: 1654: 1648:978-1451645095 1647: 1629: 1617: 1608: 1599: 1590: 1558: 1540: 1519: 1510: 1497: 1485: 1473: 1460: 1451: 1449:(1980), p. 102 1430: 1417: 1399: 1387: 1372: 1355: 1342: 1329: 1324:, 6 June 1949 1313: 1285: 1263: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1254: 1251: 1245: 1195: 1189: 1174: 1155: 1149: 1136: 1130: 1117: 1111: 1098: 1092: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1066: 1059: 1056: 1029: 1026: 989: 986: 949:Mainland China 940: 937: 917:Berlin Airlift 908: 905: 837:atomic weapons 816: 813: 708:Main article: 705: 702: 598:Walter LaFeber 581: 578: 547: 544: 516:fall of France 492: 489: 465:Washington, DC 436: 433: 404: 403: 400: 399: 394: 390: 389: 387: 386: 385: 384: 379: 368: 366: 362: 361: 359: 358: 352: 345: 343: 339: 338: 333: 329: 328: 323: 322:Branch/service 319: 318: 314: 313: 308: 304: 303: 293: 289: 288: 285: 281: 280: 265: 261: 260: 258: 254: 253: 248: 244: 243: 234:(aged 75) 230:April 24, 1966 228: 224: 223: 206: 204: 200: 199: 195: 194: 191: 190: 185: 179: 178: 175: 169: 168: 158: 157: 149: 148: 143: 137: 136: 131: 125: 124: 119: 115: 114: 104: 103: 97: 96: 91: 85: 84: 79: 73: 72: 67: 63: 62: 52: 51: 44: 43: 40: 39: 36: 28: 27: 24: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4458: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4331: 4330:United States 4321: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4307: 4297: 4293: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4211: 4208: 4205: 4202: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4137: 4130: 4127: 4124: 4121: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4096: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4059: 4056: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4022: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3994: 3991: 3988: 3985: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3960: 3957: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3917: 3914: 3911: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3891: 3887: 3880: 3875: 3873: 3868: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3857: 3844: 3835: 3832: 3823: 3822: 3819: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3757: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3425: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3311: 3307: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3217: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3203: 3202: 3199: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3018: 3015: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2857: 2851: 2846: 2839: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2682: 2680: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2316: 2314: 2309: 2308: 2305: 2294: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2129: 2122: 2117: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2086: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2054: 2047: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2021: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1976: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1900: 1894: 1891: 1885: 1882: 1877: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1848: 1845: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1831:predicament.' 1829: 1823: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1766: 1763: 1758: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1733:(June 2000). 1732: 1726: 1723: 1719: 1717: 1710: 1703: 1700: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1665: 1658: 1655: 1650: 1644: 1640: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1615:Summers 1996. 1612: 1609: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1591: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1562: 1559: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1536:0-87855-747-4 1533: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1511: 1508:, pp. 486-487 1507: 1501: 1498: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1448: 1447:0-87855-747-4 1444: 1440: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1418: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1400: 1397:LaFeber 1993. 1394: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1376: 1373: 1368: 1367: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1340:, 6 June 1949 1339: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1302:0-253-34626-6 1299: 1295: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1258: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1236: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1190:9780253111647 1186: 1182: 1181: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1162: 1156: 1152: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1112:0-87855-747-4 1108: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1093:9780812916706 1089: 1085: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1035: 1027: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 994: 987: 985: 982: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 956: 954: 953:hydrogen bomb 950: 946: 938: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 913:Berlin Crisis 906: 904: 902: 898: 897: 889: 886: 885: 879: 874: 871: 867: 863: 858: 856: 850: 847: 841: 838: 833: 832:United States 829: 826: 822: 814: 812: 810: 809:United States 806: 802: 798: 797: 796:United States 790: 786: 785:landing craft 781: 779: 776: 774: 767: 765: 760: 757: 751: 749: 745: 741: 736: 734: 731: 727: 726:United States 723: 722: 721:United States 717: 711: 703: 701: 699: 695: 689: 687: 682: 680: 676: 671: 667: 660: 655: 653: 650: 645: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 622: 618: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 594: 592: 588: 579: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 553: 545: 543: 541: 537: 533: 527: 525: 524:Henry Stimson 521: 517: 513: 510: 506: 502: 498: 490: 488: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 434: 432: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 401: 398: 395: 391: 383: 380: 378: 377:Meuse-Argonne 375: 374: 373: 370: 369: 367: 363: 357: 356:95th Division 353: 351: 350:80th Division 347: 346: 344: 340: 337: 334: 330: 327: 324: 320: 315: 312: 309: 305: 301: 297: 294: 290: 286: 282: 259: 255: 252: 249: 245: 242: 241:United States 238: 229: 225: 221: 205: 201: 196: 192: 189: 186: 180: 177:Henry Stevens 176: 170: 164: 159: 156: 150: 147: 144: 138: 135: 132: 126: 123: 120: 116: 110: 105: 102: 98: 95: 92: 86: 83: 80: 74: 71: 68: 64: 58: 53: 50: 45: 41: 34: 29: 25:Louis Johnson 22: 19: 4086:Tom C. Clark 4048: 3962:Dean Acheson 3909: 3526:W. Galbraith 3396:Scheiberling 3328: 3248:F. Galbraith 3032:A. Alexander 2937:C. Alexander 2778: 2724:Breckinridge 2152: 2064:1949 – 1950 2051: 2025:1932 – 1933 2016: 1985: 1973: 1965:Find a Grave 1926:. Retrieved 1922: 1913: 1905:lost and won 1904: 1902: 1898: 1893: 1884: 1865: 1856: 1847: 1838: 1825: 1811: 1802: 1793: 1786:. Retrieved 1778: 1773:(May 2009). 1765: 1751:cite journal 1743:the original 1738: 1725: 1712: 1708: 1702: 1690:. Retrieved 1685: 1678:Lehman, John 1672: 1662: 1657: 1638: 1632: 1611: 1602: 1593: 1583:December 25, 1581:. Retrieved 1577:the original 1570: 1561: 1556:Krulak 1999. 1527: 1522: 1513: 1505: 1500: 1468: 1463: 1454: 1438: 1433: 1425: 1420: 1375: 1364: 1358: 1350: 1345: 1337: 1332: 1321: 1316: 1293: 1288: 1279: 1235:cite journal 1223:. Retrieved 1210: 1206: 1179: 1160: 1140: 1121: 1102: 1083: 1052: 1045: 1039: 1031: 1015: 1007: 995: 991: 981:Dean Acheson 977: 957: 947:regime from 942: 910: 901:Valley Forge 900: 896:Valley Forge 895: 890: 882: 859: 851: 842: 831: 818: 808: 795: 782: 772: 768: 752: 748:Convair B-36 740:supercarrier 737: 725: 720: 713: 690: 683: 662: 657: 646: 644:effective. 641: 630:Omar Bradley 623: 619: 614:Marine Corps 595: 591:armed forces 583: 555: 536:I. G. Farben 528: 494: 455:; his firm, 438: 408: 407: 262:Ruth Maxwell 232:(1966-04-24) 183:Succeeded by 162: 141:Succeeded by 108: 89:Succeeded by 56: 18: 4351:1966 deaths 4346:1891 births 4274:(1948–1953) 4268:(1945–1948) 4243:(1948–1953) 4237:(1946–1948) 4231:(1945–1946) 4212:(1948–1953) 4206:(1945–1948) 4181:(1949–1953) 4175:(1946–1949) 4169:(1945–1946) 4150:(1945–1947) 4131:(1947–1953) 4125:(1945–1947) 4100:(1952–1953) 4094:(1949–1952) 4088:(1945–1949) 4063:(1951–1953) 4057:(1950–1951) 4051:(1949–1950) 4045:(1947–1949) 4020:(1945–1947) 3995:(1946–1953) 3989:(1945–1946) 3964:(1949–1953) 3958:(1947–1949) 3952:(1945–1947) 3918:(1949–1953) 3912:(1945–1949) 3895:(1945–1953) 3698:R. G. Smith 3651:DiFrancesco 3579:R. C. Smith 3564:Wagonseller 3009:of the Army 2869:of the Army 2867:Secretaries 2856:of the Army 2474:G. Crawford 2414:W. Crawford 2359:Secretaries 2351:(1789–1947) 2203:Schlesinger 1954:houses the 1415:Blair 2003. 1028:Later years 1010:fiscal year 602:atomic bomb 566:White House 473:World War I 372:World War I 173:Preceded by 129:Preceded by 77:Preceded by 4340:Categories 3508:D. Johnson 3329:L. Johnson 3310:Bodenhamer 3042:E. Johnson 2854:Department 2779:L. Johnson 2744:Wainwright 2709:Meiklejohn 2544:R. Lincoln 2529:J. Cameron 2499:S. Cameron 2369:B. Lincoln 2346:Department 2218:Weinberger 2198:Richardson 1888:McCullough 1795:civilians. 1661:Quoted in 1627:Wolk 2000. 1597:Lane 2003. 1259:References 1150:0070358532 1131:0870217852 945:Kuomintang 789:mothballed 435:Early life 413:politician 251:Democratic 213:1891-01-10 4306:Biography 3890:President 3767:Dellinger 3666:Detweiler 3482:McKneally 3379:Stambaugh 3182:Camarillo 3177:McPherson 3097:Augustine 3077:McGiffert 3037:Bendetsen 2814:Patterson 2784:Patterson 2644:Patterson 2589:Dickinson 2509:Schofield 2459:J. Porter 2429:P. Porter 2404:Armstrong 2379:Pickering 2148:Forrestal 1225:March 18, 1219:0031-1723 1170:465214152 999:rearguard 921:air cargo 894:USS 773:Forrestal 719:USS 292:Education 167:1932–1933 163:In office 118:President 113:1937–1940 109:In office 66:President 57:In office 4318:Politics 3831:Category 3812:Seehafer 3735:Conatser 3589:Hamilton 3554:Matthews 3408:Griffith 3390:Atherton 3364:Chadwick 3342:Belgrano 3297:Spafford 3260:MacNider 3172:McCarthy 3157:Westphal 3142:Brownlee 3137:Dahlberg 3067:Ignatius 3052:Finucane 3027:Voorhees 2992:McCarthy 2932:Hoffmann 2927:Callaway 2922:Froehlke 2794:Petersen 2774:Woodring 2754:MacNider 2749:D. Davis 2739:Williams 2729:Ingraham 2634:Woodring 2614:D. Davis 2599:Garrison 2549:Endicott 2484:J. Davis 2444:Poinsett 2394:Dearborn 2338:the Army 2253:R. Gates 2248:Rumsfeld 2223:Carlucci 2208:Rumsfeld 2188:Clifford 2183:McNamara 2178:T. Gates 2158:Marshall 1928:June 21, 1864:(1992). 1810:(2007). 1788:June 10, 1739:Shipmate 1686:usni.org 1471:, p. 474 1058:See also 935:(1949). 907:Cold War 878:reprisal 855:Puritans 589:and the 445:Virginia 417:attorney 284:Children 4292:Portals 3886:Cabinet 3843:Commons 3807:Troiola 3802:Dillard 3792:Reistad 3782:Schmidt 3777:Barnett 3740:Rehbein 3714:Brieden 3661:Thiesen 3594:Kogutek 3537:Patrick 3470:Gleason 3452:Collins 3447:Connell 3359:Doherty 3353:Colmery 3323:Stevens 3285:McQuigg 3241:D'Olier 3132:Rostker 3117:Shannon 3107:Ambrose 3102:LaBerge 2997:Wormuth 2982:Fanning 2957:Caldera 2897:Brucker 2892:Stevens 2759:Robbins 2734:Crowell 2684:Wolcott 2639:Stimson 2594:Stimson 2579:W. Taft 2554:Proctor 2534:McCrary 2524:A. Taft 2519:Belknap 2514:Rawlins 2504:Stanton 2464:Wilkins 2454:Spencer 2424:Barbour 2419:Calhoun 2384:McHenry 2258:Panetta 2173:McElroy 2153:Johnson 1899:Macbeth 1692:June 9, 1326:Article 1047:Macbeth 649:Admiral 556:In the 477:captain 441:Roanoke 365:Battles 278: 266: 4262:(1945) 4200:(1945) 4119:(1945) 4082:(1945) 4026:(1947) 4014:(1945) 3983:(1945) 3946:(1945) 3797:Oxford 3750:Foster 3720:Cadmus 3708:Conley 3703:Santos 3686:Miller 3681:Jordan 3671:Ludwig 3656:Munson 3646:Turner 3641:Epling 3635:Gierke 3619:Renaud 3604:Keller 3574:Rogers 3548:Geiger 3542:Chamie 3498:Powers 3463:Daniel 3457:Wagner 3437:Wilson 3413:O'Neal 3402:Stelle 3384:Waring 3374:Warner 3347:Murphy 3317:O'Neil 3303:McNutt 3291:Savage 3267:Owsley 3167:Murphy 3162:Carson 3127:Walker 3122:Reeder 3092:Staudt 3087:BeLieu 3057:Milton 3047:Slezak 3017:Draper 2977:McHugh 2967:Harvey 2877:Royall 2824:Draper 2819:Royall 2806:of War 2789:McCloy 2764:Hurley 2719:Oliver 2714:Sanger 2694:Eckert 2679:Tucker 2674:Watson 2661:of War 2649:Royall 2624:Hurley 2584:Wright 2564:Lamont 2559:Elkins 2539:Ramsey 2479:Conrad 2409:Monroe 2399:Eustis 2389:Dexter 2361:of War 2348:of War 2283:Austin 2273:Mattis 2268:Carter 2228:Cheney 2168:Wilson 2163:Lovett 1872: 1866:Truman 1818: 1645: 1534: 1445: 1308: 1300: 1217: 1187: 1168: 1147: 1128: 1109: 1090: 1034:stroke 973:NSC 68 939:NSC 68 864:, the 775:-class 759:MiG-15 756:Soviet 666:Stalin 481:France 463:, and 272: 257:Spouse 3787:Rohan 3762:Koutz 3730:Morin 3692:Lance 3676:Frank 3629:Comer 3614:Bacon 3609:Kreul 3599:Flynt 3584:Carey 3569:Wiles 3559:Eaton 3532:Doyle 3519:Davis 3513:James 3503:Foley 3493:Bacon 3488:Burke 3476:Moore 3442:Gough 3431:Cocke 3424:Craig 3418:Brown 3369:Kelly 3336:Hayes 3280:Drain 3274:Quinn 3254:Emery 3147:Geren 3112:Stone 3072:Resor 3062:Ailes 2987:Esper 2972:Geren 2962:White 2947:Stone 2942:Marsh 2917:Resor 2912:Ailes 2907:Vance 2902:Stahr 2769:Payne 2699:Grant 2669:Scott 2609:Weeks 2604:Baker 2569:Alger 2489:Floyd 2469:Marcy 2434:Eaton 2278:Esper 2263:Hagel 2243:Cohen 2238:Perry 2233:Aspin 2213:Brown 2193:Laird 1203:(PDF) 1003:Busan 540:India 276:) 268:( 264: 3910:None 3772:Helm 3756:Wong 3745:Hill 3725:Bock 3624:Dean 3152:Ford 3082:Beal 3022:Gray 2952:West 2887:Pace 2882:Gray 2689:Dana 2629:Dern 2619:Good 2574:Root 2494:Holt 2449:Bell 2439:Cass 2374:Knox 2336:and 1946:The 1930:2020 1870:ISBN 1816:ISBN 1790:2022 1757:link 1694:2022 1643:ISBN 1585:2008 1572:TIME 1532:ISBN 1443:ISBN 1366:TIME 1351:Time 1338:Time 1322:Time 1306:ISBN 1298:ISBN 1241:link 1227:2020 1215:ISSN 1185:ISBN 1166:OCLC 1145:ISBN 1126:ISBN 1107:ISBN 1088:ISBN 929:NATO 642:more 610:Navy 606:Army 415:and 342:Unit 332:Rank 274:1920 227:Died 203:Born 47:2nd 3888:of 2704:Doe 1972:at 1963:at 1950:at 1044:'s 794:SS 612:or 495:As 479:in 300:LLB 4342:: 1921:. 1824:. 1792:. 1781:. 1777:. 1753:}} 1749:{{ 1737:. 1684:. 1620:^ 1569:. 1543:^ 1488:^ 1476:^ 1402:^ 1390:^ 1304:, 1278:. 1267:^ 1237:}} 1233:{{ 1211:11 1209:. 1205:. 1024:. 1005:. 975:. 803:, 608:, 593:. 526:. 487:. 443:, 270:m. 239:, 4294:: 3878:e 3871:t 3864:v 3220:e 3213:t 3206:v 2326:e 2319:t 2312:v 2120:e 2113:t 2106:v 1932:. 1878:. 1759:) 1696:. 1651:. 1587:. 1282:. 1243:) 1229:. 1193:. 1172:. 1153:. 1134:. 1115:. 1096:. 302:) 298:( 287:2 215:) 211:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index