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because of its ability to respond to, reflect, and explore the context which it inhabits. Patricia
Phillips describes the "social desire for an art that is contemporary and timely, that responds to and reflects its temporal and circumstantial context." Public art is an arena for investigation, exploration and articulation of the dense and diverse public landscape. Public art asks its audience to re-imagine, re-experience, re-view and re-live. In the design field, a heavy focus has been turned onto the city as needing to discover new and inspired ways to re-use, re-establish and re-invent the city, in step with an invigorated interest in rejuvenating our cities for a sustainable future. Contemporary design has become obsessed with the need to save the modern city from an industrialized, commercialized, urban pit of a death bed. In some cases, dance, music and other cultural events organised by the local community have been crucial in the process of revitalisation of some decayed public spaces.
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reflected in
Michael Sorkin's and Mike Davis' declaration of "the end of public space" and the "destruction of any truly democratic urban spaces." Another side of the debate, however, argues that it is people who apply meaning to public space, wherever it may be. It has been suggested that the concepts of public, space, democracy, and citizenship are being redefined by people through lived experience. Discussion has surfaced around the idea that, historically, public space has been inherently contradictory in the way that it has always been exclusive in who has been able to participate. This has caused the "counterpublics", as identified by Nancy Fraser, to establish their own public spaces to respond to their own concerns. These spaces are in constant flux, and in response, its users restructure and reinterpret physical space. An example of this is in the African-American neighbourhood,
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cultural infrastructure underlying
American public space. The New Deal projects have been credited with significantly contributing to the quality of American life and encouraging unity between all aspects of the community. It has been recently argued, however, that the democratic ideal of public life through the use of public space has deteriorated. As our cities accelerate towards segregation (social, economic, cultural, ethnic), the opportunity for public interaction is on the decline. John Chase writes, "The importance of voluntary and obligatory participation in civic life has been usurped by the consciousness of the arbitrary nature of assigned cultural meanings and by the increasingly important role that consumption of goods and services plays in the formation of individual identity."
264:(that is, screaming epithets at passers-by can be stopped; proselytizing one's religion probably cannot). In a private—that is, non-public—forum, the government can control one's speech to a much greater degree; for instance, protesting one's objection to medicare reform will not be tolerated in the gallery of the United States Senate. This is not to say that the government can control what one says in their own home or to others; it can only control government property in this way. The concept of a public forum is not limited to physical space or public property, for example, a newspaper might be considered a public forum, but see
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singular entity is lost." The process of developing a narrative-myth in urban design involves analysing and understanding the unique aspects of the local culture based on
Cassirer's five distinctive "symbolic forms". They are myth and religion, art, language, history and science; aspects often disregarded by professional practice. Aravot suggests that the narrative-myth "imposes meaning specifically on what is still inexplicable", i.e. the essence of a city.
47:
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576:. Here, a parking lot has evolved into a scene of intense commercial and social activity. Locals gather here to meet and socialise, sell and consume goods. The example has been used to illustrate that the historical ideal of fixed public space around a monument is not viable for a contemporary diverse social range as "no single physical space can represent a completely inclusive 'space of democracy'."
301:
540:' of the people; a political, social and cultural arena. Of the thirteen colonies that became the United States, three were comprehensively planned with integrated physical, social, and economic elements. These planned colonies of Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Georgia each placed emphasis on public space, in particular the public square. The plan for Georgia, known as the
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140:, are public spaces, although they tend to have restricted areas and greater limits upon use. Although not considered public space, privately owned buildings or property visible from sidewalks and public thoroughfares may affect the public visual landscape, for example, by outdoor advertising. Recently, the concept of
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Space design is defined as the "art and science of designing and arranging physical spaces to make them more conducive to human flourishing and wellbeing. This process involves considering factors such as lighting, colour, furniture layout, and overall atmosphere to create a space that is both
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projects. The New Deal was a brief period in the US under
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's government that produced a huge number of public works in an economic effort to boost employment during the depression. The result, however, was more than this. They constituted a legacy of what has been called the
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Measures are taken to make the public space less attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting access to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed areas. Police forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' members of the
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Iris Aravot puts forward an interesting approach to the urban design process, with the idea of the 'narrative-myth'. Aravot argues that "conventional analysis and problem solving methods result in fragmentation...of the authentic experience of a city... something of the liveliness of the city as a
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One crucial aspect of space design is the creation of a welcoming and inclusive environment that satisfies people's social and emotional needs outside of their home and work. This is often referred to as the "third place" concept, which describes public locales of social interaction that provide
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One of the primary goals of space design is to create an environment that promotes positive emotional responses in its occupants. Studies have shown that people have a natural inclination towards certain types of spaces, such as those with natural lighting, open layouts, and comfortable seating.
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Public space is commonly shared and created for open usage throughout the community, whereas private space is owned by individuals or corporations. The area is built for a range of various types of recreation and entertainment. Limitations are imposed in the space to prevent certain actions from
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This sense of flux and change, informs how contemporary public art has evolved. Temporal art in public spaces has been a long established practice. But the presence of public art has become increasingly prevalent and important within our contemporary cities. Temporal public art is so important
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Whilst it is generally considered that everyone has a right to access and use public space, as opposed to private space which may have restrictions, there has been some academic interest in how public spaces are managed to exclude certain groups - specifically homeless people and young people.
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In the United States the right of the people to engage in speech and assembly in public places may not be unreasonably restricted by the federal or state government. The government cannot usually limit one's speech beyond what is reasonable in a public space, which is considered to be a public
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Modern architectural critics have lamented on the 'narrative of loss' within the public sphere. That is, modern society has withdrawn from public life that used to inform city centres. Political and social needs, and forums for expression, can now be accessed from the home. This sentiment is
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Contemporary perception of public space has now branched and grown into a multitude of non-traditional sites with a variety of programs in mind. It is for this reason that the way in which design deals with public space as a discipline, has become such a diverse and indefinable field.
416:(BID), private organizations are allowed to tax local businesses and retail establishments so that they might provide special private services such as policing and increased surveillance, trash removal, or street renovation, all of which once fell under the control of public funds.
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Another important consideration in space design is the concept of flow, or the ease with which people can move through a space. This involves designing spaces that are intuitive and free from obstructions, allowing users to navigate them without feeling frustrated or disoriented.
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have taken significant control of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy groups set up to manage what is considered unmanageable by public agencies. Corporate sponsorship of public leisure areas is ubiquitous, giving open space to the public in exchange for higher
348:'s notion of the right to the city in articulating his argument. While democracy and public space do not entirely coincide, it is the potential of their intersection that becomes politically important. Other geographers like Gill Valentine have focused on
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Parks, malls, beaches, waiting rooms, etc., may be closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is generally not considered a restriction on public use. Entry to public parks cannot be restricted based upon a user's residence.
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If
Members of the public had no right whatsoever to distribute leaflets or engage in other expressive activity on government-owned property...then there would be little if any opportunity to exercise their rights of freedom of expression.
1099:
Michael Sorkin, "Introduction", and Mike Davis, "Fortress Los
Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space," in Michael Sorkin, ed. Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of Public Space (New York: Hill and Wang,
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Historically, public space in the west has been limited to town centres, plazas, church squares, i.e. nearly always engineered around a central monument, which informs the program of the space. These spaces acted as the
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is an example of what is intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can enter and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated to the purpose of the shop are at the discretion of the proprietor.
324:. Through the landscape and spatial organization of public space, the social construction is considered to be privately ruled by the implicit and explicit rules and expectations of the space that are enforced.
179:', which is an element of the larger concept of social space. Public spaces have often been valued as democratic spaces of congregation and political participation, where groups can vocalize their rights.
1121:
Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the
Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Bruce Robbins, ed., The Phantom Public Sphere (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1291:
Hoidn, Barbara. “Demo:Polis –The Right to Public Space” in Tom
Bieling (Ed.): Design (&) Activism: Perspectives on Design as Activism and Activism as Design, Milano: Mimesis, 2019, p. 87–96
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Public space, as a term and as a concept in design, is volatile. There is much conversation around what constitutes public space, what role it plays, and how design should approach and deal with it.
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1055:. Charleston: McCarter and Co., 1856. See pp. 358-394 for design details; Carolina thus far has received less attention in the urban design literature than Pennsylvania or Georgia
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created a unique design in which a public square was created for every ward of forty residential lots and four civic or commercial lots. The design has been preserved in the
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Human geographers have argued that in spite of the exclusions that are part of public space, it can nonetheless be conceived of as a site where democracy becomes possible.
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efficient and engaging for its users. Space design is commonly employed in a variety of settings, including homes, offices, restaurants, and retail stores, to name a few.
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Margaret
Crawford. 1995, "Contesting the Public Realm: Struggles over Public Space in Los Angeles", Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Sep, 1995) pp. 4-9
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and visibility in public spaces, which brings a theatrical component or 'space of appearance' that is central to the functioning of a democratic space.
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Valentine, Gill, 1996, Children should be seen and not heard: the production and transgression of adults' public space . Urban Geography 17, 205-220.
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Beginning roughly in the 1960s, the privatization of public space (especially in urban centers) has faced criticism from citizen groups such as the
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Patricie C. Philips, 1989, "Temporality and Public Art", Art Journal, Vol. 48, No. 4, Critical Issues in Public Art (Winter, 1989), pp. 331-335
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Filming in public spaces is legal, but shopping malls are privately owned properties and often require permission for photography and video.
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are early examples of public space. Malls, regardless of private ownership percentage, are examples of 'public space' since no fees or paid
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are required for entry. However, most indoor shopping malls and strip malls are private property and subject to the rights of the owners.
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Maasik, Sonia, and Jack Solomon. Signs of Life in the USA Readings on Popular Culture for Writers. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006.
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Gutiérrez, F., Törmä, I. Urban revitalisation with music and dance in the Port of Veracruz, Mexico. Urban Des Int 25, 328–337 (2020).
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public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are implicitly excluded from some spaces.
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In Nordic countries, like Norway, Sweden, Finland, and also Estonia, all nature areas are considered public space, due to a law, the
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Iris Aravot, "Narrative-Myth and Urban Design", Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 49, No. 2 (Nov., 1995), pp. 79-91
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occurring—public behavior that is considered obnoxious or out of character (i.e., drug and alcohol consumption, urinating,
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has been advanced to enhance the experience of pedestrians in public space jointly used by automobiles and other vehicles.
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Mitchell, Don. 2003, The Right to the City: Social Justice and the Fight for Public Space. New York: The Guilford Press.
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are typically considered public space. To a limited extent, government buildings which are open to the public, such as
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1029:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977. Chapters 3 and 5 discuss the designs of Pennsylvania and Georgia
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254:, defending right to poster on public utility poles and hand out leaflets in public government-owned buildings
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A broader meaning of public space or place includes also places where everybody can come if they pay, like a
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Don Mitchell has written extensively on the topic of public space and its relation to democracy, employing
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377:, is a public space that is open to the public, but owned by a private entity, typically a commercial
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1310:"Conclusions of the International Seminar on the Planning of Collectively-Used Spaces in Towns", in:
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The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society
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311:, an example of land with long established rights of access, and equally long-standing restrictions
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Robert D. Leighninger, Jr., 1996, 'Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space',
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may be declared a public place and may be open when the shops are closed. Similarly for halls,
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1042:. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2012. See chapter 3 for design details.
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John Chase, "The Garret, the Boardroom, and the Amusement Park," JAE 47/2 (November 1993)
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links its emergence with the development of democracy. A good example of this is the
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For these "semi-public" spaces stricter rules may apply than outside, e.g. regarding
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175:. The term 'public space' is also often misconstrued to mean other things such as '
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Petersen, Klaus & Allan C. Hutchinson. "Interpreting Censorship in Canada",
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Malone, K. "Children, Youth and Sustainable Cities". Local Environment 6 (1).
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In one of the newer U.S. incarnations of the private-public partnership, the
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have or are permitted to have access, whether on payment or otherwise.
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public spaces to privately owned public spaces is referred to as the
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is a place that is open and accessible to the general public. Roads,
30:"In public" redirects here. For the song by Kelis featuring Nas, see
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Illegal to be Homeless. National Coalition for the Homeless (2004).
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Universal Singular. Public Space Design of the Early 21st Century.
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Restrictions on state action in public spaces in the United States
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1002:"Privately owned public space: where are they and who owns them?"
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Basel/Berlin/Boston: Birkhäuser Verlag, ISBN 978-3-0356-2094-8.
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is a process whereby individuals are able to maintain their
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Public space has also become something of a touchstone for
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as the term has a specific meaning in United States law.
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Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man (New York: Bantam, 1970)
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1205:"The impact of psychological needs on office design"
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54:The examples and perspective in this United States
886:First Amendment to the United States Constitution
72:, or create a new United States, as appropriate.
27:Places generally open and accessible to everyone
468:; sometimes a travelling ticket is required. A
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1314:(Louvain), Vol. 18–19, 1979, pp. 129–135.
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668:psychological comfort and emotional support.
8:
945:. National Coalition for the Homeless. 2004.
861:Section 33 of the Criminal Justice Act 1972.
1242:Oldenburg, Ramon; Brissett, Dennis (1982).
389:of public space, and is a common result of
231:or place to which at the material time the
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1142:https://doi.org/10.1057/s41289-020-00116-8
1081:, Vol. 49, No. 4 (May, 1996), pp. 226-236
1053:A Sketch of the History of South Carolina
296:Controversy regarding restrictions on use
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
958:"Children, Youth and Sustainable Cities"
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1337:European Archive of Urban Public Space
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320:, etc.)--and are supported by law or
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719:History of Public Library Advocacy
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1068:(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989)
1000:Vasagar, Jeevan (11 June 2012).
215:Definition in the United Kingdom
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211:(the right to common passage).
795:Toronto Public Space Committee
280:In some cultures, there is no
223:a “Public place” includes any
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1646:Needle and syringe programmes
1500:Universal access to education
1203:Oseland, Nigel (2009-11-20).
659:Primary goals of Space Design
523:Public space in design theory
414:business improvement district
276:Social norms in public spaces
368:privately owned public space
362:Privately owned public space
1729:Publicly funded health care
1182:. London: RIBA Publishing.
1176:Channon, Ben (2022-02-28).
874:University of Toronto Press
749:Public display of affection
402:Private-public partnerships
284:in a public space, however
68:, discuss the issue on the
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839:. Routledge. p. 549.
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546:Savannah historic district
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66:improve this United States
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1754:National health insurance
1706:Supervised injection site
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1342:Project for Public Spaces
1221:10.1108/14630010911006738
1749:Single-payer health care
1558:Universal basic services
1505:Universal basic services
1179:The Happy Design Toolkit
943:"Illegal to be Homeless"
837:Encyclopedia of the City
637:Approaching urban design
266:forum in the legal sense
1450:Public good (economics)
800:Third place (community)
764:Public Library Advocacy
650:Space Design Definition
448:and streets (including
336:As a site for democracy
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201:Right to common passage
1284:Sonia Curnier (2023).
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1420:Free-culture movement
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835:Caves, R. W. (2004).
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472:is a public place. A
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106:Piazza della Signoria
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1333:at Wikimedia Commons
196:Use of public spaces
56:may not represent a
34:. For the film, see
1834:Public viewing area
1603:Public water system
1591:Municipal broadband
1548:Public broadcasting
1051:Rivers, William J.
1040:The Oglethorpe Plan
774:Reclaim the Streets
734:Mobility transition
714:Guerrilla gardening
704:Freedom of panorama
580:Art in public space
480:is a public space.
398:Open Spaces Society
391:urban redevelopment
1892:Community building
1799:Government auction
1485:Public procurement
1260:10.1007/bf00986754
1038:Wilson, Thomas D.
789:Terrorism Act 2000
784:Street photography
628:Anti-monumentalism
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595:with the artistic
420:Semi-public spaces
379:property developer
370:, also known as a
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1701:Public university
1681:Public open space
1626:Drinking fountain
1586:Telecommunication
1329:Media related to
1244:"The third place"
1189:978-1-003-27789-7
1064:Jurgen Habermas,
965:Local Environment
589:Piazza del Popolo
554:' concept of the
458:railway platforms
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286:civil inattention
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1661:Public bookcase
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1415:Common good
956:Malone, K.
759:Public land
513:skateboards
501:photography
497:advertising
1881:Categories
1829:Public use
1711:Urban park
1651:Public art
1440:Public bad
1312:Monumentum
1012:2012-09-01
914:2011-10-23
822:References
744:Public art
626:See also:
622:Public art
505:propaganda
485:dress code
478:truck stop
407:air rights
342:Geographer
161:visual art
153:philosophy
1268:0162-0436
1229:1463-001X
694:Enclosure
507:, riding
474:rest stop
322:ordinance
122:pavements
70:talk page
32:In Public
1853:Category
1787:See also
1408:Concepts
1008:. London
923:cite web
791:(UK law)
699:Footpath
672:See also
560:New Deal
229:premises
110:Florence
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1865:Commons
1794:Commons
876:, 1999.
684:Busking
538:commons
519:, etc.
493:begging
489:trading
452:) in a
450:skyways
375:(POPOS)
290:privacy
225:highway
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187:tickets
183:Commons
134:beaches
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614:London
593:Cesena
517:Segway
309:London
233:public
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1100:1992)
961:(PDF)
908:(PDF)
901:(PDF)
679:Agora
446:halls
432:, or
430:train
262:forum
130:parks
1293:ISBN
1264:ISSN
1225:ISSN
1184:ISBN
971:(1).
929:link
841:ISBN
616:2016
609:The
515:, a
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