78:) and socialists and communist activists continued to escalate from 1919 to 1921. Revolutionary socialists were engaged in political assassinations, strikes, physical possession of factories, seizures of private land, and riots who often âcoerced smallholdersâ(farmer owners) âas well as laborers into Socialist unions,â causing rural landowners to launch retaliatory assaults against socialist targets. Across the Italian landscape âtrains and barracks, banks and public buildings were attacked by mobs,â while many areas were draped in red banners and were declared to have âpassed wholly into the hands of the Communists.â The rural paramilitary leaders took the position that âviolence could only be met by greater violenceâ in a situation that was almost comparable to a civil war. Mussolini found himself under increasing pressure to reduce the anti-socialist violence, finding it difficult to be put in a position to take a âcategorically antileftist position,â since he had raised the possibility of forming a sort of ânationalist-leftist coalition government.â By 1921, the
219:(PNF). Weeks before the conclave, Mussolini continued to express his preference for the labeling his political organization the âFascist Labor Party,â especially if he could get the support of the General Confederation of Labor. Nonetheless, during meetings at the Third Fascist Congress, he was forced to back down, and drop the word âlaborâ from the partyâs name by Grandi and Balbos. As a result of Mussoliniâs capitulation, the National Fascist Party would not be based on a coalition of labor syndicates, but on an âassociation of the
189:. Considering fascism to be his child, Mussolini wrote that agrarian fascism represented âthe private interests of the most sinister and contemptible classes in Italy.â He soon came to the realization that he had overplayed his hand in his attacks against the agrarian fascists, and finding himself in the minority, he resigned his position as the leader of fascism. If fascism was going to represent nothing but reactionary opposition, Mussolini âclaimed to be prepared to wash his hands of it.â
207:, their deputy-secretary. He was more specific in spelling out his worries, stating that fascism was drifting towards a âpure, authentic and exclusive movement of conservatism and reaction.â Not long after Mussolini tendered his resignation, Fascist National Council rejected his resignation, explaining that all of his potential rivals were âinexperienced.â
202:
remained united in their repudiation of the Pact. Mussolini claimed that he would support the peace pact with all his strength, declaring that âIf
Fascism does not follow me in collaboration with the Socialists, at least no one can force me to follow Fascism.â Within days, another Fascist leader
115:
explained, the ânew mass
Fascismâ of the agrarian squadrists âhad not been created by Mussolini,â but had instead âsprung up around him.â As Mussolini proceeded to ensnare the mostly self-organizing militias under his fascist banner, his movement began to experience a fast-expanding âinflux of
95:
During the 1919 elections, the
Fascists had attempted to court the socialist-left while publicly dubbing himself the âLenin of Italyâ, attempting to âout-socialist the socialistsâ, which resulted in an election where the socialists garnished âforty times as many votes.â This devastating and
86:
Willing to court almost any populist movement, Mussolini found it politically advantageous at first to identify with the nationalistic movement of independent and loosely organized anti-socialist militias, although at the time he âdid not want to lose his position on the left,â since he was
169:(Charter of Carnaro), a constitution written for the seized city of Fiume that combined âmodern syndicalismâ with a âsociety of producers.â However, DâAnnunzio evaded Grandiâs and Balboâs advances by arguing that he had first to consult the stars of a night sky that was noted as overcast.
82:
movement had expanded to the point where almost every political position in Italy was represented, which was encouraged by
Mussoliniâs denials that he had âany programmeâ whatsoever, pointing out that fascism would âappeal simultaneously to âaristocrats and democrats, revolutionaries and
161:
should âreplace
Mussolini.â Grandi and Balbo sought out DâAnnunzio in August 1921, and encouraged him to lead the movement in an âinsurrectionary march on Rome.â This proposed leadership change appealed to younger fascists who supported âneosyndicalist principlesâ found in syndicalist
87:
considering the possibility of a âFascist Labor Partyâ or âNational Labor Party.â Mussolini envisioned a âcoalition of labor syndicalists,â but the increasing violence between socialist and anti-socialist squads was harming his chances to amass a wider political constituency.
44:(CGL) in Rome on August 2 or 3, 1921. The Pact called for âimmediate action to put an end to the threats, assaults, reprisals, acts of vengeance, and personal violence of any description,â by either side for the âmutual respectâ of âall economic organizations.â The Italian
96:
humiliating election defeat pushed
Mussolini towards finding other populist movements that could catapult him into a powerful seat of authority, even though he âbriefly reconsidered emigratingâ in the belief that his movement was finished. The poor state of affairs of the
223:
and their storm squads.â During congressional sessions, Mussolini agreed under pressure by the provincial chieftains to âdisavowâ what some called âthe
Appeasement Pact.â Mussolini finally announced publicly the end of the Pacification Pact in the
152:
decided to dissolve their local chapter to âprotest against the Pact and
Mussoliniâs leadership.â There were at least two secret anti-Mussolini meetings where a cloud of resentment focused on âMussoliniâs lingering leftist loyalties.â Many leading
123:
This put
Mussolini, the former leader of the Italian Socialist Party (1912-1914) and a former Marxist who had supported Leninâs October Revolution in 1917, into an almost impossible position to achieve consensus among his diverse followers.
52:
and others favored
Mussoliniâs peace pact as an attempt at âreconciliation with the Socialists.â Others saw it as a means to form a âgrand coalition of new mass partiesâ to âoverthrow the liberal systems,â via parliament or civil society.
148:, and Piero Marsich, who refused to recognize the pact, creating a serious split. In the city of Bologna, posters appeared that accused âMussolini as a traitor to Fascism.â In many Italian cities, including Florence, the local
56:
In the accord, Mussolini clearly voiced his opposition and contempt for the provincial paramilitary squads and their landowning allies, declaring that they were âthe dullest, deafest, most miserable cast that exists in Italyâ.
181:, regarding them as ârival contenders for the leadership of his movement,â whose violence might precipitate a general defeat by policing and military agencies. To remedy the situation, Mussolini challenged the
197:
Although Mussolini resigned as a member of the executive group of the Central Committee on August 18, 1921, his dramatic gesture failed to accomplish his plan. Instead of falling into line, the agrarian
104:
and 30,000 supportersâ in 1920, as compared to â2,200 fasci and 320,000 members by late 1921. In an attempt to expand his minuscule party, Mussolini seemed to have employed the political strategy of
66:
leaders denounced the pacification pact with the socialists, along with Mussoliniâs leadership, arguing that the Duce âhad not created the movementâ and that they could âget along without him.â
120:
leaders supported nationalism, not socialism, and were upset over the socialists and communist involvement in political violence against landowners and the middle class.
185:
head-on by signing the peace accord with the socialists in order to put an end to punitive raids and constrain the seemingly uncontrollable
41:
249:
177:
As the representative of âurban fascismâ, Mussolini feared the rise of âagrarian fascismâ that had originated from the rural
621:
R.J.B. Bosworth, Mussoliniâs Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship 1915-1945, New York, NY, Penguin Press, 2006, p.174
215:
During the Third Fascist Congress in Rome on Nov. 7-10, 1921, members voted to turn the Italian Fasces of Combat to the
823:
100:
movement was reported by Fascists themselves at their Third Fascist Congress, who calculated that they had âonly 100
108:
in which a smaller political movement aspires to capture a larger one under a degree of subterfuge and subversion.
204:
803:, Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 253, chap. 11, Mario Sznajder, âNietzsche, Mussolini and Italian Fascismâ
818:
239:
158:
271:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 100. Historians cannot agree on the exact signing date of the Pact
37:
828:
216:
226:
163:
145:
112:
25:
573:, series editor, Martin Collier, Oxford: UK, Heinemann Educational Publishers, 2002, p. 31
812:
83:
reactionaries, proletarians and anti-proletarians, pacifists and anti-pacifists.ââ
141:
137:
49:
62:
788:
Shaping the New Man: Youth Training Regimes in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany
684:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
658:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
545:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
362:, New York: NY, St. Martinâs Press, 2008, p. 28. First published in 1962 as
321:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
295:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
282:
The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919-1922
244:
105:
45:
29:
801:
Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On the Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy
157:
agitated for a leadership change, suggesting that someone else such as
116:
middle-class peopleâ who were relatively conservative. Generally, the
430:, University of Michigan Press, 1997, p. 284, first published in 1959
710:
Mussoliniâs Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship 1915-1945
308:
Mussoliniâs Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship 1915-1945
521:, Oxon, England, UK; New York: NY, Routledge, 2004, p. 36
132:
After the peace pact was announced, many of the leading
378:, New York: NY, St. Martinâs Press, 2008, pp. 28-29
673:, University of North Carolina Press, 1979, p. 216
599:, University of North Carolina Press, 1979, p. 215
586:, University of North Carolina Press, 1979, p. 215
560:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, pp. 100-101
60:The agreement was short-lived since many of the
777:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
764:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
751:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
738:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
725:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
699:, New York: NY, St. Martinâs Press, 2008, p. 31
534:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
482:, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
671:The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism
597:The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism
584:The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism
417:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 99
391:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 100
336:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 100
8:
790:, University of Wisconsin Press, 2015, p. 30
508:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 99
495:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 98
443:, University of Michigan Press, 1997, p. 297
349:, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, p. 95
712:, New York, NY, Penguin Press, 2006, p. 175
24:was a peace agreement officially signed by
647:, New York, NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 45
634:, New York, NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 45
612:, New York, NY, Enigma Books, 2005, p. 150
469:, New York, NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 39
456:, New York, NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 38
404:, New York, NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 45
310:, New York, NY, Penguin Press, 2006, p.172
610:The Origins of Fascist Ideology 1918-1925
74:The violence between the action squads (
697:Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce
376:Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce
360:Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce
260:
686:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 142
547:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 142
364:Il Duce: The Life of Benito Mussolini
323:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 141
297:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 141
284:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 141
7:
660:, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2001, p. 93
32:of Italy, and other leaders of the
799:Jacob Golomb, Robert S. Wistrich,
14:
441:Modern Italy: A Political History
428:Modern Italy: A Political History
775:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
762:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
749:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
736:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
723:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
558:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
532:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
506:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
493:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
480:Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945
415:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
389:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
347:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
334:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
269:A History of Fascism, 1914-1945
42:General Confederation of Labor
1:
773:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
760:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
747:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
734:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
721:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
530:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
478:Charles F. Delzell, edit.,
845:
128:Reaction to the peace pact
111:In a sense, as historian
28:, who would later become
250:Red-green-brown alliance
193:Mussoliniâs resignation
38:Italian Socialist Party
230:on November 15, 1921.
217:National Fascist Party
211:Third Fascist Congress
136:opposed it, including
695:Christopher Hibbert,
374:Christopher Hibbert,
358:Christopher Hibbert,
240:Fico's Fourth Cabinet
91:Caught in the middle
18:Pact of Pacification
571:Mussolini and Italy
164:Alceste De Ambrisâs
159:Gabriele DâAnnunzio
824:Terrorism in Italy
682:Dahlia S. Elazar,
669:David D. Roberts,
656:Dahlia S. Elazar,
643:Denis Mack Smith,
630:Denis Mack Smith,
595:David D. Roberts,
582:David D. Roberts,
556:Stanley G. Payne,
543:Dahlia S. Elazar,
504:Stanley G. Payne,
491:Stanley G. Payne,
465:Denis Mack Smith,
452:Denis Mack Smith,
439:Denis Mack Smith,
426:Denis Mack Smith,
413:Stanley G. Payne,
400:Denis Mack Smith,
387:Stanley G. Payne,
345:Stanley G. Payne,
332:Stanley G. Payne,
319:Dahlia S. Elazar,
293:Dahlia S. Elazar,
280:Dahlia S. Elazar,
267:Stanley G. Payne,
227:Il Popolo d'Italia
708:R.J.B. Bosworth,
306:R.J.B. Bosworth,
167:Carta del Carnaro
146:Roberto Farinacci
22:Pacification Pact
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786:Alessio Ponzio,
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173:Agrarian Fascism
113:Stanley G. Payne
26:Benito Mussolini
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829:1921 in Italy
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50:Syndicalists
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142:Italo Balbo
138:Dino Grandi
813:Categories
256:References
203:resigned,
187:squadristi
183:squadristi
179:squadristi
76:squadristi
645:Mussolini
632:Mussolini
519:Mussolini
467:Mussolini
454:Mussolini
402:Mussolini
245:Querfront
46:Futurists
36:with the
234:See also
106:entryism
30:dictator
70:History
221:fasci
150:fasci
102:fasci
98:fasci
80:fasci
34:Fasci
16:The
200:ras
155:ras
134:ras
118:ras
20:or
815::
144:,
140:,
48:,
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