35:
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by the magnetic field of the steel core barrel. This contaminant is generally parallel to the barrel, and most of it can be removed by heating up to about 400 °C or demagnetizing in a small alternating field. In the laboratory, IRM is induced by applying fields of various strengths and is used
369:
are completely crystallized at temperatures below 900 °C (1,650 °F). Hence, the mineral grains are not rotated physically to align with Earth's magnetic field, but rather they may record the orientation of that field. The record so preserved is called a thermoremanent magnetization (TRM).
517:
The oldest rocks on the ocean floor are 200 Ma: very young when compared with the oldest continental rocks which date from 3.8 Ga. In order to collect paleomagnetic data dating beyond 200 Ma, scientists turn to magnetite-bearing samples on land to reconstruct Earth's ancient field orientation.
225:
first proposed in 1915 that continents had once been joined together and had since moved apart. Although he produced an abundance of circumstantial evidence, his theory met with little acceptance for two reasons: (1) no mechanism for continental drift was known, and (2) there was no way to
38:
Magnetic stripes are the result of reversals of the Earth's field and seafloor spreading. New oceanic crust is magnetized as it forms and then it moves away from the ridge in both directions. The models show a ridge (a) about 5 million years ago (b) about 2 million years ago and (c) in the
508:
materials influenced by a magnetic field for some time. In rocks, this remanence is typically aligned in the direction of the modern-day geomagnetic field. The fraction of a rockâs overall magnetization that is a viscous remanent magnetization is dependent on the magnetic mineralogy.
1047:
Herries, A. I. R.; Kovacheva, M.; Kostadinova, M.; Shaw, J. (2007). "Archaeo-directional and -intensity data from burnt structures at the
Thracian site of Halka Bunar (Bulgaria): The effect of magnetic mineralogy, temperature and atmosphere of heating in antiquity".
238:
paths for Europe and North
America. These curves diverged but could be reconciled if it was assumed that the continents had been in contact up to 200 million years ago. This provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift. Then in 1963,
558:
Paleomagnetic evidence of both reversals and polar wandering data was instrumental in verifying the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics in the 1960s and 1970s. Some applications of paleomagnetic evidence to reconstruct histories of
715:
it's not improbable that a bolt of lightning produced in the granite that magnetic streak, ) Humboldt thought that this explanation was even more likely in the case of peak in the
Oberpfalz because even fragments of the rock were magnetized:
377:
may occur as igneous rocks cool after crystallization, the orientations of Earth's magnetic field are not always accurately recorded, nor is the record necessarily maintained. Nonetheless, the record has been preserved well enough in basalts of
889:
Herries, A. I. R.; Adams, J. W.; Kuykendall, K. L.; Shaw, J. (2006). "Speleology and magnetobiostratigraphic chronology of the GD 2 locality of the
Gondolin hominin-bearing paleocave deposits, North West Province, South Africa".
420:. If the magnetization is acquired as the grains are deposited, the result is a depositional detrital remanent magnetization; if it is acquired soon after deposition, it is a post-depositional detrital remanent magnetization.
563:
have continued to arouse controversies. Paleomagnetic evidence is also used in constraining possible ages for rocks and processes and in reconstructions of the deformational histories of parts of the crust.
541:
One way to achieve the first goal is to use a rock coring drill that has an auger tipped with diamond bits. The drill cuts a cylindrical space around some rock. Into this space is inserted a pipe with a
72:
can record the direction and intensity of Earth's magnetic field at the time they formed. This record provides information on the past behavior of the geomagnetic field and the past location of
728:
726:
434:
In a third process, magnetic grains grow during chemical reactions and record the direction of the magnetic field at the time of their formation. The field is said to be recorded by
176:(and lightning strikes do often magnetize surface rocks). 19th century studies of the direction of magnetization in rocks showed that some recent lavas were magnetized parallel to
550:
attached. These provide the orientations. Before this device is removed, a mark is scratched on the sample. After the sample is broken off, the mark can be augmented for clarity.
115:. Paleomagnetic data continues to extend the history of plate tectonics back in time, constraining the ancient position and movement of continents and continental fragments (
703:
On pp. 136-137 Humboldt found that a peak in the
Oberpfalz mountains was magnetic. On p. 138, Humboldt noted that a mountain peak in the Harz Mountains â specifically, the
272:
is constantly shifting relative to the axis of rotation of Earth. Magnetism is a vector and so magnetic field variation is studied by palaeodirectional measurements of
288:
Earth's magnetic polarity reversals in last 5 million years. Dark regions represent normal polarity (same as present field); light regions represent reversed polarity.
219:, a theory that he ultimately rejected; but the astatic magnetometer became the basic tool of paleomagnetism and led to a revival of the theory of continental drift.
1877:
1553:
1050:
2181:
526:"And everywhere, in profusion along this half mile of , there are small, neatly cored holes ... appears to be a Hilton for wrens and purple martins."
2431:
416:
In a completely different process, magnetic grains in sediments may align with the magnetic field during or soon after deposition; this is known as
240:
718:"Nicht bloĂ das anstehende Gestein, sondern auch jedes noch so klein abgeschlagene StĂŒck hat seine beiden Pole, seine eigene magnetische Achse."
392:, hearths, and burned adobe buildings. The discipline based on the study of thermoremanent magnetisation in archaeological materials is called
1265:
1324:
709:"Bey den Schuarchern ist es nicht unwahrscheinlich, daĂ ein Blitzstrahl in dem Granit jenen magnetischen Streifen hervorgebracht habe, "
1671:
571:
remains. Conversely, for a fossil of known age, the paleomagnetic data can fix the latitude at which the fossil was laid down. Such a
1872:
1468:
1236:
1202:
1179:
1151:
1128:
1103:
666:
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may record past polarity of Earth's magnetic field. Magnetic signatures in rocks can be recorded by several different mechanisms.
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1282:
2174:
1257:
501:
1918:
197:
1666:
264:
575:
provides information about the geological environment at the time of deposition. Paleomagnetic studies are combined with
477:(IRM). Remanence of this sort is not useful for paleomagnetism, but it can be acquired as a result of lightning strikes.
1661:
340:
122:
The field of paleomagnetism also encompasses equivalent measurements of samples from other Solar System bodies, such as
1222:
2426:
1851:
1721:
588:
2245:
2167:
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462:. The CRM signatures in red beds can be quite useful, and they are common targets in magnetostratigraphy studies.
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2235:
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2023:
1635:
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1120:
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51:
310:. The age and pattern of these reversals is known from the study of sea floor spreading zones and the dating of
2118:
1317:
707:(the snorer) â also showed magnetization. He attributed the magnetization to lightning strikes. From p. 138:
34:
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2006:
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446:. Hematite forms through chemical oxidation reactions of other minerals in the rock including magnetite.
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can be distinguished by its high intensity and rapid variation in direction over scales of centimeters.
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to have been critical in the development of theories of sea floor spreading related to plate tectonics.
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104:
77:
1991:
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Paleomagnetists, like many geologists, gravitate towards outcrops because layers of rock are exposed.
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1908:
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As early as the 18th century, it was noticed that compass needles deviated near strongly magnetized
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720:(Not just the outcrop but also every chip, however small, has both poles, its own magnetic axis.)
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reversal history of Earth's magnetic field recorded in rocks to determine the age of those rocks.
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2001:
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1971:
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761:"On the Direction of Magnetization of Basalt in Japan, TyĆsen [Korea] and Manchuria"
616:
610:
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methods to determine absolute ages for rocks in which the magnetic record is preserved. For
567:
Reversal magnetostratigraphy is often used to estimate the age of sites bearing fossils and
519:
307:
244:
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108:
85:
1996:
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73:
625: â Process of reconstructing the positions of tectonic plates in the geological past
397:
268:
is the small-scale changes in the direction and intensity of Earth's magnetic field. The
1063:
903:
859:
846:
Irving, E. (1956). "Paleomagnetic and palaeoclimatological aspects of polar wandering".
188:
showed that many rocks were magnetized antiparallel to the field. Japanese geophysicist
107:
paths provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift, while marine
2293:
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875:
827:
Runcorn, S. K. (1956). "Paleomagnetic comparisons between Europe and North
America".
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may preserve the direction of Earth's magnetic field when the rocks cool through the
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227:
169:
131:
93:
81:
654:
2333:
1976:
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1488:
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1448:
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691:"Ueber die merkwĂŒrdige magnetische PolaritĂ€t einer Gebirgskuppe von Serpentinstein"
580:
547:
451:
350:
208:
139:
55:
130:, where it is used to investigate the ancient magnetic fields of those bodies and
911:
2225:
1676:
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1453:
1434:
1367:
1347:
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693:[About the strange magnetic polarity of a mountain peak of serpentine].
405:
401:
1071:
2265:
2190:
1443:
1438:
1333:
1287:
659:
This dynamic earth: the story of plate tectonics (online edition version 1.20)
604:
485:
459:
443:
362:
193:
123:
103:
hypothesis and its transformation into the modern theory of plate tectonics.
17:
2133:
2113:
1846:
1806:
1543:
1352:
1242:
478:
470:
455:
328:
207:
provided a major impetus to paleomagnetism by inventing a sensitive astatic
127:
1292:
919:
777:
760:
2128:
1966:
1610:
1523:
1298:
Paleomagnetic database at the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (MagIC)
447:
439:
192:
showed in the late 1920s that Earth's magnetic field reversed in the mid-
116:
1116:
The Road to
Jaramillo: Critical Years of the Revolution in Earth Science
2354:
2138:
1362:
1357:
867:
568:
560:
543:
386:
161:
142:, magnetic fabrics (used as strain indicators in rocks and soils), and
65:
1194:
584:
366:
358:
346:
1563:
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283:
33:
2338:
1497:
1379:
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do not make pottery, their 700- to 800-year-old steam ovens, or
389:
365:, is about 580 °C (1,076 °F), whereas most basalt and
324:
2163:
1306:
1397:
2159:
1302:
1297:
458:) are red because of hematite that formed during sedimentary
613: â Study of magnetic properties of chemical compounds
357:
of those minerals. The Curie temperature of magnetite, a
54:
recorded in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials.
226:
reconstruct the movements of the continents over time.
99:
Evidence from paleomagnetism led to the revival of the
1283:
Geomagnetism & Paleomagnetism background material
1224:
Paleomagnetism: Magnetic
Domains to Geologic Terranes
1138:
McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (2000).
211:
in 1956. His intent was to test his theory that the
2347:
2279:
2218:
2197:
2106:
2090:
2074:
2032:
1942:
1931:
1886:
1878:
Global
Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
1865:
1839:
1830:
1792:
1730:
1685:
1649:
1618:
1609:
1572:
1534:
1413:
1388:
1340:
473:that is acquired at a fixed temperature is called
800:] (in German). Braunschweig, Germany: Vieweg.
747:
259:Paleomagnetism is studied on a number of scales:
534:Retrieve samples with accurate orientations, and
323:The study of paleomagnetism is possible because
306:have occurred at irregular intervals throughout
522:are a convenient man-made source of outcrops.
2175:
1318:
1012:
993:Essentials of Paleomagnetism: Web Edition 3.0
964:MagWiki: A Magnetic Wiki for Earth Scientists
607: â Physics of the Earth and its vicinity
408:, provide adequate archaeomagnetic material.
8:
1051:Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
765:Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Japan
661:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.
438:(CRM). A common form is held by the mineral
180:. Early in the 20th century, work by David,
58:who specialize in paleomagnetism are called
743:
741:
619: â Study of changes in ancient climate
134:. Paleomagnetism relies on developments in
2182:
2168:
2160:
1939:
1836:
1615:
1410:
1325:
1311:
1303:
1288:Paleomagnetic Data from NGDC / WDC Boulder
1092:Rock Magnetism: Fundamentals and Frontiers
92:) provides a time-scale that is used as a
1090:Dunlop, David J.; Ăzdemir, Ăzden (1997).
776:
1873:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
982:
980:
794:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane
479:Lightning-induced remanent magnetization
960:"Detrital Remanent Magnetization (DRM)"
641:
631: â The study of magnetism in rocks
27:Study of Earth's magnetic field in past
1023:
530:There are two main goals of sampling:
1191:Paleomagnetic Principles and Practice
1140:Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans
1035:
7:
2394:
810:
732:
798:The Origin of Continents and Oceans
1672:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
935:"Maori stones hold magnetic clues"
933:Amos, Jonathan (7 December 2012).
25:
989:"Chemical remanent magnetization"
504:is remanence that is acquired by
475:isothermal remanent magnetization
466:Isothermal remanent magnetization
280:and palaeointensity measurements.
2393:
2382:
2381:
2369:
587:, commonly used methods include
345:Iron-titanium oxide minerals in
2432:Geochronological dating methods
1554:English and British regnal year
537:Reduce statistical uncertainty.
436:chemical remanent magnetization
430:Chemical remanent magnetization
424:Chemical remanent magnetization
418:detrital remanent magnetization
412:Detrital remanent magnetization
1258:University of California Press
502:Viscous remanent magnetization
497:Viscous remanent magnetization
196:, a reversal now known as the
50:) is the study of prehistoric
1:
1667:Old Style and New Style dates
748:McElhinny & McFadden 2000
265:Geomagnetic secular variation
1619:Pre-Julian / Julian
1253:Essentials of Paleomagnetism
912:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.07.007
385:TRM can also be recorded in
341:Thermoremanent magnetization
335:Thermoremanent magnetization
2329:Precession of the equinoxes
1852:Geological history of Earth
1722:Astronomical year numbering
1293:The Great Magnet, The Earth
987:Tauxe, Lisa (24 May 2016).
759:Matuyama, Motonori (1929).
454:sedimentary rocks (such as
2448:
2246:Geophysical fluid dynamics
1221:Butler, Robert F. (1992).
1167:Annals of the Former World
1072:10.1016/j.pepi.2007.04.006
892:Journal of Human Evolution
689:Humboldt, F.A. v. (1797).
427:
338:
327:-bearing minerals such as
153:
2363:
2024:Thermoluminescence dating
1919:Samariumâneodymium dating
1172:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1121:Stanford University Press
1013:Dunlop & Ăzdemir 1997
829:Proc. Geol. Assoc. Canada
241:Morley, Vine and Matthews
198:BrunhesâMatuyama reversal
1738:Chinese sexagenary cycle
792:Wegener, Alfred (1915).
695:Neues Journal der Physik
484:IRM is often induced in
2256:Near-surface geophysics
1952:Amino acid racemisation
655:"Developing the theory"
156:History of geomagnetism
144:environmental magnetism
52:Earth's magnetic fields
2304:Earth's magnetic field
1957:Archaeomagnetic dating
1469:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
1113:Glen, William (1982).
778:10.2183/pjab1912.5.203
649:W. Jacquelyne, Kious;
394:archaeomagnetic dating
289:
247:provided evidence for
178:Earth's magnetic field
166:Alexander von Humboldt
40:
2376:Geophysics portal
2299:Earth's energy budget
1857:Geological time units
1096:Cambridge Univ. Press
489:for many purposes in
287:
236:apparent polar wander
105:Apparent polar wander
78:geomagnetic reversals
37:
1909:Law of superposition
1904:Isotope geochemistry
1250:Tauxe, Lisa (2010).
1245:on 18 February 1999.
1189:Tauxe, Lisa (1998).
711:(In the case of the
623:Plate reconstruction
278:magnetic inclination
274:magnetic declination
186:Paul Louis Mercanton
2348:Related disciplines
2314:Geothermal gradient
2042:Fluorine absorption
2019:Luminescence dating
1914:Luminescence dating
1822:Milankovitch cycles
1662:Proleptic Gregorian
1494:Hindu units of time
1064:2007PEPI..162..199H
904:2006JHumE..51..617H
860:1956GeoPA..33...23I
375:oxidation reactions
295:Magnetostratigraphy
270:magnetic north pole
243:showed that marine
90:magnetostratigraphy
2427:Historical geology
2231:Geophysical survey
2144:Terminus post quem
2124:Synchronoptic view
2091:Linguistic methods
2052:Obsidian hydration
1987:Radiometric dating
1972:Incremental dating
1894:Chronostratigraphy
868:10.1007/BF02629944
848:Geofis. Pura. Appl
651:Robert I., Tilling
355:Curie temperatures
290:
249:seafloor spreading
245:magnetic anomalies
203:British physicist
138:and overlaps with
113:seafloor spreading
109:magnetic anomalies
41:
2409:
2408:
2324:Mantle convection
2157:
2156:
2070:
2069:
1927:
1926:
1788:
1787:
1743:Geologic Calendar
1605:
1604:
1267:978-0-520-26031-3
213:geomagnetic field
190:Motonori Matuyama
174:lightning strikes
111:did the same for
101:continental drift
64:Certain magnetic
16:(Redirected from
2439:
2397:
2396:
2385:
2384:
2374:
2373:
2319:Gravity of Earth
2184:
2177:
2170:
2161:
2149:ASPRO chronology
2098:Glottochronology
2014:Tephrochronology
1962:Dendrochronology
1940:
1837:
1636:Proleptic Julian
1626:Pre-Julian Roman
1616:
1411:
1327:
1320:
1313:
1304:
1271:
1246:
1241:. Archived from
1208:
1185:
1157:
1134:
1109:
1076:
1075:
1058:(3â4): 199â216.
1044:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1026:, pp. 21â22
1021:
1015:
1010:
1004:
1003:
1001:
999:
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843:
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745:
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721:
702:
686:
680:
679:
677:
675:
646:
617:Paleoclimatology
611:Magnetochemistry
577:geochronological
373:Because complex
232:Edward A. Irving
217:Earth's rotation
168:attributed this
86:sedimentary rock
76:. The record of
60:paleomagnetists.
21:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2368:
2359:
2343:
2294:Coriolis effect
2289:Chandler wobble
2281:
2275:
2251:Mineral physics
2214:
2193:
2188:
2158:
2153:
2102:
2086:
2082:Molecular clock
2075:Genetic methods
2066:
2047:Nitrogen dating
2034:Relative dating
2028:
1997:Potassiumâargon
1944:Absolute dating
1934:
1923:
1882:
1861:
1826:
1802:Cosmic Calendar
1794:Astronomic time
1784:
1726:
1681:
1645:
1631:Original Julian
1601:
1568:
1530:
1429:Ab urbe condita
1407:
1384:
1336:
1331:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1249:
1239:
1220:
1216:
1214:Further reading
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688:
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673:
671:
669:
648:
647:
643:
638:
601:
595:geochronology.
589:potassiumâargon
556:
515:
499:
468:
432:
426:
414:
396:. Although the
343:
337:
321:
308:Earth's history
257:
215:was related to
205:P.M.S. Blackett
182:Bernard Brunhes
158:
152:
74:tectonic plates
48:palaeomagnetism
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2445:
2443:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2422:Paleomagnetism
2414:
2413:
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2404:
2403:
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2285:
2283:
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2273:
2271:Tectonophysics
2268:
2263:
2261:Paleomagnetism
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2241:Geomathematics
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2222:
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2011:
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1994:
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1982:Paleomagnetism
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1954:
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1937:
1929:
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1559:Lists of kings
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1549:Canon of Kings
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1474:Before present
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1277:External links
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771:(5): 203â205.
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312:volcanic rocks
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223:Alfred Wegener
154:Main article:
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136:rock magnetism
94:geochronologic
46:(occasionally
44:Paleomagnetism
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1812:Galactic year
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1238:0-86542-070-X
1234:
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1218:
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1206:
1204:0-7923-5258-0
1200:
1196:
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1187:
1183:
1181:0-374-10520-0
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1153:0-12-483355-1
1149:
1145:
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1132:
1130:0-8047-1119-4
1126:
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1105:0-521-32514-5
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898:(6): 617â31.
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710:
706:
700:
697:(in German).
696:
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685:
682:
670:
668:0-16-048220-8
664:
660:
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621:
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612:
609:
606:
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596:
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582:
581:igneous rocks
578:
574:
573:paleolatitude
570:
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553:
551:
549:
545:
536:
533:
532:
531:
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524:
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521:
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506:ferromagnetic
503:
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391:
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380:oceanic crust
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351:igneous rocks
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228:Keith Runcorn
224:
220:
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210:
206:
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183:
179:
175:
171:
170:magnetization
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149:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
132:dynamo theory
129:
125:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:preserved in
79:
75:
71:
67:
62:
61:
57:
56:Geophysicists
53:
49:
45:
36:
32:
30:
19:
18:Paleomagnetic
2398:
2386:
2367:
2334:Seismic wave
2260:
2236:Geomagnetism
2062:Stratigraphy
2007:Uraniumâlead
1981:
1977:Lichenometry
1775:Winter count
1758:Mesoamerican
1686:Astronomical
1504:Mesoamerican
1489:Sothic cycle
1464:Seleucid era
1449:Bosporan era
1437: /
1427:
1375:Paleontology
1252:
1243:the original
1223:
1190:
1166:
1162:McPhee, John
1139:
1115:
1091:
1055:
1049:
1042:
1031:
1019:
1008:
998:18 September
996:. Retrieved
992:
967:. Retrieved
963:
954:
942:. Retrieved
938:
928:
895:
891:
884:
854:(1): 23â41.
851:
847:
841:
832:
828:
822:
806:
797:
793:
787:
768:
764:
754:
717:
712:
708:
704:
698:
694:
684:
672:. Retrieved
658:
644:
572:
566:
557:
554:Applications
548:inclinometer
540:
529:
516:
500:
483:
474:
469:
435:
433:
417:
415:
398:MÄori people
384:
372:
344:
322:
303:
293:
263:
258:
234:constructed
221:
209:magnetometer
202:
159:
140:biomagnetism
121:
98:
63:
59:
47:
43:
42:
31:
29:
2226:Geodynamics
2002:Radiocarbon
1677:Dual dating
1536:Regnal year
1514:Short Count
1454:Bostran era
1435:Anno Domini
1368:Big History
1348:Archaeology
1024:McPhee 1998
969:11 November
813:, pp.
735:, p. .
593:argonâargon
486:drill cores
402:New Zealand
164:. In 1797,
88:sequences (
2416:Categories
2266:Seismology
2191:Geophysics
1597:Vietnamese
1509:Long Count
1444:Anno Mundi
1439:Common Era
1341:Key topics
1334:Chronology
1083:References
1036:Tauxe 1998
944:7 December
713:Schuarcher
705:Schuarcher
701:: 136â140.
674:6 November
605:Geophysics
460:diagenesis
456:sandstones
444:iron oxide
442:, another
428:See also:
363:iron oxide
349:and other
319:Principles
194:Quaternary
128:meteorites
124:Moon rocks
2309:Geodynamo
2282:phenomena
2280:Physical
2219:Subfields
2134:Year zero
2114:Chronicle
2057:Seriation
1992:Leadâlead
1866:Standards
1847:Deep time
1807:Ephemeris
1693:Lunisolar
1657:Gregorian
1650:Gregorian
1611:Calendars
1574:Era names
1544:Anka year
1423:Human Era
1353:Astronomy
1229:Blackwell
876:129781412
811:Glen 1982
733:Glen 1982
520:Road cuts
471:Remanence
329:magnetite
304:Reversals
298:uses the
2388:Category
2198:Overview
2129:Timeline
1967:Ice core
1840:Concepts
1587:Japanese
1519:Tzolk'in
1484:Egyptian
1164:(1998).
939:BBC News
920:16949648
835:: 77â85.
653:(2001).
599:See also
583:such as
561:terranes
513:Sampling
448:Red beds
440:hematite
300:polarity
162:outcrops
117:terranes
82:volcanic
66:minerals
39:present.
2400:Commons
2355:Geodesy
2205:Outline
2139:Floruit
1887:Methods
1748:Iranian
1716:Islamic
1582:Chinese
1393:Periods
1363:History
1358:Geology
1060:Bibcode
900:Bibcode
856:Bibcode
569:hominin
544:compass
452:clastic
387:pottery
361:-group
150:History
1935:dating
1731:Others
1697:Hebrew
1592:Korean
1403:Epochs
1264:
1235:
1201:
1195:Kluwer
1178:
1150:
1127:
1102:
918:
874:
665:
585:basalt
367:gabbro
359:spinel
347:basalt
255:Fields
96:tool.
1768:Aztec
1712:Lunar
1707:Solar
1701:Hindu
1564:Limmu
1524:Haab'
1479:Hijri
872:S2CID
796:[
636:Notes
406:hÄngÄ«
390:kilns
70:rocks
2339:Tide
1763:Maya
1498:Yuga
1398:Eras
1380:Time
1262:ISBN
1233:ISBN
1199:ISBN
1176:ISBN
1148:ISBN
1125:ISBN
1100:ISBN
1000:2017
971:2011
946:2012
916:PMID
676:2016
663:ISBN
591:and
546:and
325:iron
276:and
230:and
184:and
126:and
84:and
1068:doi
1056:162
908:doi
864:doi
815:4â5
773:doi
400:of
172:to
119:).
68:in
2418::
1699:,
1260:.
1256:.
1231:.
1227:.
1197:.
1193:.
1174:.
1170:.
1146:.
1142:.
1123:.
1119:.
1098:.
1094:.
1066:.
1054:.
991:.
979:^
962:.
937:.
914:.
906:.
896:51
894:.
870:.
862:.
852:33
850:.
831:.
767:.
763:.
740:^
725:^
657:.
493:.
450:,
251:.
200:.
146:.
2183:e
2176:t
2169:v
1718:)
1714:(
1703:)
1695:(
1500:)
1496:(
1326:e
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1270:.
1207:.
1184:.
1156:.
1133:.
1108:.
1074:.
1070::
1062::
1002:.
973:.
948:.
922:.
910::
902::
878:.
866::
858::
833:8
817:.
781:.
775::
769:5
699:4
678:.
314:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
