24:
2360:
2372:
274:
2384:
477:
by the magnetic field of the steel core barrel. This contaminant is generally parallel to the barrel, and most of it can be removed by heating up to about 400 °C or demagnetizing in a small alternating field. In the laboratory, IRM is induced by applying fields of various strengths and is used
358:
are completely crystallized at temperatures below 900 °C (1,650 °F). Hence, the mineral grains are not rotated physically to align with Earth's magnetic field, but rather they may record the orientation of that field. The record so preserved is called a thermoremanent magnetization (TRM).
506:
The oldest rocks on the ocean floor are 200 Ma: very young when compared with the oldest continental rocks which date from 3.8 Ga. In order to collect paleomagnetic data dating beyond 200 Ma, scientists turn to magnetite-bearing samples on land to reconstruct Earth's ancient field orientation.
214:
first proposed in 1915 that continents had once been joined together and had since moved apart. Although he produced an abundance of circumstantial evidence, his theory met with little acceptance for two reasons: (1) no mechanism for continental drift was known, and (2) there was no way to
27:
Magnetic stripes are the result of reversals of the Earth's field and seafloor spreading. New oceanic crust is magnetized as it forms and then it moves away from the ridge in both directions. The models show a ridge (a) about 5 million years ago (b) about 2 million years ago and (c) in the
497:
materials influenced by a magnetic field for some time. In rocks, this remanence is typically aligned in the direction of the modern-day geomagnetic field. The fraction of a rockâs overall magnetization that is a viscous remanent magnetization is dependent on the magnetic mineralogy.
1036:
Herries, A. I. R.; Kovacheva, M.; Kostadinova, M.; Shaw, J. (2007). "Archaeo-directional and -intensity data from burnt structures at the
Thracian site of Halka Bunar (Bulgaria): The effect of magnetic mineralogy, temperature and atmosphere of heating in antiquity".
227:
paths for Europe and North
America. These curves diverged but could be reconciled if it was assumed that the continents had been in contact up to 200 million years ago. This provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift. Then in 1963,
547:
Paleomagnetic evidence of both reversals and polar wandering data was instrumental in verifying the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics in the 1960s and 1970s. Some applications of paleomagnetic evidence to reconstruct histories of
704:
it's not improbable that a bolt of lightning produced in the granite that magnetic streak, ) Humboldt thought that this explanation was even more likely in the case of peak in the
Oberpfalz because even fragments of the rock were magnetized:
366:
may occur as igneous rocks cool after crystallization, the orientations of Earth's magnetic field are not always accurately recorded, nor is the record necessarily maintained. Nonetheless, the record has been preserved well enough in basalts of
878:
Herries, A. I. R.; Adams, J. W.; Kuykendall, K. L.; Shaw, J. (2006). "Speleology and magnetobiostratigraphic chronology of the GD 2 locality of the
Gondolin hominin-bearing paleocave deposits, North West Province, South Africa".
409:. If the magnetization is acquired as the grains are deposited, the result is a depositional detrital remanent magnetization; if it is acquired soon after deposition, it is a post-depositional detrital remanent magnetization.
552:
have continued to arouse controversies. Paleomagnetic evidence is also used in constraining possible ages for rocks and processes and in reconstructions of the deformational histories of parts of the crust.
530:
One way to achieve the first goal is to use a rock coring drill that has an auger tipped with diamond bits. The drill cuts a cylindrical space around some rock. Into this space is inserted a pipe with a
61:
can record the direction and intensity of Earth's magnetic field at the time they formed. This record provides information on the past behavior of the geomagnetic field and the past location of
717:
715:
423:
In a third process, magnetic grains grow during chemical reactions and record the direction of the magnetic field at the time of their formation. The field is said to be recorded by
165:(and lightning strikes do often magnetize surface rocks). 19th century studies of the direction of magnetization in rocks showed that some recent lavas were magnetized parallel to
539:
attached. These provide the orientations. Before this device is removed, a mark is scratched on the sample. After the sample is broken off, the mark can be augmented for clarity.
104:. Paleomagnetic data continues to extend the history of plate tectonics back in time, constraining the ancient position and movement of continents and continental fragments (
692:
On pp. 136-137 Humboldt found that a peak in the
Oberpfalz mountains was magnetic. On p. 138, Humboldt noted that a mountain peak in the Harz Mountains â specifically, the
261:
is constantly shifting relative to the axis of rotation of Earth. Magnetism is a vector and so magnetic field variation is studied by palaeodirectional measurements of
277:
Earth's magnetic polarity reversals in last 5 million years. Dark regions represent normal polarity (same as present field); light regions represent reversed polarity.
208:, a theory that he ultimately rejected; but the astatic magnetometer became the basic tool of paleomagnetism and led to a revival of the theory of continental drift.
1866:
1542:
1039:
2170:
515:"And everywhere, in profusion along this half mile of , there are small, neatly cored holes ... appears to be a Hilton for wrens and purple martins."
2420:
405:
In a completely different process, magnetic grains in sediments may align with the magnetic field during or soon after deposition; this is known as
229:
707:"Nicht bloĂ das anstehende Gestein, sondern auch jedes noch so klein abgeschlagene StĂŒck hat seine beiden Pole, seine eigene magnetische Achse."
381:, hearths, and burned adobe buildings. The discipline based on the study of thermoremanent magnetisation in archaeological materials is called
1254:
1313:
698:"Bey den Schuarchern ist es nicht unwahrscheinlich, daĂ ein Blitzstrahl in dem Granit jenen magnetischen Streifen hervorgebracht habe, "
1660:
560:
remains. Conversely, for a fossil of known age, the paleomagnetic data can fix the latitude at which the fossil was laid down. Such a
1861:
1457:
1225:
1191:
1168:
1140:
1117:
1092:
655:
320:
may record past polarity of Earth's magnetic field. Magnetic signatures in rocks can be recorded by several different mechanisms.
1497:
1271:
2163:
1246:
490:
1907:
186:
1655:
253:
564:
provides information about the geological environment at the time of deposition. Paleomagnetic studies are combined with
466:(IRM). Remanence of this sort is not useful for paleomagnetism, but it can be acquired as a result of lightning strikes.
1650:
329:
111:
The field of paleomagnetism also encompasses equivalent measurements of samples from other Solar System bodies, such as
1211:
2415:
1840:
1710:
577:
2234:
2156:
2050:
2030:
1154:
451:. The CRM signatures in red beds can be quite useful, and they are common targets in magnetostratigraphy studies.
2292:
2224:
2040:
2012:
1624:
1160:
1109:
166:
40:
299:. The age and pattern of these reversals is known from the study of sea floor spreading zones and the dating of
2107:
1306:
696:(the snorer) â also showed magnetization. He attributed the magnetization to lightning strikes. From p. 138:
23:
2287:
1995:
2410:
2244:
2045:
1782:
1629:
977:
144:
132:
581:
1945:
1746:
1492:
1391:
948:
382:
154:
2388:
435:. Hematite forms through chemical oxidation reactions of other minerals in the rock including magnetite.
2198:
2193:
1547:
1084:
470:
can be distinguished by its high intensity and rapid variation in direction over scales of centimeters.
371:
to have been critical in the development of theories of sea floor spreading related to plate tectonics.
224:
93:
66:
1980:
507:
Paleomagnetists, like many geologists, gravitate towards outcrops because layers of rock are exposed.
1921:
1897:
1892:
1048:
888:
844:
611:
266:
262:
174:
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As early as the 18th century, it was noticed that compass needles deviated near strongly magnetized
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2007:
1902:
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1810:
1585:
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1472:
1299:
283:
258:
205:
78:
709:(Not just the outcrop but also every chip, however small, has both poles, its own magnetic axis.)
291:
reversal history of Earth's magnetic field recorded in rocks to determine the age of those rocks.
2219:
2132:
2112:
1990:
1975:
1960:
1882:
1681:
1645:
1447:
860:
237:
101:
2364:
2359:
2312:
1940:
1736:
1731:
1575:
1411:
1250:
1221:
1187:
1164:
1136:
1113:
1088:
904:
679:
651:
639:
343:
288:
201:
178:
89:
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2137:
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2002:
1950:
1726:
1704:
1570:
1467:
1056:
896:
852:
803:
761:
750:"On the Direction of Magnetization of Basalt in Japan, TyĆsen [Korea] and Manchuria"
605:
599:
568:
methods to determine absolute ages for rocks in which the magnetic record is preserved. For
556:
Reversal magnetostratigraphy is often used to estimate the age of sites bearing fossils and
508:
296:
233:
220:
193:
162:
97:
74:
1985:
273:
2277:
2239:
2070:
2035:
2022:
1932:
1790:
1685:
1619:
1580:
1417:
1217:
923:
170:
62:
614: â Process of reconstructing the positions of tectonic plates in the geological past
386:
257:
is the small-scale changes in the direction and intensity of Earth's magnetic field. The
1052:
892:
848:
835:
Irving, E. (1956). "Paleomagnetic and palaeoclimatological aspects of polar wandering".
177:
showed that many rocks were magnetized antiparallel to the field. Japanese geophysicist
96:
paths provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift, while marine
2282:
2259:
2229:
1768:
1756:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1614:
1537:
1462:
1132:
617:
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479:
418:
211:
124:
58:
2404:
2297:
1887:
1805:
1800:
1751:
1741:
1502:
1381:
1240:
1103:
864:
816:
Runcorn, S. K. (1956). "Paleomagnetic comparisons between Europe and North
America".
565:
368:
342:
may preserve the direction of Earth's magnetic field when the rocks cool through the
300:
216:
158:
120:
82:
70:
643:
2322:
1965:
1763:
1477:
1452:
1437:
1403:
1363:
680:"Ueber die merkwĂŒrdige magnetische PolaritĂ€t einer Gebirgskuppe von Serpentinstein"
569:
536:
440:
339:
197:
128:
44:
119:, where it is used to investigate the ancient magnetic fields of those bodies and
900:
2214:
1665:
1562:
1524:
1507:
1442:
1423:
1356:
1336:
1150:
682:[About the strange magnetic polarity of a mountain peak of serpentine].
394:
390:
1060:
2254:
2179:
1432:
1427:
1322:
1276:
648:
This dynamic earth: the story of plate tectonics (online edition version 1.20)
593:
474:
448:
432:
351:
182:
112:
92:
hypothesis and its transformation into the modern theory of plate tectonics.
2122:
2102:
1835:
1795:
1532:
1341:
1231:
467:
459:
444:
317:
196:
provided a major impetus to paleomagnetism by inventing a sensitive astatic
116:
1281:
908:
766:
749:
2117:
1955:
1599:
1512:
1287:
Paleomagnetic database at the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (MagIC)
436:
428:
181:
showed in the late 1920s that Earth's magnetic field reversed in the mid-
105:
1105:
The Road to
Jaramillo: Critical Years of the Revolution in Earth Science
2343:
2127:
1351:
1346:
856:
557:
549:
532:
375:
150:
131:, magnetic fabrics (used as strain indicators in rocks and soils), and
54:
1183:
573:
355:
347:
335:
1552:
363:
272:
22:
2327:
1486:
1368:
393:
do not make pottery, their 700- to 800-year-old steam ovens, or
378:
354:, is about 580 °C (1,076 °F), whereas most basalt and
313:
2152:
1295:
1386:
2148:
1291:
1286:
447:) are red because of hematite that formed during sedimentary
602: â Study of magnetic properties of chemical compounds
346:
of those minerals. The Curie temperature of magnetite, a
43:
recorded in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials.
215:
reconstruct the movements of the continents over time.
88:
Evidence from paleomagnetism led to the revival of the
1272:
Geomagnetism & Paleomagnetism background material
1213:
Paleomagnetism: Magnetic
Domains to Geologic Terranes
1127:
McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (2000).
200:
in 1956. His intent was to test his theory that the
2336:
2268:
2207:
2186:
2095:
2079:
2063:
2021:
1931:
1920:
1875:
1867:
Global
Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
1854:
1828:
1819:
1781:
1719:
1674:
1638:
1607:
1598:
1561:
1523:
1402:
1377:
1329:
462:that is acquired at a fixed temperature is called
789:] (in German). Braunschweig, Germany: Vieweg.
736:
248:Paleomagnetism is studied on a number of scales:
523:Retrieve samples with accurate orientations, and
312:The study of paleomagnetism is possible because
295:have occurred at irregular intervals throughout
511:are a convenient man-made source of outcrops.
2164:
1307:
1001:
982:Essentials of Paleomagnetism: Web Edition 3.0
953:MagWiki: A Magnetic Wiki for Earth Scientists
596: â Physics of the Earth and its vicinity
397:, provide adequate archaeomagnetic material.
8:
1040:Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
754:Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Japan
650:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey.
427:(CRM). A common form is held by the mineral
169:. Early in the 20th century, work by David,
47:who specialize in paleomagnetism are called
732:
730:
608: â Study of changes in ancient climate
123:. Paleomagnetism relies on developments in
2171:
2157:
2149:
1928:
1825:
1604:
1399:
1314:
1300:
1292:
1277:Paleomagnetic Data from NGDC / WDC Boulder
1081:Rock Magnetism: Fundamentals and Frontiers
81:) provides a time-scale that is used as a
1079:Dunlop, David J.; Ăzdemir, Ăzden (1997).
765:
1862:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
971:
969:
783:Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane
468:Lightning-induced remanent magnetization
949:"Detrital Remanent Magnetization (DRM)"
630:
620: â The study of magnetism in rocks
16:Study of Earth's magnetic field in past
1012:
519:There are two main goals of sampling:
1180:Paleomagnetic Principles and Practice
1129:Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans
1024:
7:
2383:
799:
721:
787:The Origin of Continents and Oceans
1661:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
924:"Maori stones hold magnetic clues"
922:Amos, Jonathan (7 December 2012).
14:
978:"Chemical remanent magnetization"
493:is remanence that is acquired by
464:isothermal remanent magnetization
455:Isothermal remanent magnetization
269:and palaeointensity measurements.
2382:
2371:
2370:
2358:
576:, commonly used methods include
334:Iron-titanium oxide minerals in
2421:Geochronological dating methods
1543:English and British regnal year
526:Reduce statistical uncertainty.
425:chemical remanent magnetization
419:Chemical remanent magnetization
413:Chemical remanent magnetization
407:detrital remanent magnetization
401:Detrital remanent magnetization
1247:University of California Press
491:Viscous remanent magnetization
486:Viscous remanent magnetization
185:, a reversal now known as the
39:) is the study of prehistoric
1:
1656:Old Style and New Style dates
737:McElhinny & McFadden 2000
254:Geomagnetic secular variation
1608:Pre-Julian / Julian
1242:Essentials of Paleomagnetism
901:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.07.007
374:TRM can also be recorded in
330:Thermoremanent magnetization
324:Thermoremanent magnetization
2318:Precession of the equinoxes
1841:Geological history of Earth
1711:Astronomical year numbering
1282:The Great Magnet, The Earth
976:Tauxe, Lisa (24 May 2016).
748:Matuyama, Motonori (1929).
443:sedimentary rocks (such as
2437:
2235:Geophysical fluid dynamics
1210:Butler, Robert F. (1992).
1156:Annals of the Former World
1061:10.1016/j.pepi.2007.04.006
881:Journal of Human Evolution
678:Humboldt, F.A. v. (1797).
416:
327:
316:-bearing minerals such as
142:
2352:
2013:Thermoluminescence dating
1908:Samariumâneodymium dating
1161:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
1110:Stanford University Press
1002:Dunlop & Ăzdemir 1997
818:Proc. Geol. Assoc. Canada
230:Morley, Vine and Matthews
187:BrunhesâMatuyama reversal
1727:Chinese sexagenary cycle
781:Wegener, Alfred (1915).
684:Neues Journal der Physik
473:IRM is often induced in
2245:Near-surface geophysics
1941:Amino acid racemisation
644:"Developing the theory"
145:History of geomagnetism
133:environmental magnetism
41:Earth's magnetic fields
2293:Earth's magnetic field
1946:Archaeomagnetic dating
1458:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
1102:Glen, William (1982).
767:10.2183/pjab1912.5.203
638:W. Jacquelyne, Kious;
383:archaeomagnetic dating
278:
236:provided evidence for
167:Earth's magnetic field
155:Alexander von Humboldt
29:
2365:Geophysics portal
2288:Earth's energy budget
1846:Geological time units
1085:Cambridge Univ. Press
478:for many purposes in
276:
225:apparent polar wander
94:Apparent polar wander
67:geomagnetic reversals
26:
1898:Law of superposition
1893:Isotope geochemistry
1239:Tauxe, Lisa (2010).
1234:on 18 February 1999.
1178:Tauxe, Lisa (1998).
700:(In the case of the
612:Plate reconstruction
267:magnetic inclination
263:magnetic declination
175:Paul Louis Mercanton
2337:Related disciplines
2303:Geothermal gradient
2031:Fluorine absorption
2008:Luminescence dating
1903:Luminescence dating
1811:Milankovitch cycles
1651:Proleptic Gregorian
1483:Hindu units of time
1053:2007PEPI..162..199H
893:2006JHumE..51..617H
849:1956GeoPA..33...23I
364:oxidation reactions
284:Magnetostratigraphy
259:magnetic north pole
232:showed that marine
79:magnetostratigraphy
2416:Historical geology
2220:Geophysical survey
2133:Terminus post quem
2113:Synchronoptic view
2080:Linguistic methods
2041:Obsidian hydration
1976:Radiometric dating
1961:Incremental dating
1883:Chronostratigraphy
857:10.1007/BF02629944
837:Geofis. Pura. Appl
640:Robert I., Tilling
344:Curie temperatures
279:
238:seafloor spreading
234:magnetic anomalies
192:British physicist
127:and overlaps with
102:seafloor spreading
98:magnetic anomalies
30:
2398:
2397:
2313:Mantle convection
2146:
2145:
2059:
2058:
1916:
1915:
1777:
1776:
1732:Geologic Calendar
1594:
1593:
1256:978-0-520-26031-3
202:geomagnetic field
179:Motonori Matuyama
163:lightning strikes
100:did the same for
90:continental drift
53:Certain magnetic
2428:
2386:
2385:
2374:
2373:
2363:
2362:
2308:Gravity of Earth
2173:
2166:
2159:
2150:
2138:ASPRO chronology
2087:Glottochronology
2003:Tephrochronology
1951:Dendrochronology
1929:
1826:
1625:Proleptic Julian
1615:Pre-Julian Roman
1605:
1400:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1293:
1260:
1235:
1230:. Archived from
1197:
1174:
1146:
1123:
1098:
1065:
1064:
1047:(3â4): 199â216.
1033:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1015:, pp. 21â22
1010:
1004:
999:
993:
992:
990:
988:
973:
964:
963:
961:
959:
945:
939:
938:
936:
934:
919:
913:
912:
875:
869:
868:
832:
826:
825:
813:
807:
797:
791:
790:
778:
772:
771:
769:
745:
739:
734:
725:
719:
710:
691:
675:
669:
668:
666:
664:
635:
606:Paleoclimatology
600:Magnetochemistry
566:geochronological
362:Because complex
221:Edward A. Irving
206:Earth's rotation
157:attributed this
75:sedimentary rock
65:. The record of
49:paleomagnetists.
2436:
2435:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2357:
2348:
2332:
2283:Coriolis effect
2278:Chandler wobble
2270:
2264:
2240:Mineral physics
2203:
2182:
2177:
2147:
2142:
2091:
2075:
2071:Molecular clock
2064:Genetic methods
2055:
2036:Nitrogen dating
2023:Relative dating
2017:
1986:Potassiumâargon
1933:Absolute dating
1923:
1912:
1871:
1850:
1815:
1791:Cosmic Calendar
1783:Astronomic time
1773:
1715:
1670:
1634:
1620:Original Julian
1590:
1557:
1519:
1418:Ab urbe condita
1396:
1373:
1325:
1320:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1238:
1228:
1209:
1205:
1203:Further reading
1200:
1194:
1177:
1171:
1149:
1143:
1126:
1120:
1101:
1095:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1035:
1034:
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1023:
1019:
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1007:
1000:
996:
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984:
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967:
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955:
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920:
916:
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876:
872:
834:
833:
829:
815:
814:
810:
798:
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780:
779:
775:
747:
746:
742:
735:
728:
720:
713:
677:
676:
672:
662:
660:
658:
637:
636:
632:
627:
590:
584:geochronology.
578:potassiumâargon
545:
504:
488:
457:
421:
415:
403:
385:. Although the
332:
326:
310:
297:Earth's history
246:
204:was related to
194:P.M.S. Blackett
171:Bernard Brunhes
147:
141:
63:tectonic plates
37:palaeomagnetism
17:
12:
11:
5:
2434:
2432:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2411:Paleomagnetism
2403:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2380:
2368:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2333:
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2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2260:Tectonophysics
2257:
2252:
2250:Paleomagnetism
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2230:Geomathematics
2227:
2222:
2217:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
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2130:
2125:
2120:
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1973:
1971:Paleomagnetism
1968:
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1463:Before present
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1266:External links
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212:Alfred Wegener
143:Main article:
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83:geochronologic
35:(occasionally
33:Paleomagnetism
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1142:0-12-483355-1
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689:
686:(in German).
685:
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657:0-16-048220-8
653:
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570:igneous rocks
567:
563:
562:paleolatitude
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495:ferromagnetic
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369:oceanic crust
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340:igneous rocks
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217:Keith Runcorn
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159:magnetization
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121:dynamo theory
118:
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84:
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72:
69:preserved in
68:
64:
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56:
51:
50:
46:
45:Geophysicists
42:
38:
34:
25:
21:
19:
2387:
2375:
2356:
2323:Seismic wave
2249:
2225:Geomagnetism
2051:Stratigraphy
1996:Uraniumâlead
1970:
1966:Lichenometry
1764:Winter count
1747:Mesoamerican
1675:Astronomical
1493:Mesoamerican
1478:Sothic cycle
1453:Seleucid era
1438:Bosporan era
1426: /
1416:
1364:Paleontology
1241:
1232:the original
1212:
1179:
1155:
1151:McPhee, John
1128:
1104:
1080:
1044:
1038:
1031:
1020:
1008:
997:
987:18 September
985:. Retrieved
981:
956:. Retrieved
952:
943:
931:. Retrieved
927:
917:
884:
880:
873:
843:(1): 23â41.
840:
836:
830:
821:
817:
811:
795:
786:
782:
776:
757:
753:
743:
706:
701:
697:
693:
687:
683:
673:
661:. Retrieved
647:
633:
561:
555:
546:
543:Applications
537:inclinometer
529:
518:
505:
489:
472:
463:
458:
424:
422:
406:
404:
387:MÄori people
373:
361:
333:
311:
292:
282:
252:
247:
223:constructed
210:
198:magnetometer
191:
148:
129:biomagnetism
110:
87:
52:
48:
36:
32:
31:
20:
18:
2215:Geodynamics
1991:Radiocarbon
1666:Dual dating
1525:Regnal year
1503:Short Count
1443:Bostran era
1424:Anno Domini
1357:Big History
1337:Archaeology
1013:McPhee 1998
958:11 November
802:, pp.
724:, p. .
582:argonâargon
475:drill cores
391:New Zealand
153:. In 1797,
77:sequences (
2405:Categories
2255:Seismology
2180:Geophysics
1586:Vietnamese
1498:Long Count
1433:Anno Mundi
1428:Common Era
1330:Key topics
1323:Chronology
1072:References
1025:Tauxe 1998
933:7 December
702:Schuarcher
694:Schuarcher
690:: 136â140.
663:6 November
594:Geophysics
449:diagenesis
445:sandstones
433:iron oxide
431:, another
417:See also:
352:iron oxide
338:and other
308:Principles
183:Quaternary
117:meteorites
113:Moon rocks
2298:Geodynamo
2271:phenomena
2269:Physical
2208:Subfields
2123:Year zero
2103:Chronicle
2046:Seriation
1981:Leadâlead
1855:Standards
1836:Deep time
1796:Ephemeris
1682:Lunisolar
1646:Gregorian
1639:Gregorian
1600:Calendars
1563:Era names
1533:Anka year
1412:Human Era
1342:Astronomy
1218:Blackwell
865:129781412
800:Glen 1982
722:Glen 1982
509:Road cuts
460:Remanence
318:magnetite
293:Reversals
287:uses the
2377:Category
2187:Overview
2118:Timeline
1956:Ice core
1829:Concepts
1576:Japanese
1508:Tzolk'in
1473:Egyptian
1153:(1998).
928:BBC News
909:16949648
824:: 77â85.
642:(2001).
588:See also
572:such as
550:terranes
502:Sampling
437:Red beds
429:hematite
289:polarity
151:outcrops
106:terranes
71:volcanic
55:minerals
28:present.
2389:Commons
2344:Geodesy
2194:Outline
2128:Floruit
1876:Methods
1737:Iranian
1705:Islamic
1571:Chinese
1382:Periods
1352:History
1347:Geology
1049:Bibcode
889:Bibcode
845:Bibcode
558:hominin
533:compass
441:clastic
376:pottery
350:-group
139:History
1924:dating
1720:Others
1686:Hebrew
1581:Korean
1392:Epochs
1253:
1224:
1190:
1184:Kluwer
1167:
1139:
1116:
1091:
907:
863:
654:
574:basalt
356:gabbro
348:spinel
336:basalt
244:Fields
85:tool.
1757:Aztec
1701:Lunar
1696:Solar
1690:Hindu
1553:Limmu
1513:Haab'
1468:Hijri
861:S2CID
785:[
625:Notes
395:hÄngÄ«
379:kilns
59:rocks
2328:Tide
1752:Maya
1487:Yuga
1387:Eras
1369:Time
1251:ISBN
1222:ISBN
1188:ISBN
1165:ISBN
1137:ISBN
1114:ISBN
1089:ISBN
989:2017
960:2011
935:2012
905:PMID
665:2016
652:ISBN
580:and
535:and
314:iron
265:and
219:and
173:and
115:and
73:and
1057:doi
1045:162
897:doi
853:doi
804:4â5
762:doi
389:of
161:to
108:).
57:in
2407::
1688:,
1249:.
1245:.
1220:.
1216:.
1186:.
1182:.
1163:.
1159:.
1135:.
1131:.
1112:.
1108:.
1087:.
1083:.
1055:.
1043:.
980:.
968:^
951:.
926:.
903:.
895:.
885:51
883:.
859:.
851:.
841:33
839:.
820:.
756:.
752:.
729:^
714:^
646:.
482:.
439:,
240:.
189:.
135:.
2172:e
2165:t
2158:v
1707:)
1703:(
1692:)
1684:(
1489:)
1485:(
1315:e
1308:t
1301:v
1259:.
1196:.
1173:.
1145:.
1122:.
1097:.
1063:.
1059::
1051::
991:.
962:.
937:.
911:.
899::
891::
867:.
855::
847::
822:8
806:.
770:.
764::
758:5
688:4
667:.
303:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
