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tribal laws out of respect for the chief and the council. The tribe discourages verbal attacks against members. As the former Chief Brown explains, they have strict slander laws because, "We're like a 400-year-old subdivision. If we didn't get along we'd have probably killed each other long before now." The chief continued to pay the annual tribute to
Virginia's governor. This consists of game, usually a deer, and pottery or a "peace pipe". The Pamunkey have been paying such tribute since the treaty of 1646. Making this annual payment has not always been easy. Former Chief Miles remembers one year that was particularly hard, "We couldn't find anything, no deer, no turkeys—nothing. My dad was chief then, and we knew we had to have something to present to the governor; so we went to a turkey farm, bought a live turkey, brought it back to the reservation and killed it. That way we were able to fulfill the terms of the treaty—after all it was killed on the reservation." As far as anyone knows, they have not missed a payment in 342 years.
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1900 and 1910 censuses as their only base rolls has been considered problematic by many because it excludes those
Pamunkey Indians who were disenfranchised and forced to move from the Reservation before those censuses were taken. Despite the Black Laws supposedly being repealed in 2014, the tribe has yet to change their enrollment criteria. Due to this discrimination after the "Black laws" many mixed Black Pamunkey's moved to New Kent (these families were inaccurately referred to as "fringe Pamunkey" by Helen Rountree) and Cumberland Counties, Virginia, and despite the disenfranchisement they still maintained their Pamunkey identity. For example, during the late 1800s John Howell as trying to build an Indian only school for Pamunkeys living in New Kent. This was even referenced in OFA's preliminary decision for Pamunkey federal acknowledgement. It's also interesting to note that John R Dungee taught at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute.
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425:(chief) and a tribal council composed of seven members, elected every four years. The chief and council execute all the tribal governmental functions as set forth by their laws. Traditional elections used a basket, as well as peas and corn kernels, in the same number as voters. Members first voted for the chief, followed by votes for the seven council members. For each candidate, a corn kernel signified approbation and a pea a "no" vote, or if there were but two candidates, each could be indicated by a type of seed.
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587:, and the English. The treaty set up boundaries between lands set aside for the Virginia tribes and those that were now considered property of English colonists, reservations lands, and yearly tribute payment of fish and game (made to the English). These boundaries could not be crossed unless it was on official business and badges had to be worn to illustrate the point. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, settlers continued to expand the
405:" by English colonists. They were structures made from bent saplings lashed together at the top to make a barrel shape. Indians covered the saplings with woven mats or bark. The 17th-century historian William Strachey thought that bark was harder to acquire, as he noticed that only higher-status families owned bark-covered houses. In summer, when the heat and humidity increased, the mats could be rolled up or removed to allow more air circulation.
536:. This first meeting between Powhatan and Smith resulted in an alliance between the two people. Powhatan sent Smith back to Jamestown in the spring of 1608 and started sending gifts of food to the colonists. If not for Powhatan's donations, the settlers would not have survived through the first winters. As the settlement expanded, competition for land and other resources, and conflict between the settlers and Virginia tribes, increased.
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580:, and nearly wiped out the colony. Jamestown was spared in the attack of 1622 due to a warning. During each attack, about 350–400 settlers were killed. In 1622, the population had been 1,200, and in 1644, 8,000 prior to the attacks. Captured in 1646, Opechancanough was killed by a settler assigned to guard him, against orders. His death contributed to the decline of the Powhatan chiefdom.
687:, the state of Virginia helped the Pamunkey develop their pottery as a source of income. The state set up a program for a pottery school and provided a teacher. The state furnished materials for the building, but the tribe built it themselves. Tribal members learned methods to increase the speed of manufacture. They incorporated firing pottery in a
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initially said that the
Pamunkey had met its requirements for federal recognition in January 2014, but the final decision was repeatedly delayed until July 2, 2015, when the BIA granted them formal recognition.. In February 2016 the Pamunkey received a court victory over a challenge to their right to
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Today, Pamunkey use both traditional and newer techniques to create their pieces. To differentiate, pots made the traditional way are called 'blackware'. The
Pamunkey Indian Museum has a variety of vessels, as well as videos and exhibits, that explain the differences in construction methods, types of
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Inside the house, they built bedsteads along both walls. They were made of posts put in the ground, about a foot high or more, with small poles attached. The framework was about four feet (1.2 m) wide, over which reeds were put. One or more mats were placed on top for bedding; more mats or skins
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During the process of obtaining federal recognition controversy around the tribe's racist legacy came to light as the tribe disenfranchised and outlawed their members from intermarrying with Black families such as the Dungey's/Dungee families during their the 1861 "Black laws". Therefore, using the
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The
Pamunkey tradition of pottery making dates back to before the English settled Jamestown. They have been using clay from the banks of the Pamunkey River since prehistoric times. Many continue to use the traditional method. To do so, they let the clay dry, then break it into smaller pieces. These
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tribes, which had not formerly been under the paramount chiefdom of the
Pamunkey. Completion of the treaty ushered in a time of peace between the Virginia tribes and the English. This treaty was signed by more tribal leaders than that of 1646. It reinforced the annual tribute payments and added the
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of culture, roughly the years 900 to 1600. The peoples used the
Pamunkey River as a main mode of transportation and food source. The river also provided access to hunting grounds, and other tribes. Access to the river was crucial, because Pamunkey villages were seldom permanent settlements. Because
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hatchery to ensure continuation of an important food source. When shad are caught, the eggs of females are taken and placed into a bucket. Sperm from males are put into the same bucket. At holding tanks, the fertilized eggs are allowed to grow and hatch. Once the new fish are grown enough, usually
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The
Pamunkey have been able to survive because of their ability to adapt as a tribe. Withstanding pressure to give up their reservation lands has helped them maintain traditional ways. Men use some of the old methods for fishing, part of the tribe's traditional heritage. They also continue to hunt
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The
Powhatan could not understand the violent tactics employed by the colonists. As one noted, "What it will avail you to take by force you may quickly have by love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provisions and fly to the woods? Whereby you
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The
Commonwealth of Virginia has always recognized the Pamunkey tribe, with formal relations dating back to the treaties of 1646 and 1677. However, since the United States did not exist at the time of those treaties, no formal relations existed between the Pamunkey and the federal government. In
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Differing concepts of land and farm animal ownership and use caused some conflicts between the Virginia tribes and English colonists. For native tribes, the land was "owned" only as long as it was farmed; after that, it was available for "public" use. The Englishmen had, instead, laws on private
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based on well-known and popular Southwestern Native American traditions. Two pictographs represent important stories to the tribe: the story of Captain John Rolfe and Pocahontas and the story of the treaty that set up payments of game. After the teacher left the school, some members returned to
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The story of Pocahontas (Matoaka) tells a piece of Pamunkey history, but from an English colonial perspective. Study of primary documents from the time of English arrival shows that initial contact was characterized by mutual cultural misunderstanding. Colonists portrayed the Virginia tribes by
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Tribal laws govern all civil matters. In criminal matters, outside authorities such as a Sheriff or Police, may respectfully notify the Tribal Chief about serving a warrant. But, such action is not legally required. The tribe does not operate a police force or jail. Most tribal members obey the
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The same 1896 study noted that tribal laws were concerned with, but not limited to, controlling land use, stealing, and fighting (breaking the peace). Instead of using corporal punishment, incarceration, or chastisement, anyone who broke a tribal law was fined or banished. Because the Pamunkey
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property and believed that the land was theirs as soon as the tribe sold it to them. As a result, when Englishmen allowed land to lie fallow, Native Americans assumed they were free to use it for hunting and gathering. Many Englishmen considered both as encroachments on their private property.
557:'s account of the early years expresses such duality: "It pleased God, after a while, to send those people which were our mortal enemies to relieve us with victuals, as bread, corn fish, and flesh in great plenty, which was the setting up of our feeble men, otherwise we had all perished".
610:. The cause of the rebellion was Berkeley's refusal to come to the aid of colonists subjected to frequent raids and murder by natives. Bacon and other colonists, former indentured servants, were victims of raids by local Virginia tribes. Bacon's overseer was murdered by raiding Indians.
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pieces are soaked in water until reaching the consistency of cream. The clay is strained to remove rocks or debris. The water is drained and pressed out until the clay is like dough. It is then ready to be made into pots. Traditional pottery by Pamunkey ancestors of the
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must famish by wronging us your friends. And why are you thus jealous of our loves seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you, with that you cannot get but by our labors?" Smith included this translation of Powhatan's questions in his writings.
751:, who noted that the tribe had historically forbidden intermarriage between its members and black people. The interracial marriage ban, which had long been unenforced and was formally rescinded in 2012, was a relic of the tribe's attempt to circumvent Virginia's
348:. Given the extensive ethnic mixing that occurred among the Pamunkey before 1844, it's possible that Dalrymple's list is from an inter-ethnic pidgin or even a language from an otherwise unknown language family, rather than from the original Pamunkey language.
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The colonists generally mistrusted most Indian tribes, but they noted the Pamunkey did not steal. "Their custom is to take anything they can seize off; only the people of Pamunkey we have not found stealing, but what others can steal, their king receiveth."
715:. Located on the reservation, the museum provides visitors with insight into the tribe's long history and culture. Included are artifacts from more than 10,000 years of indigenous settlement, replicas of prehistoric materials, and stories. The
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of the Pamunkey), who succeeded her husband after he was killed fighting for the English, was an ally of Berkeley against Bacon. To the English, she was known as "Queen of the Pamunkey". She is known for having signed the Articles of Peace
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and using glazes into their techniques. They learned to use squeeze molds to produce copies of pots quickly. Kiln firing produced finished pottery of more uniform brown tones than the shades of gray from traditional pottery techniques.
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tribes to the Tributary Indians of the colonial government. More reservation lands were established for the tribes, but the treaty required Virginia Native American leaders to acknowledge they and their peoples were subjects of the
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is generally assumed to have been Algonquian, but only fourteen words have been preserved, not enough to determine that the language actually was Algonquian. The words, which were recorded in 1844 by Reverend E.A. Dalrymple
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in 1607, the Powhatan Confederacy was visited by white men: Spanish, French, and English." (Barbour, 5). Scholars estimate that when the English arrived in 1607, this paramount chiefdom numbered about 14,000–21,000 people.
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contrasts. They had respect for Powhatan, but characterized other Native Americans by terms such as "naked devils". Their fear and appreciation of Native Americans was coupled with distrust and unease.
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602:, which began in 1675, resulted in attacks on several tribes that were loyal to the English. The rebellion was a joint effort of white and black former indentured servants. The rebellion was led by
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The Pamunkey, and all Virginia tribes, had an intimate, balanced relationship with the animals, plants, and the geography of their homeland. Like other native tribes, they had techniques, such as
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Powhatan's maternal half-brother and ultimate successor, Opechancanough, launched attacks in 1622 and 1644 as a result of English colonists encroaching on Powhatan lands. The first, known as the
849:, p. 26827: "The addition to the list of Indian entities results from the January 28, 2016, Interior Board of Indian Appeals dismissal of a request for reconsideration in docket number 16–003,
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Theodora Octavia Dennis Cook, wife of Chief George Major Cook, wearing a woven feather neck ornament of wild turkey feathers, wild goose, and shelldrake or shellduck, ca. 1864-ca. 1935
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after 21 days, they are flushed back into the river. Chief Miles estimated that seven million fry were put back into the river in 1998 and probably triple that number in 1999.
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When the English arrived, the Pamunkey were one of the most powerful groups of the Powhatan chiefdom. They inhabited the coastal tidewater of Virginia on the north side of the
381:, to clear land for cultivation or hunting. The land belonged to the group as a whole. The chief and council would allot a parcel of cleared ground to a family head for life.
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The traditional Pamunkey way of life was subsistence living. They lived through a combination of fishing, trapping, hunting, and farming. The latter was developed in the late
488:-speaking language family. This was composed of a number of tribes who spoke variations of the same language, a language now mostly lost. By 1607, more than 30 tribes were
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Colonists of the first successful English settlement, based at Jamestown, had a complicated relationship with Virginia's Native Americans. In the winter of 1607,
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Today, about 430 tribal members remain, some of whom live on their 1,200-acre (4.9 km) reservation. Others are spread out across the United States.
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served as blankets, with a rolled mat for a pillow. The bedding was rolled up and stored during the day to make the space available for other functions.
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The Pamunkey Tribe is one of only two that retain the reservation lands assigned by the 1646 and 1677 treaties with the English colonial government. The
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Initial contact with Europeans was around 1570. "And from on at ever briefer intervals until the first permanent English colony was established at
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occupied this part of the mid-Atlantic coast for more than 10,000 years before European contact. Evidence has been collected by archaeologists,
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arrived in 1607. The Pamunkey nation made up about one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the total, as they numbered about 1,000 persons in 1607.
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Alfred A. Cave, Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial America (2011) University of Nebraska Press at pp. 151,165
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abducted her as a hostage in an attempt to secure the release of some English prisoners and ammunitions held by her father.
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A Vocabulary of Powhatan, compiled by Captain John Smith, with two word-lists of Pamumkey and Nansemond from other sources.
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resented that, in the past, outsiders picked out some laws for ridicule, no outsiders are now allowed to see tribal laws.
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Indian Tribes of Virginia Federal Recognition Act of 2017 on January 12, 2018. The historical people were part of the
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The Pamunkey practice of matrilineal succession also created some confusion for Englishmen, who finally in the 1677
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recognized the Pamunkey queen. As with other tribes in the Powhatan confederacy, the Pamunkey also had a
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625:) in 1677, after Bacon's Rebellion ended. As a result of the treaty, she gained authority over the
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Photograph of a 20th-century Pamunkey girl; the text says she has a sister named Pocahontas. (from
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Pamunkey pottery-makers learned how to paint and glaze pots. The teacher taught them designs and
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was strengthened with crushed or burned shells, crushed steatite, river pebbles, or quartz sand.
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Howell, Benita J.; Levy, Richard S.; Luckenbach, Alvin (1979). "What is Dalrymple's Pamunkey?".
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was made up of over 30 nations, estimated to total about 10,000–15,000 people at the time the
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1353:"How a long-dead white supremacist still threatens the future of Virginia's Indian tribes"
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344:, none of the words correspond to any known Algonquian language, or to reconstructions of
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to historians), who achieved historical fame, were Pamunkey Native Americans. Captain
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Benita Howell, Richard Levy & Alvin Luckenbach, 'What Is Dalrymple's Pamunkey?',
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Pamunkey tribal members re-enact the story of Pocahantas – photo taken in 1910.
370:, they moved their fields and homes about every ten years to allow land to lie
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Joanne Kimberlain, "We're Still Here," Virginian-Pilot. June 7–9, 2009: Print.
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Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown
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In 1646, the first treaty was signed between the Opechancanough's successor,
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recently selected the Pamunkey as one of 24 tribes to be featured in the
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Before and After Jamestown: Virginia's Powhatans and Their Predecessors
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864:"Bill passes to give 6 Va. Native American tribes federal recognition"
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Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations in the Seventeenth Century
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The Jamestown adventure: accounts of the Virginia colony, 1605–1614
1264:"A renowned Virginia Indian tribe finally wins federal recognition"
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We're Still Here: Contemporary Virginia Indians Tell Their Stories.
802:"A renowned Virginia Indian tribe finally wins federal recognition"
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743:, which feared potential competition with its planned casino in
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1158:, Part 2, p. 198. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
1320:"Virginia's Pamunkey Indian Tribe Granted Federal Recognition"
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evidence, scholars estimate that various distinct cultures of
790:, Virginia Council on Indians, Commonwealth of Virginia, 2009
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The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture.
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lived in the areas later occupied by the historic Pamunkey.
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1427:, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
1381:"Pamunkey challenge denied, tribe now federally recognized"
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Federal Register; Vol. 81, No. 86; Wednesday, May 4, 2016;
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reservation, the only other in the state, is nearby on the
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Waugaman, Sandra F. and Danielle-Moretti-Langholtz, Ph.D.
933:. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1992.
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In Re Federal Acknowledgment of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe.
755:, which recognized only "White" and "Colored" people. The
184:, were similarly recognized through the passage of the
1201:, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005.
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1982, the Pamunkey began the process of applying for
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Richmond: Palari Publishing, 2006 (revised edition).
739:. Their formal application met with opposition from
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893:. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
532:. Smith was brought to Opechancanough's brother,
401:), were long and narrow; they were described as "
1768:Federally recognized tribes in the United States
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889:Rountree, Helen C. and E. Randolph Turner III.
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222:is located on some of its ancestral land on the
447:A History of Virginia for Boys and Girls (1920)
913:, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office
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1092:International Journal of American Linguistics
1046:International Journal of American Linguistics
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1292:"Pocahontas' Tribe Wins Federal Recognition"
1156:Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico
340:'one', which is clearly similar to Powhatan
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1110:University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, 1989.
931:First People: The Early Indians of Virginia
711:, built in 1979, resembled the traditional
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572:, destroyed colonial settlements such as
500:and his daughter Matoaka (better known as
196:-speaking nations. The Powhatan paramount
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1420:. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969.
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528:, chief of the Pamunkey tribe, captured
357:Subsistence and relationship to the land
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1094:, vol. 45, no. 1 (Jan. 1979), pp. 78–80
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1178:Virginia Foundation for the Humanities
1029:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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721:National Museum of the American Indian
152:tribal governments recognized by the
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929:Egloff, Keith and Deborah Woodward.
484:The Pamunkey are part of the larger
61:Regions with significant populations
1605:Patawomeck Indian Tribe of Virginia
1590:Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Indian Tribe
1168:Rountree, Helen C. (May 30, 2014).
828:. Governor.virginia.gov. 2015-07-02
704:temper, and decorating techniques.
606:against his relation, Governor Sir
1773:Native American tribes in Virginia
1454:The Indian tribes of North America
987:The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail
479:indigenous peoples of the Americas
45:Pamunkey Indian Reservation Emblem
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1600:Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia
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1290:Sky News US Team (2 July 2015).
910:The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia
745:Prince George's County, Maryland
700:traditional pottery techniques.
366:the Pamunkey people did not use
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1457:, Genealogical Publishing Com,
1318:Vergakis, Brock (2 July 2015).
659:and trap on reservation lands.
651:Pamunkey Native Americans today
1154:Hodge, Frederick Webb (1910).
374:and recover from cultivation.
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760:exist as a political entity.
228:King William County, Virginia
1437:, John F. Blair, Publisher,
800:Woodrow, John (2012-12-14).
753:Racial Integrity Act of 1924
709:Pamunkey Indian Tribe Museum
540:Gradual English colonization
1451:Swanton, John Reed (2003),
1081:Evolution Publishing, 1997.
707:The Pamunkey ensured their
662:In 1998, the tribe built a
623:Treaty of Middle Plantation
419:Treaty of Middle Plantation
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786:February 24, 2012, at the
749:Congressional Black Caucus
747:, and from members of the
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158:federally recognized tribe
1403:indianz.com March 9, 2020
1351:Heim, Joe (1 July 2015).
1262:Heim, Joe (2 July 2015).
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1418:Pocahontas and Her World
985:Wood, Karenne (editor).
757:Bureau of Indian Affairs
226:adjacent to present-day
156:, and the state's first
154:Commonwealth of Virginia
1595:Mattaponi Indian Nation
1483:Pamunkey Tribe Homepage
908:Pollard, John Garland.
717:Smithsonian Institution
570:Indian Massacre of 1622
449:by John Walter Wayland)
393:Pamunkey homes, called
1526:Native American tribes
1478:Pamunkey Indian Museum
1170:"Pocahontas (d. 1617)"
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477:. Varying cultures of
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1431:Southern, Ed (2004),
1423:Hatfield, April Lee.
1174:Encyclopedia Virginia
826:"Governor – Newsroom"
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146:Pamunkey Indian Tribe
123:Related ethnic groups
56:Enrolled members: 430
18:Pamunkey Indian Tribe
1778:Algonquian ethnonyms
1763:Powhatan Confederacy
1549:Chickahominy–Eastern
1537:Federally recognized
683:In 1932, during the
494:Powhatan Confederacy
220:Pamunkey reservation
190:Powhatan paramountcy
166:Eastern Chickahominy
1379:Review, Tidewater.
1197:Rountree, Helen C.
1106:Rountree, Helen C.
806:The Washington Post
737:federal recognition
730:Federal recognition
186:Thomasina E. Jordan
99:English, formerly
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1416:Barbour, Phillip.
870:. 12 January 2018.
589:colony of Virginia
578:Wolstenholme Towne
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530:Captain John Smith
492:of the Algonquian
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379:controlled burning
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1708:(now in Oklahoma)
1464:978-0-8063-1730-4
1444:978-0-89587-302-6
1401:Gwen Moore letter
600:Bacon's Rebellion
595:Bacon's Rebellion
254:Pamunkey language
248:Pamunkey language
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1583:State-recognized
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781:"Writer's Guide"
778:
725:Washington, D.C.
685:Great Depression
608:William Berkeley
512:European contact
467:Native Americans
346:proto-Algonquian
280:'thankfulness',
85:
83:
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73:
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51:Total population
43:
36:
27:Indigenous tribe
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1411:Further reading
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678:Woodland Period
673:
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645:King of England
604:Nathaniel Bacon
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526:Opechanacanough
514:
471:anthropologists
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236:Mattaponi River
170:Upper Mattaponi
150:Virginia Indian
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296:'go out dog',
288:'friendship',
246:Main article:
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213:Chesapeake Bay
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292:'thank you',
291:
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284:'O my Lord',
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75:United States
64:
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37:
19:
1717:Wachapreague
1569:Rappahannock
1563:
1544:Chickahominy
1453:
1433:
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1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1374:
1362:. Retrieved
1356:
1346:
1334:. Retrieved
1330:the original
1323:
1313:
1301:. Retrieved
1295:
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1273:. Retrieved
1267:
1249:, p. 70
1247:Swanton 2003
1242:
1237:, p. 97
1230:
1225:, p. 83
1218:
1213:, p. 35
1206:
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1181:. Retrieved
1173:
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1007:the original
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631:Chickahominy
627:Rappahannock
617:
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555:George Percy
551:
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272:'daughter',
269:
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251:
217:
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174:Rappahannock
162:Chickahominy
145:
143:
133:Chickahominy
113:Christianity
30:Ethnic group
1671:Nacotchtank
741:MGM Casinos
697:pictographs
614:Cockacoeske
585:Necotowance
490:tributaries
368:fertilizers
336:Except for
209:James River
1752:Categories
1732:Wicocomico
1686:Patawomeck
1681:Occaneechi
1641:Chesapeake
1636:Assateague
1631:Arrohattoc
1626:Appomattoc
1016:2018-12-31
832:2015-10-24
811:2015-10-24
768:References
618:weroansqua
502:Pocahontas
486:Algonquian
475:historians
413:Government
403:longhouses
194:Algonquian
180:, and the
137:Patawomeck
117:Indigenous
1691:Paspahegh
1559:Nansemond
1066:143441104
1052:: 78–80.
640:Iroquoian
518:Jamestown
461:Based on
328:'eight',
324:'seven',
314:nahnkitty
308:'three',
232:Mattaponi
182:Nansemond
129:Mattaponi
94:Languages
1758:Pamunkey
1727:Weyanoke
1676:Nottoway
1666:Meherrin
1656:Manahoac
1614:Historic
1564:Pamunkey
1530:Virginia
1297:Sky News
1143:Flaherty
1025:cite web
784:Archived
574:Henricus
423:weroance
399:yehakins
395:yihakans
318:vomtally
316:'five',
312:'four',
306:kiketock
290:baskonee
286:kenaanee
282:o-ma-yah
242:Language
198:chiefdom
107:Religion
101:Powhatan
87:Virginia
34:Pamunkey
1706:Shawnee
1661:Manskin
1621:Accomac
1554:Monacan
1386:22 July
989:, 2007.
847:Notices
713:yehakin
671:Pottery
437:History
326:tingdum
322:talliko
320:'six',
310:mitture
304:'two',
300:'one',
276:'cat',
274:petucka
270:nucksee
268:'son',
266:tonshee
261:, are,
202:English
178:Monacan
1737:Xualae
1712:Tutelo
1701:Senedo
1696:Saponi
1646:Chisca
1461:
1441:
1364:2 July
1336:2 July
1303:2 July
1275:2 July
1064:
636:Siouan
473:, and
372:fallow
338:nikkut
332:'ten'.
330:yantay
302:orijak
298:nikkut
294:eeskut
259:S.T.D.
230:. The
176:, the
172:, the
168:, the
164:, the
84:
72:
1722:Westo
1062:S2CID
1010:(PDF)
1003:(PDF)
389:Homes
342:nekut
278:kayyo
211:near
1651:Doeg
1459:ISBN
1439:ISBN
1388:2016
1366:2015
1338:2015
1305:2015
1277:2015
1185:2014
1031:link
868:WTVR
689:kiln
664:shad
638:and
629:and
576:and
397:(or
252:The
144:The
1528:in
1054:doi
723:in
1754::
1355:.
1322:.
1294:.
1266:.
1254:^
1176:.
1172:.
1124:^
1099:^
1060:.
1050:45
1048:.
1027:}}
1023:{{
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853:"
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616:(
89:)
77:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
