1206:. A few days later, Duvalier gave a public speech during which he read the attendance sheet with the names of all 19 officers killed. After each name, he said "absent". After reading the whole list, Duvalier remarked that "all were shot". Haitian communists and even suspected communists bore the brunt of the government's repression. Duvalier targeted them to reassure the U.S. that he was not communist: Duvalier was exposed to communist and leftist ideas early in his life and rejected them. On 28 April 1969, Duvalier instituted a campaign to rid Haiti of all communists. A new law declared that "Communist activities, no matter what their form, are hereby declared crimes against the security of the State." Those convicted of Communist activity were subject to execution, and faced having their property confiscated.
2505:
crucial political role for the regime, countering the influence of the armed forces, historically the government's primary source of power. The VSN gained its deadly reputation in part because members received no salary, although they took orders from the
Presidential Palace. They made their living, instead, through extortion and petty crime. Rural members of the VSN, who wore blue denim uniforms, had received some training from the army, while the plainclothes members, identified by their trademark dark glasses, served as Haiti's criminal investigation force.
498:
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929:. Upon his return to work, Duvalier accused Barbot of trying to supplant him as president and had him imprisoned. In April 1963, Barbot was released and began plotting to remove Duvalier from office by kidnapping his children. The plot failed and Duvalier then ordered a nationwide search for Barbot and his fellow conspirators. During the search, Duvalier was told that Barbot had transformed himself into a black dog, which prompted Duvalier to order that all black dogs in Haiti be put to death. The
1823:, commune de la Martinique, tailleur de son métier à la rue de l'Enterrement, dont le fils aîné Duval Duvalier fut fait officiellement le père adoptif de François Duvalier alors qu'il en était le demi‑frère. Pour maquiller sa paternité tardive, Florestal Duvalier, vieillard cacochyme, poussa son fils adulte Duval à reconnaître l'enfant, né de ses amours ancillaires avec une jeune domestique, Irutia Abraham, originaire de
493:
1147:, in what would be the only visit of a foreign head of state to Haiti under Duvalier. During the visit, the two discussed bilateral agreements between their two nations and the economic shortcomings brought about by international pressure. Duvalier awarded Haile Selassie the Necklace of the Order of Jean-Jacques Dessalines the Great, and the emperor, in turn, bestowed upon Duvalier the Great Necklace of the
1122:, with the goal of arresting a Haitian army officer believed to have been involved in Barbot's plot to kidnap Duvalier's children. The Dominican president reacted with outrage, publicly threatened to invade Haiti, and ordered army units to the border. However, as Dominican military commanders expressed little support for an invasion of Haiti, Bosch refrained from the invasion and sought mediation through
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President
Duvalier reigned supreme for fourteen years. Even in Haiti, where dictators had been the norm, François Duvalier gave new meaning to the term. Duvalier and his henchmen killed between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians. The victims were not only political opponents, but women, whole families,
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Nonetheless, Duvalier enjoyed significant support among Haiti's majority black rural population, who saw in him a champion of their claims against the historically dominant mulatto elite. During his 14 years in power, he created a substantial black middle class, chiefly through government patronage.
873:
In the early years of his rule, Duvalier was able to take advantage of the strategic weaknesses of his powerful opponents, mostly from the mulatto elite. These weaknesses included their inability to coordinate their actions against the regime, whose power had grown increasingly stronger. In the name
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and other diseases. In 1954, Duvalier abandoned medicine, hiding out in Haiti's countryside from the
Magloire regime. In 1956, the Magloire government was failing, and although still in hiding, Duvalier announced his candidacy to replace him as president. By December 1956, an amnesty was issued and
3160:
Notre Doc qui êtes au Palais
National pour la Vie, que Votre nom soit béni par les générations présentes et futures, que Votre Volonté soit faite à Port‑au‑Prince et en Province. Donnez‑nous aujourd'hui notre nouvelle Haïti, ne pardonnez jamais les offenses des apatrides qui bavent chaque jour sur
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During the 1930s, Duvalier joined a group of black intellectuals, the Griots. The Griots had begun to study and sanctify Haiti's
African heritage. The group's work marked the beginning of a new campaign against the [child of two worlds] elite and an emerging ideology of
1201:
Duvalier's government was one of the most repressive in the
Western Hemisphere. During his 14-year rule, he murdered and exiled numerous political opponents; estimates of those killed are as high as 60,000. Attacks on Duvalier from within the military were treated as especially serious. When bombs
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Article 1. Communist activities, no matter what their form, are hereby declared crimes against the security of the State ... The authors of an accomplices in crimes listed above shall receive the death penalty, and their goods and chattels shall be confiscated and sold for the benefit of the
2567:
This concordat let Dr. François
Duvalier ('Papa Doc') nominate seven key clerics, thus ensuring their personal loyalty to him. It also stipulates that future appointments should be 'preferentially to members of the indigenous clergy'. Both these measures helped bring the Haitian church under
2504:
Although referred to as a militia, the VSN in fact became the
Duvaliers' front-line security force. As of early 1986, the organization included more than 9,000 members and an informal circle of thousands more. The VSN acted as a political cadre, secret police and instrument of terror. It played a
1031:. The U.S. thus halted most of its economic assistance in mid-1962, pending stricter accounting procedures, with which Duvalier refused to comply. Duvalier publicly renounced all aid from Washington on nationalist grounds, portraying himself as a "principled and lonely opponent of domination by a
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officer and then proceeded to create his own power base within the army by turning the
Presidential Guard into an elite corps aimed at maintaining his power. After this, Duvalier dismissed the entire general staff and replaced it with officers who owed their positions, and their loyalty, to him.
1037:
Duvalier misappropriated millions of dollars of international aid, including US$ 15 million annually from the United States. He transferred this money to personal accounts. Another of
Duvalier's methods of obtaining foreign money was to gain foreign loans, including US$ 4 million from
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captured and killed Barbot in July 1963. In other incidents, Duvalier ordered the head of an executed rebel packed in ice and brought to him so he could commune with the dead man's spirit. Peepholes were carved into the walls of the interrogation chambers, through which Duvalier watched Haitian
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to do. He's a U.S. diplomat and a Haitian‑American. And after Duvalier's death, he tweeted, I'm thinking of the look in my mother's eyes when she talks about her brother Joel, who was disappeared by that dictator. Duvalier and his father before him ran one of the most repressive regimes in the
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himself". The most celebrated image from the time shows a standing Jesus Christ with a hand on the shoulder of a seated Papa Doc, captioned, "I have chosen him". Duvalier declared himself an "immaterial being" as well as "the Haitian flag" soon after his first election. In 1964, he published a
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and tried to overthrow Duvalier; all were killed. Although the army and its leaders had quashed the coup attempt, the incident deepened Duvalier's distrust of the army, an important Haitian institution over which he did not have firm control. He replaced the chief-of-staff with a more reliable
1214:
Duvalier employed intimidation, repression, and patronage to supplant the old mulatto elites with a new elite of his own making. Corruption—in the form of government rake-offs of industries, bribery, extortion of domestic businesses, and stolen government funds—enriched the dictator's closest
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in which he was the sole candidate, though his term was to expire in 1963 and the constitution prohibited re-election. The election was flagrantly rigged; the official tally showed a total of 1,320,748 "yes" votes for another term for Duvalier, with none opposed. Upon hearing the results, he
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landowner and industrialist from the north. During their campaigning, Haiti was ruled by five temporary administrations, none lasting longer than a few months. Duvalier promised to rebuild and renew the country and rural Haiti solidly supported him as did the military. He resorted to
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Communism has established centres of infection ... No area in the world is as vital to American security as the Caribbean ... We need a massive injection of money to reset the country on its feet, and this injection can come only from our great, capable friend and neighbor the United
595:), indiscriminately tortured or killed Duvalier's opponents; the Tonton Macoute was thought to be so pervasive that Haitians became highly fearful of expressing any form of dissent, even in private. Duvalier further sought to solidify his rule by incorporating elements of
1531:—PUN (National Unity Party)—to constitute a single-party system. ... the existence of a single party as one of the defining characteristics of the totalitarian nature of Duvalierism ... the party had a thoroughly inconsequential role in the Duvalierist system.
1372:
On 8 February 1986, when the Duvalier regime fell, a crowd attacked Duvalier's mausoleum, throwing boulders at it, chipping off pieces from it, and breaking open the crypt. Duvalier's coffin was not inside, however. A prevailing rumor in the capital, according to
978:", a title previously held by seven Haitian presidents. This referendum was also blatantly rigged; an implausible 99.9% voted in favor, which should have come as no surprise since all the ballots were premarked "yes". The new document granted Duvalier—or
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whole towns. In April 1963, when an army officer suspected of trying to kidnap two of Duvalier's children took refuge in the Dominican chancery, Duvalier ordered the Presidential Guard to occupy the building. The Dominicans were incensed; President
1819:, opposant politique et véritable vainqueur des élections. Ce fut le premier acte illégal du dictateur. Oh ! Il en fut d'autres. Oh ! Par bassesse, le dictateur vengeait la mémoire de son vrai père Florestal Duvalier, citoyen français du
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Thousands of posters appeared as the Péligre dam was about to be opened proclaiming that 'Duvalier alone is able to harness the energy of Péligre and give it to his people'. Others had Jesus with his hand on Duvalier proclaiming 'I have chosen
2230:
While working in a hospital during the 1930s, [Simone Duvalier] met [François] Duvalier, and the couple married on 27 December 1939. They had four children: Marie‑Denise, Nicole, Simone, and Jean‑Claude
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as it is in the provinces. Give us this day our new Haiti and forgive not the trespasses of those antipatriots who daily spit on our country; lead them into temptation, and, poisoned by their own venom, deliver them from no
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was always tense: in his early years, Duvalier emphasized the differences between the two countries. In April 1963, relations were brought to the edge of war by the political enmity between Duvalier and Dominican president
3152:
2937:
People with ties to Haiti are remembering one of that country's former dictators. Jean‑Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier died over the weekend. The old saying goes, speak nothing but good of the dead, but that is hard for
803:
François Duvalier was elected president on 22 September 1957. Duvalier received 679,884 votes to Déjoie's 266,992. Even in this election, however, there are multiple first-hand accounts of voter fraud and voter
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Peepholes were made in his torture chambers, to allow him to observe discreetly. Sometimes, he was in the room itself, while men and women were beaten, tortured, and plunged into baths of sulfuric acid.
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to the faithful containing the following version of the Lord's Prayer: 'Our Doc, who art in the National Palace for Life, hallowed be Thy name by present and future generations. Thy will be done in
1023:(1961–1963) was particularly disturbed by Duvalier's repressive and totalitarian rule and allegations that he misappropriated aid money, at the time a substantial part of the Haitian budget, and a
1171:, making Haiti one of few countries that recognized Biafra. Duvalier's decision to recognize Biafra was influenced by his anti-communist foreign policy and by Haiti's historical connection to the
2986:
Current Haitian legislation contains a number of legal provisions that place considerable restrictions on the freedom of speech. The most important of these is the law of 28 April 1969:
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commented, "Latin America has witnessed many fraudulent elections throughout its history but none has been more outrageous than the one which has just taken place in Haiti". On 14 June 1964, a
1097:, where a trade embargo was imposed on Cuba. Cuba answered by breaking off diplomatic relations and Duvalier subsequently instituted a campaign to rid Haiti of communists. This move severed
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in November 1963, which Duvalier later claimed resulted from a curse that he had placed on Kennedy, the U.S. eased its pressure on Duvalier, grudgingly accepting him as a bulwark against
1191:
1118:. Bosch, a leftist, provided asylum and support to Haitian exiles who had plotted against the Duvalier regime. Duvalier ordered his Presidential Guard to occupy the Dominican Embassy in
689:
among Haitians and left a powerful impression on the young Duvalier. He was also aware of the latent political power of the poor black majority and their resentment against the small
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Duvalier also held in his closet the head of former opponent Blucher Philogenes, who tried to overthrow him in 1963. He believed another political enemy, Clément Barbot, was able to
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and several French-speaking African countries, exacerbating an already serious lack of doctors and teachers. Some of the highly skilled professionals joined the ranks of several
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823:
Duvalier promoted and installed members of the black majority in the civil service and the army. In July 1958, three exiled Haitian army officers and five American mercenaries
1454:, published in 1969, though several others by Haitian scholars and historians have appeared since Duvalier's death in 1971. One of the most informative, Patrick Lemoine's
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Not satisfied with being the Haitian flag, ... Duvalier also declared himself 'an immaterial being' shortly after he became 'President-for-Life', and issued a
1831:. La mère de Duvalier en devint folle. Son fils lui fut retiré si bien que l'enfant ne la connut jamais et fut élevé par une tante, madame Florestal .»
1405:. Duvalier, however, dismissed the piece and referred to its author as "a cretin, a stool pigeon, sadistic, unbalanced, perverted, a perfect ignoramous [
2759:
Haitian president François "Papa Doc" Duvalier infamously claimed that his curse on John F. Kennedy brought about the President's 1963 assassination.
1469:, which relied in part on records from a 1968 espionage trial in Haiti to detail numerous attempts on Duvalier's life. The trial's defendant, David Knox, was a
3398:
954:
In 1961, Duvalier began violating the provisions of the 1957 constitution. First, he replaced the bicameral legislature with a unicameral body. Then he called
2127:
black power, Haitian style. It was on this ideology that Duvalier later based his political leadership. His pro‑black led to his advocacy of [Vodou].
1638:
ordered troops to the border and threatened to invade. However, the Dominican commanders were reluctant to enter Haiti, and Bosch was obliged to turn to the
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and other tropical diseases that had ravaged Haiti for years. His patients affectionately called him "Papa Doc", a moniker that he used throughout his life.
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and was appointed Director General of the National Public Health Service. In 1949, he served as Minister of Health and Labor, but when Duvalier opposed
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The government confiscated peasant landholdings and allotted them to members of the militia, who had no official salary and made their living through
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2095:
Pan-African Chronology II: A Comprehensive Reference to the Black Quest for Freedom in Africa, the Americas, Europe and Asia, 1865–1915
1411:], lying to his heart's content, the shame of proud and noble England, a spy, a drug addict, and a torturer". The book was later made into a
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His relationship with the United States proved difficult. In his early years, Duvalier rebuked the United States for its friendly relations with
4447:
3199:
1593:. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
1311:, or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. He often donned sunglasses in order to hide his eyes and talked with the strong nasal tone associated with the
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2464:. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p.
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After being elected president in 1957, Duvalier exiled most of the major supporters of Déjoie. He had a new constitution adopted that year.
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He once ordered the head of an executed rebel packed in ice and brought to the presidential palace so he could commune with his spirit.
757:'s 1950 coup d'état, he left the government and resumed practicing medicine. His practice included taking part in campaigns to prevent
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supporters. Most of them held sufficient power to intimidate the members of the old elite, who were gradually co-opted or eliminated.
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in which he was the only candidate. Afterwards, he consolidated his power step by step, culminating in 1964 when he declared himself
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614:. Due to his profession and expertise in the medical field, he acquired the nickname "Papa Doc". He was unanimously "re-elected" in
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notre Patrie, laissez‑les succomber à la tentation et sous le poids de leurs baves malfaisantes: ne les délivrez d'aucun mal. Amen.
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Peschanski, João Alexandre (2013). "Papa Doc's Feint: the misled opposition and the consolidation of Duvalier's rule in Haiti".
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Dobronravin, Nikolay (28 September 2020). "The Comintern, "Negro Self-Determination" and Black Revolutions in the Caribbean".
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on a scholarship that was meant to train Black doctors from the Caribbean to take care of African-American servicemen during
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to allow him permission to nominate the Catholic hierarchy for Haiti. Duvalier now exercised more power in Haiti than ever.
717:, an ethnological study of which later paid enormous political dividends for him. In 1938, Duvalier co-founded the journal
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were detonated near the Presidential Palace in 1967, Duvalier had nineteen officers of the Presidential Guard executed in
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Prior to his rule, Duvalier was a physician by profession. He graduated from the Graduate School of Public Health at the
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de la magistrature. Il fut ostracisé pour avoir notarié l'acte de candidature à l'élection présidentielle du sénateur
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priest himself. In an effort to make himself even more imposing, Duvalier deliberately modeled his image on that of
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The dispossessed fled to the slums of the capital where they would find only meager incomes to feed themselves.
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proclaimed, "I accept the people's will. ... As a revolutionary, I have no right to disregard the will of the
2784:. Country Studies (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
1910:. Country Studies (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
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and claimed that he was the physical embodiment of the island nation. He also revived the traditions of
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director of information. Knox lost and was sentenced to death, but he was later granted amnesty.
1439:, the documentary is deeply revealing of Duvalier's character and of the state of Haiti in 1969.
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Duvalier and Joel Barromi, Israeli ambassador to Haiti, surrounded by Haitian generals in 1963
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during these events, harming his mental health and perhaps explaining his subsequent actions.
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626:, and as a result, he remained in power until his death in 1971. He was succeeded by his son,
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2303:. Inter-American Dialogue. Vol. 3. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p.
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Constructing Democratic Governance: Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean in the 1990s
2047:. Heinemann CXC history (1st ed.). Oxford, England: Heinemann Educational Publishers.
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2194:. Historical Dictionaries of the Americas. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 92.
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in 1934, and served as staff physician at several local hospitals. He spent a year at the
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Many books have been written about the Duvalier era in Haiti, the best known of which is
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3010:(Revised ed.). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pp. xvi.
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into a black dog and had the militia begin killing black dogs on sight in the capital.
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878:, Duvalier expelled almost all of Haiti's foreign-born bishops, an act that earned him
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décrit ainsi la détresse psychique du dictateur: « François Duvalier chasse
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His aunt, Madame Florestal, raised him. He completed a degree in medicine from the
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and associated circulatory problems. During the heart attack, he was comatose for
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Duvalier emerged from hiding, and on 12 December 1956, Magloire conceded defeat.
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2270:"Papa Doc, a Ruthless Dictator, Kept the Haitians in Illiteracy and Dire Poverty"
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1795:"Métaspora de Joël Des Rosiers ou l'art comme dépassement de la vie quotidienne"
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Murray, Rolland (2008). "Black Crisis Shuffle: Fiction, Race, and Simulation".
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2098:. Pan-African Chronologies. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. p. 394.
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credentials and Haiti's strategic location as a means of winning U.S. support:
986:, as he was called—absolute powers as well as the right to name his successor.
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From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti
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1945:
1779:
1628:
1333:
1255:
1053:
999:
361:
50:
3535:. Translated by Haspil, Frantz. Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford Publishing.
3512:
3101:
3041:
2977:
2827:
2414:
2338:
2254:
2078:
1953:
3787:
3364:
3356:
1363:
on 21 April 1971, seven days after his 64th birthday. His 19-year-old son
1360:
1227:
903:
883:
859:
576:
560:
3180:. Vol. 82, no. 4. pp. 20–21. 26 July 1963. Archived from
2754:
2531:
3474:
3340:
1447:
1168:
1101:
for 38 years until the two countries re-established relations in 1997.
899:
786:
675:
642:
in 1907, the son of Duval Duvalier from the French Caribbean colony of
2343:
The vote, however, was for Papa Doc: Duvalier 679,884; [
2147:. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 391–393.
1297:, later using them to consolidate his power with his claim of being a
862:—to extend and bolster support for the regime in the countryside. The
3070:(2nd ed.). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. p. 261.
1238:
agencies to work in development in newly independent nations such as
1164:
1078:
After Fulgencio Batista (a friend of Duvalier) was overthrown in the
667:
3611:"Bahamas Director of Information given death sentence in Haiti 1968"
1842:
Her name is recorded variously as "Ulyssia", "Uritia", and "Irutia".
1807:
Dans un mélange de subtilité allusive et de rigueur architecturale,
994:
737:, with whom he had four children: Marie‑Denise, Nicole, Simone, and
1969:
Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy
555:
from 1957 until his death in 1971. He was elected president in the
3550:
3085:
2664:
2491:
2435:. Vol. 45, no. 6. Time. pp. 22–23. 11 August 1958.
2209:
2162:
1763:
1620:
1384:
1324:
1250:
1231:
1223:
1187:
993:
945:
30:"Papa Doc" redirects here. For the Colombian drug trafficker, see
2925:"Duvalier's Death Causes Mixed Reactions In Miami's Little Haiti"
1317:. The regime's propaganda stated that "Papa Doc was one with the
3496:
3348:
2456:"Haiti: National Security § The Duvalier Era, 1957–86"
2398:
2322:
2113:
2062:
1057:
758:
671:
3791:
3025:
2811:
2642:
Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder, and the Cold War in the Caribbean
1937:
1379:, was that his son had removed his remains upon fleeing to the
547:; 14 April 1907 – 21 April 1971), also known as
3416:
1407:
1328:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1056:. Duvalier attempted to exploit tensions between the U.S. and
1899:"Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71"
1581:"Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71"
1089:
Duvalier enraged Castro by voting against the country in an
3280:"Profanation du tombeau de François Duvalier, Archives INA"
3068:
The International Law of Responsibility for Economic Crimes
2962:. Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States. 1979.
1655:"Real-Life Baron Samedi: Francois 'Papa Doc' Duvalier"
2645:(1st ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. p.
1435:, which included an interview with the president. Made by
4493:
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
2773:"Haiti: Government and Politics § Foreign Relations"
1857:"Heroes & killers of the 20th century: The Duvaliers"
3200:"Duvalier, 64, Dies in Haiti; Son, 19, Is New President"
1340:
was heavily reworded to praise Duvalier instead of God.
2145:
Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History
1126:
693:(black and white mixed-race) elite. Duvalier supported
662:
studying public health and in 1943, became active in a
1685:. Friends of Music Education for Haiti. pp. 2–3.
998:
Duvalier greeting David Tercero Castro, ambassador of
921:
While recovering, Duvalier left power in the hands of
4488:
University of Michigan School of Public Health alumni
1489:
Fatton, Robert Jr. (2013). "Michel-Rolph Trouillot's
2893:
The Voodoo Encyclopedia: Magic, Ritual, and Religion
2139:
Juang, Richard M.; Morrissette, Noelle Anne (2008).
1369:, nicknamed "Baby Doc", succeeded him as president.
938:; sometimes, he was in the room during the torture.
882:
from the Catholic Church. In 1966, he persuaded the
4291:
4261:
4166:
4076:
3899:
3825:
3057:
3055:
1086:would provide a safe haven for Haitian dissidents.
934:detainees being tortured and submerged in baths of
339:
331:
303:
292:
263:
253:
233:
210:
205:
193:
177:
155:
136:
126:
110:
98:
83:
64:
41:
2956:"Report on the situation of human rights in Haiti"
2376:
800:, which is how he described his opponent, Déjoie.
1019:(assassinated in 1961) while ignoring Haiti. The
749:In 1946, Duvalier aligned himself with President
681:The racism and violence that occurred during the
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1545:"Haiti's Poverty Stirs Nostalgia for Old Ghosts"
1442:The first authoritative book on the subject was
3232:] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. p. 52.
2241:
2239:
1274:Toussaint Louverture International Airport
1066:
831:In 1959, Duvalier created a rural militia, the
3307:"Haitians Take Out 28 Years of Anger on Crypt"
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
1730:
835:Milice de Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale
3803:
2588:. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 357.
2036:
2034:
1850:
1848:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1674:
1672:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1163:, Duvalier granted diplomatic recognition to
1109:Duvalier's relationship with the neighboring
906:since early adulthood and also suffered from
551:, was a Haitian politician who served as the
516:
8:
4463:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
3146:
3108:
2843:"Biographies: François Duvalier (1907–1971)"
2699:
2697:
2695:
2693:
1748: (1988). New York: The Overlook Press.
1493:: A Critique of the Totalitarian Paradigm".
1093: (OAS) meeting and subsequently at the
980:
914:His physician believed that he had suffered
894:On 24 May 1959, Duvalier suffered a massive
840:
833:
780:
699:
1268:Duvalier also initiated the development of
1218:Many educated professionals fled Haiti for
189:26 November 1948 – 14 October 1949
3810:
3796:
3788:
3649:
2429:"A Weird, Fatal Dash into Turbulent Haiti"
1175:, the predominant ethnic group of Biafra.
523:
509:
352:
49:
38:
2960:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
2530:
1082:, Duvalier worried that new Cuban leader
4458:National Unity Party (Haiti) politicians
3158:from the original on 27 September 2015.
2291:"Haiti: Four Old and Two New Hypotheses"
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1197:1971 newsreel film about Duvalier's rule
796:irritation at being governed by the few
282:
93:as Chairman of the Military Council
79:22 October 1957 – 21 April 1971
2935:from the original on 30 November 2014.
2895:. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
2383:(1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1867:from the original on 10 September 2015.
1563:from the original on 14 September 2015.
1481:
1429:featured Duvalier in a 1969 episode of
847:Militia of National Security Volunteers
713:, both of which led to his advocacy of
355:
3578:Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant
2565:from the original on 16 January 2015.
2247:"François Duvalier: Haitian President"
2044:The Haitian Revolution and its Effects
1805:from the original on 9 November 2015.
1467:Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant
1235:
369:This article is part of a series about
122:14 October 1949 – 10 May 1950
3581:. Kingston, Jamaica: LMH Publishing.
3429:from the original on 31 October 2015.
3383:"Haiti Recalls Greene With Gratitude"
2379:Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy
1746:Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy
1458:, dealt specifically with victims of
729:
542:
7:
3672:Minister of Public Health and Labor
2984:from the original on 21 March 2012.
2712:] (in Czech). Prague: Metafora.
2555:"Haiti: Papa Doc's concordat (1966)"
27:President of Haiti from 1957 to 1971
3732:as Chairman of the Military Council
3441:"Papa Doc – The Black Sheep (1969)"
2009:"François 'Papa Doc' Duvalier"
697:ideals, and became involved in the
111:Minister of Public Health and Labor
723:. On 27 December 1939, he married
25:
4314:Transitional Presidential Council
3401:from the original on 25 May 2015.
3305:Brooke, James (9 February 1986).
2778:. In Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.).
1904:. In Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.).
1855:Harris, Bruce (12 October 2014).
683:United States occupation of Haiti
571:, his regime rapidly became more
453:Cuba–Haiti relations(anti-castro)
4428:State University of Haiti alumni
4393:20th-century non-fiction writers
4383:20th-century Haitian politicians
3890:
3637:
3529:(2011) . Prézeau, Maryse (ed.).
3479:Papa Doc: Haiti and Its Dictator
3254:"Evénements Haïti, Archives INA"
2297:; Lowenthal, Abraham F. (eds.).
1444:Papa Doc: Haiti and its Dictator
1423:and barred from entering Haiti.
1050:assassination of John F. Kennedy
767:1957 campaign for the presidency
685:, which began in 1915, inspired
630:, who was nicknamed "Baby Doc".
496:
491:
360:
4468:Politicians from Port-au-Prince
3931:Council of Secretaries of State
3532:Fort-Dimanche, Dungeon of Death
3064:"The Cult of State Sovereignty"
2878:10.15210/interfaces.v20i0.19464
2586:Heads of States and Governments
2458:. In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.).
1973:University Press of Mississippi
1640:Organization of American States
1456:Fort‑Dimanche: Dungeon of Death
1091:Organization of American States
278:
4398:African and Black nationalists
3335:. New York: The Viking Press.
2268:Krebs, Albin (23 April 1971).
2191:Historical Dictionary of Haiti
2092:Jenkins, Everett Jr. (2011) .
1813:Joseph Dunès Olivier
1527:In 1963, Duvalier created the
1415:. Greene himself was declared
890:Heart attack and Barbot affair
849:)—commonly referred to as the
569:a military coup d'état in 1958
448:1964 constitutional referendum
164:Joseph Loubeau (Public Health)
1:
4448:Haitian public health doctors
3145:(in French). Port‑au‑Prince:
2891:Anderson, Jeffrey E. (2015).
1897:Haggerty, Richard A. (1991).
1801:(in French). Port‑au‑Prince.
1793:Péan, Leslie (24 July 2014).
1543:Lacey, Marc (23 March 2008).
1139:In 1966, Duvalier hosted the
145:Antonio Vieux (Public Health)
4388:20th-century Haitian writers
4133:Executive Government Council
3685:as Minister of Public Health
3665:as Minister of Public Health
3148:Edition imprimerie de l'état
2781:Dominican Republic and Haiti
2461:Dominican Republic and Haiti
2289:Maingot, Anthony P. (1996).
1907:Dominican Republic and Haiti
1590:Dominican Republic and Haiti
1465:In 2007, John Marquis wrote
1210:Social and economic policies
765:The two frontrunners in the
616:a 1961 presidential election
4453:Haitian Vodou practitioners
4438:Haitian non-fiction writers
4001:Commission for Public Order
3481:. London: The Bodley Head.
3417:"Papa Doc: The Black Sheep"
3139:Catechism of the Revolution
3134:Catechisme de la révolution
3110:Catechisme de la Révolution
3062:Kofele-Kale, Ndiva (2006).
2519:Teoria e Pesquisa
1636:Juan Bosch Gaviño
1264:and famine became endemic.
1149:Order of the Queen of Sheba
1099:Haitian relations with Cuba
956:a new presidential election
707:movement of Haitian author
579:. An undercover government
4509:
3726:Antonio Thrasybule Kébreau
3131:Fourcand, Jean M. (1964).
2771:Smucker, Glenn R. (1991).
2637:§ 'Our Real Friends'"
2580:Lentz, Harris M. (2014) .
2041:Bryan, Patrick E. (1984).
1809:Joël Des Rosiers
1529:Parti de l'unité nationale
1355:François Duvalier died of
567:platform. After thwarting
91:Antonio Thrasybule Kébreau
29:
4323:
3888:
3776:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3746:
3737:
3722:
3705:
3692:
3677:
3670:
3657:
3652:
2931:. Washington, D.C.: NPR.
2629:Von Tunzelmann, Alex
2184:Hall, Michael R. (2012).
1821:Morne des Esses
1741:Haiti: A Shattered Nation
1270:François Duvalier Airport
970:constitutional referendum
846:
347:
201:
182:
115:
72:
60:
48:
3757:Party political offices
3174:"Haiti: The Living Dead"
2866:Interfaces Brasil/Canadá
2568:Papa Doc's control.
1967:Pezzullo, Ralph (2006).
1744:. Rev. and updated from
1507:10.1215/07990537-2379009
1383:in a transport plane to
902:overdose; he had been a
544:[fʁɑ̃swadyvalje]
178:Under Secretary of Labor
4473:Politicide perpetrators
4433:Haitian anti-communists
4403:Diabetes-related deaths
4052:Revolutionary Committee
3819:Heads of state of Haiti
2743:African American Review
1167:during its war against
789:, stoking the majority
4423:20th-century criminals
3946:Public Order Committee
3642:Quotations related to
3147:
3109:
2454:Tartter, Jean (2001).
1679:Joseph, Romel (2010).
1287:Duvalier fostered his
1198:
1071:
1021:Kennedy administration
1003:
981:
951:
942:Constitutional changes
841:
834:
816:Consolidation of power
781:
700:
660:University of Michigan
608:University of Michigan
592:
313:University of Michigan
32:Evaristo Porras Ardila
4413:Genocide perpetrators
3184:on 27 September 2011.
1863:. Sydney, Australia.
1642:to settle the matter.
1579:Greene, Anne (2001).
1280:Personality cult and
1196:
1145:Haile Selassie I
1027:mission to train the
997:
949:
898:, possibly due to an
638:Duvalier was born in
634:Early life and career
557:1957 general election
540:French pronunciation:
4158:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3837:Dessalines/Jacques I
3780:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3770:National Unity Party
3750:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3715:as Minister of Labor
3700:as Minister of Labor
3389:. Associated Press.
3224:Shaw, Karl (2005) .
2559:Concordat Watch
2019:on 18 September 2015
1682:The Miracle of Music
1491:State Against Nation
1437:Yorkshire Television
1366:Jean-Claude Duvalier
1351:Death and succession
648:justice of the peace
486:Jean-Claude Duvalier
105:Jean-Claude Duvalier
4483:Presidents of Haiti
4478:Presidents for life
3882:Soulouque/Faustin I
3763:New political party
3451:on 29 November 2021
2943:western hemisphere.
2704:Shaw, Karl (2005).
2532:10.4322/tp.2013.016
2347:] 266,993.
2295:Domínguez, Jorge I.
2141:"François Duvalier"
2013:TheDictatorship.com
1975:. pp. 77–100.
1289:cult of personality
1141:emperor of Ethiopia
916:neurological damage
656:University of Haiti
468:cult of personality
318:University of Haiti
148:Louis Bazin (Labor)
4443:Haitian physicians
3842:Christophe/Henry I
3740:President of Haiti
3653:Political offices
3471:Diederich, Bernard
3312:The New York Times
3204:The New York Times
2923:(6 October 2014).
2275:The New York Times
1585:Metz, Helen Chapin
1376:The New York Times
1199:
1161:Nigerian Civil War
1155:Nigeria and Biafra
1111:Dominican Republic
1105:Dominican Republic
1060:, emphasizing his
1004:
975:President for Life
965:The New York Times
952:
769:were Duvalier and
620:president for life
553:president of Haiti
412:President of Haiti
67:President of Haiti
4418:Haitian criminals
4345:
4344:
4153:François Duvalier
3786:
3785:
3777:Succeeded by
3747:Succeeded by
3735:
3718:
3706:Succeeded by
3703:
3688:
3678:Succeeded by
3668:
3644:François Duvalier
3588:978-976-8202-49-9
3542:978-1-4269-6624-8
3488:978-0-370-01326-8
3381:(27 April 1991).
3379:French, Howard W.
3286:on 23 August 2012
3239:978-80-7359-002-4
3230:Šílenství mocných
3198:(23 April 1971).
3077:978-1-4094-9609-0
3017:978-0-8135-2240-1
2969:978-0-8270-1094-9
2795:978-0-8444-0728-9
2719:978-80-7359-002-4
2706:Šílenství mocných
2656:978-0-8050-9067-3
2595:978-1-884964-44-2
2475:978-0-8444-1044-9
2390:978-0-07-046029-4
2373:Abbott, Elizabeth
2314:978-0-8018-5404-0
2257:on 20 March 2012.
2201:978-0-8108-7549-4
2154:978-1-85109-441-7
2105:978-0-7864-4506-6
2054:978-0-435-98301-7
1921:978-0-8444-0728-9
1829:commune des Cayes
1817:Louis Déjoie
1755:978-1-59020-989-9
1736:Abbott, Elizabeth
1692:978-0-9769847-0-2
1604:978-0-8444-1044-9
1452:Bernard Diederich
1419:persona non grata
1303:Baron Samedi
1194:
1179:Internal policies
1042:Fulgencio Batista
1025:U.S. Marine Corps
1002:to Haiti, in 1968
990:Foreign relations
771:Louis Déjoie
687:black nationalism
597:Haitian mythology
565:black nationalist
536:François Duvalier
533:
532:
438:1958 coup attempt
421:
387:
386:
378:François Duvalier
351:
350:
43:François Duvalier
18:Papa Doc Duvalier
16:(Redirected from
4500:
4337:
4329:
4203:Pascal-Trouillot
3894:
3812:
3805:
3798:
3789:
3729:
3723:Preceded by
3712:
3697:
3693:Preceded by
3682:
3662:
3658:Preceded by
3650:
3641:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3527:Lemoine, Patrick
3523:
3517:
3516:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3447:. Archived from
3437:
3431:
3430:
3415:(17 June 1969).
3409:
3403:
3402:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3282:. Archived from
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3256:. Archived from
3250:
3244:
3243:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3144:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3059:
3050:
3049:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2853:on 11 July 2015.
2849:. Archived from
2847:PolymerNotes.org
2838:
2832:
2831:
2777:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2701:
2688:
2687:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2534:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2382:
2369:
2350:
2349:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2253:. Archived from
2251:HaitianMedia.com
2243:
2234:
2233:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2015:. Archived from
2004:
1987:
1986:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1903:
1894:
1869:
1868:
1852:
1843:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1732:
1705:
1704:
1676:
1667:
1666:
1665:on 27 June 2009.
1661:. Archived from
1651:
1645:
1644:
1576:
1565:
1564:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1486:
1421:
1387:the day before.
1368:
1271:
1259:
1240:Ivory Coast
1237:
1195:
1131:
1128:
1080:Cuban Revolution
1045:
1034:
1030:
984:
977:
962:
932:
928:
925:, leader of the
913:
858:
854:
848:
844:
837:
807:
795:
784:
751:Dumarsais Estimé
736:
734:
712:
705:
653:
652:Ulyssia Abraham.
601:personality cult
546:
541:
525:
518:
511:
500:
495:
432:Duvalier dynasty
415:
383:
382:
381:
379:
371:
370:
364:
357:
356:
353:
286:
284:
280:
240:
220:
218:
206:Personal details
197:Dumarsais Estimé
187:
158:
139:
131:Dumarsais Estimé
120:
101:
86:
77:
55:Duvalier in 1968
53:
39:
21:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4497:
4408:Duvalier family
4348:
4347:
4346:
4341:
4335:
4327:
4319:
4287:
4257:
4162:
4072:
3895:
3886:
3821:
3816:
3782:
3773:
3752:
3743:
3728:
3711:
3709:Emile Saint-Lot
3696:
3681:
3674:
3661:
3634:
3629:
3619:
3617:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3589:
3571:
3570:
3566:
3543:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3489:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3422:Whicker's World
3411:
3410:
3406:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3325:
3324:
3320:
3304:
3303:
3299:
3289:
3287:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3263:
3261:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3208:
3206:
3194:
3193:
3189:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3155:
3142:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3115:
3078:
3061:
3060:
3053:
3018:
3002:Nicholls, David
3000:
2999:
2995:
2987:
2970:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2940:Patrick Gaspard
2929:Morning Edition
2915:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2890:
2889:
2885:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2841:Štraus, Stane.
2840:
2839:
2835:
2796:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2720:
2703:
2702:
2691:
2657:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2596:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2476:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2391:
2371:
2370:
2353:
2315:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2245:
2244:
2237:
2202:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2155:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2106:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2055:
2040:
2039:
2032:
2022:
2020:
2007:Wright, Giles.
2006:
2005:
1990:
1983:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1922:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1872:
1854:
1853:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1756:
1734:
1733:
1708:
1693:
1678:
1677:
1670:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1605:
1578:
1577:
1568:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1432:Whicker's World
1417:
1393:
1391:Books and films
1364:
1353:
1285:
1272:, now known as
1269:
1254:
1212:
1188:
1186:
1181:
1157:
1137:
1123:
1107:
1076:
1040:Cuban dictator
1039:
1032:
1028:
1017:Rafael Trujillo
1009:
992:
973:
972:made Duvalier "
960:
944:
930:
926:
911:
892:
880:excommunication
856:
850:
825:landed in Haiti
818:
813:
805:
790:
747:
726:Simone Duvalier
724:
710:Jean Price-Mars
708:
651:
636:
539:
529:
490:
481:Simone Duvalier
472:
458:"all were shot"
422:
420:
409:
377:
375:
374:
373:
372:
368:
367:
327:
288:
276:
272:
254:Political party
242:
238:
222:
216:
214:
188:
183:
173:
168:Emile Saint-Lot
156:
151:
137:
121:
116:
99:
84:
78:
73:
56:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4506:
4504:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4373:1970s in Haiti
4370:
4368:1960s in Haiti
4365:
4363:1950s in Haiti
4360:
4350:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4333:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4310:
4305:
4299:
4297:
4296:(2021–present)
4289:
4288:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4174:
4172:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4084:
4082:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3991:Boisrond-Canal
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3966:Boisrond-Canal
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3941:Boisrond-Canal
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3905:
3897:
3896:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3862:Rivière-Hérard
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3833:
3831:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3807:
3800:
3792:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3775:
3768:Leader of the
3765:
3759:
3758:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3745:
3736:
3724:
3720:
3719:
3707:
3704:
3694:
3690:
3689:
3680:Joseph Loubeau
3679:
3676:
3669:
3659:
3655:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3633:
3632:External links
3630:
3628:
3627:
3602:
3587:
3564:
3541:
3518:
3487:
3462:
3432:
3404:
3387:New York Times
3370:
3327:Greene, Graham
3318:
3297:
3271:
3260:on 6 July 2010
3245:
3238:
3216:
3187:
3165:
3151:. p. 37.
3123:
3119:evil ...'
3116:Port-au-Prince
3076:
3051:
3016:
2993:
2968:
2947:
2917:Inskeep, Steve
2908:
2901:
2883:
2856:
2833:
2794:
2763:
2749:(2): 215–233.
2733:
2718:
2689:
2655:
2620:
2594:
2572:
2546:
2509:
2474:
2446:
2420:
2389:
2351:
2313:
2281:
2260:
2235:
2200:
2176:
2153:
2131:
2104:
2084:
2053:
2030:
1988:
1981:
1959:
1920:
1870:
1844:
1835:
1799:Le Nouvelliste
1785:
1754:
1706:
1691:
1668:
1646:
1603:
1566:
1549:New York Times
1535:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1392:
1389:
1381:U.S. Air Force
1352:
1349:
1345:change at will
1284:
1278:
1211:
1208:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1156:
1153:
1136:
1133:
1106:
1103:
1095:United Nations
1075:
1072:
1062:anti-communist
1029:Tonton Macoute
1008:
1005:
991:
988:
943:
940:
931:Tonton Macoute
927:Tonton Macoute
923:Clément Barbot
891:
888:
857:Haitian Creole
852:Tonton Macoute
817:
814:
812:
809:
746:
745:Political rise
743:
640:Port-au-Prince
635:
632:
622:after another
589:Haitian Creole
585:Tonton Macoute
531:
530:
528:
527:
520:
513:
505:
502:
501:
489:
488:
483:
471:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
443:Tonton Macoute
440:
435:
416:
408:
407:
402:
397:
389:
388:
385:
384:
365:
349:
348:
345:
344:
341:
337:
336:
333:
329:
328:
326:
325:
315:
309:
307:
301:
300:
294:
290:
289:
274:
268:
267:
265:
261:
260:
255:
251:
250:
244:Port-au-Prince
241:(aged 64)
235:
231:
230:
224:Port-au-Prince
212:
208:
207:
203:
202:
199:
198:
195:
191:
190:
180:
179:
175:
174:
172:
171:
165:
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150:
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142:
140:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
113:
112:
108:
107:
102:
96:
95:
87:
81:
80:
70:
69:
62:
61:
58:
57:
54:
46:
45:
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4505:
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4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
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4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
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4356:
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4334:
4332:
4326:
4325:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4298:
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4290:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
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4268:
4265:
4260:
4254:
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4246:
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4234:
4231:
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4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
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4201:
4199:
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4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4047:
4046:Guillaume Sam
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:Revolutionary
3824:
3820:
3813:
3808:
3806:
3801:
3799:
3794:
3793:
3790:
3781:
3772:
3771:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3751:
3742:
3741:
3734:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3717:
3716:
3710:
3702:
3701:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3673:
3667:
3666:
3660:Antonio Vieux
3656:
3651:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3616:
3615:Bahamianology
3612:
3606:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3580:
3579:
3574:
3573:Marquis, John
3568:
3565:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3538:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3463:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3436:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3414:
3413:Whicker, Alan
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3332:The Comedians
3328:
3322:
3319:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3301:
3298:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3246:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3217:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3154:
3149:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3113:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2921:Green, Nadege
2918:
2912:
2909:
2904:
2902:9781610692083
2898:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2774:
2767:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2381:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2186:Woronoff, Jon
2180:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2097:
2096:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1982:9781604735345
1978:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1501:(3–42): 208.
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1482:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1461:
1460:Fort Dimanche
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1403:
1402:The Comedians
1398:
1397:Graham Greene
1390:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1370:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1357:heart disease
1350:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1338:Lord's Prayer
1336:in which the
1335:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1309:
1305:, one of the
1304:
1300:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1265:
1263:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1220:New York City
1216:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1204:Fort Dimanche
1183:
1178:
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1035:
1033:great power".
1026:
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924:
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909:
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826:
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810:
808:
806:intimidation.
801:
799:
798:mulatto elite
793:
792:Afro-Haitians
788:
785:
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4058:Dartiguenave
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3646:at Wikiquote
3620:25 September
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3258:the original
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3182:the original
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463:Samedi Model
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424:
423:
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411:
410:
376:
270:Simone Ovide
239:(1971-04-21)
184:
157:Succeeded by
117:
100:Succeeded by
89:
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4378:1971 deaths
4358:1907 births
4338:Provisional
4266:(2011–2021)
4171:(1986–2011)
4081:(1930–1986)
3904:(1859–1930)
3830:(1804–1859)
3695:Louis Bazin
2525:(2): 1–10.
1173:Igbo people
1159:During the
912:nine hours.
876:nationalism
845:, English:
739:Jean‑Claude
733: Ovide
695:Pan-African
628:Jean‑Claude
581:death squad
298:Jean-Claude
138:Preceded by
85:Preceded by
4352:Categories
4264:earthquake
4228:Jonassaint
4079:Occupation
3774:1957–1971
3744:1957–1971
3675:1949–1950
3551:2011906135
3425:. London.
3341:B0078EPH2C
3226:Power Mad!
3086:2006006433
2710:Power Mad!
2665:2010037585
2635:Cuba Libre
2492:2001023524
2210:2011035933
2163:2007035154
2023:9 November
1861:moreorless
1764:2013496344
1621:2001023524
1477:References
1184:Repression
1116:Juan Bosch
1048:After the
811:Presidency
720:Les Griots
644:Martinique
573:autocratic
425:Government
332:Profession
305:Alma mater
217:1907-04-14
4248:Alexandre
3986:Simon Sam
3981:Hyppolite
3956:Hyppolite
3597:692302388
3505:221276122
3395:0362-4331
3004:(1996) .
2804:1057-5294
2681:25022986M
2673:648922964
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2604:870226851
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2231:Duvalier.
2226:25025684M
2218:751922123
2171:168716701
2122:913828919
1930:1057-5294
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1772:859201061
1701:704908603
1613:1057-5294
1557:0362-4331
1523:144548346
1515:1534-6714
1495:Small Axe
1399:'s novel
1334:catechism
1256:extortion
1054:communism
1015:dictator
1013:Dominican
1000:Guatemala
702:négritude
418:1957-1971
335:Physician
194:President
185:In office
127:President
118:In office
75:In office
65:34th
4331:De facto
4273:Martelly
4243:Aristide
4233:Aristide
4208:Aristide
4169:Duvalier
4113:Magloire
4041:Théodore
4036:Polynice
4026:Polynice
3971:Légitime
3936:Domingue
3911:Geffrard
3902:Imperial
3867:Guerrier
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3575:(2007).
3559:45461011
3513:5009670M
3497:76532183
3477:(1969).
3475:Burt, Al
3427:Archived
3399:Archived
3349:66012636
3329:(1966).
3153:Archived
3102:7991049M
3094:64289359
3042:8025482M
3034:32396546
2982:Archived
2933:Archived
2872:: 1–18.
2828:1531915M
2820:23179347
2755:40301207
2728:85144913
2631:(2011).
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2500:46321054
2415:2040347M
2407:18069022
2399:88016918
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2323:96-12421
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1954:1531915M
1946:23179347
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1629:46321054
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1471:Bahamian
1361:diabetes
1242:and the
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1135:Ethiopia
961:people".
904:diabetic
884:Holy See
860:bogeyman
855:after a
787:populism
782:noiriste
577:despotic
561:populist
549:Papa Doc
343:Papa Doc
340:Nickname
293:Children
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4218:Nérette
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4183:Manigat
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4128:Cantave
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3921:Salnave
3872:Pierrot
3365:106070W
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2978:8344995
2812:91-9495
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2582:"Haiti"
2188:(ed.).
1938:91-9495
1912:232–235
1825:Maniche
1595:288–289
1587:(ed.).
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1169:Nigeria
1069:States.
900:insulin
864:Macoute
775:mulatto
691:mulatto
676:malaria
599:into a
287:
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170:(Labor)
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4238:Préval
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264:Spouse
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4283:Moïse
4262:Post–
4223:Bazin
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4167:Post–
4077:Post–
4063:Borno
4031:Zamor
4006:Simon
3976:Jeune
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1294:Vodou
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1232:Paris
1224:Miami
559:on a
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228:Haiti
3622:2018
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2059:LCCN
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2025:2015
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1942:OCLC
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1760:LCCN
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1687:ISBN
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1450:and
1413:film
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