288:
smaller stylets compared to their adult counterparts. All pin nematodes feed on root epidermal cells and will migrate to a new feeding site once the nutrients have been depleted. As they feed and grow, juvenile pin nematodes will go through a series of four molts, growing a new stylet and outer cuticle each time. When the fourth juvenile stage (J4 or preadult) is reached, the nematodes may enter a survival stage in which they are resistant to unfavorable conditions such as low soil moisture, extreme temperatures, and lack of food. The preadults can survive over 4 years when in this state despite not feeding, as their stylets are diminished and do not function properly. The survival stage is not produced in conditions that favor functions such as feeding and reproduction. After the final molt from the fourth juvenile stage, adult pin nematodes emerge.
229:, resulting in up to 40% yield loss. Symptoms appear in patches or clusters and plants show a slow and general decline in growth and vigor. Common symptoms of infection are that of other root nematodes; stunted growth of the plant as well as the roots, chlorosis, leaf drop, reduced plant weight or yield, and undersized fruit are all symptoms which may be seen. These symptoms are universal across the different plant species it infects. Shallow localized lesions on the roots can be seen at feeding sites. No signs are present with the exception of the nematodes themselves and their eggs, which are not visible to the naked eye.
44:
182:, wilting and ultimately yield losses. They move and feed on different parts of host tissue throughout their life cycle in order to find enough susceptible host tissue to survive and reproduce. A wide range of host plant species are susceptible to the fig pin nematode, including many valuable fruit and vegetable crops such as figs, carrots and celery. They are also commonly found associated with woody perennials in California.
381:
populations of pin nematodes reaching 3000 nematodes/ 1 kg of soil. There is also evidence that populations of pin nematodes around 500 nematodes/ 1 kg of soil work as antagonists for other more damaging nematodes producing healthier trees. So in that case they are not really detrimental to the plant, but possible indirectly beneficial. This not always the case however. For example,
309:
They are primarily located in North
America and Europe in cooler environments with adequate moisture since they cannot move without the presence of water films in the soil. They can also be found in both cultivated and non-cultivated soil types, predominantly in the soil surrounding the roots of fig
380:
is the most common pin nematode and has been seen to reduce crop yield of grapes in vineyards and fig farms by stunting plant growth and reducing fruit size. This ultimately results in loss of profits for local farmers. However, data from stone fruit farms in
California show no damage to crops with
287:
females generally lay eggs one at a time and can lay up to 4 eggs per day when feeding on host tissue. When eggs hatch 7 or 8 days after laying, the juvenile nematodes seek out plant roots to feed upon. Young, easily penetrated root tips appear to be the main food source for juveniles, which have
310:
tree. They tend to be more of a problem in vineyards that have an ample supply of woody shrubs close together. However, these nematodes can persist in very adverse soil environmental conditions (decreases in nutrients, low moisture contents and temperature) in the J4 or pre-adult stage.
280:
is a migratory endoparasite which means it retains its vermiform shape during its adult life. Because of their close association with host root systems, pin nematodes are easily spread from field to field through the transportation of already infected soil and plant parts.
294:
is a dioecious species, having both males and females. When the adult stage is reached, males mate with females to produce fertilized eggs. However, males are not always necessary for egg fertilization in pin nematodes. In a few species of
316:
have been shown to cause more damage in host root tissue when temperatures are around 20 °C and they prefer levels of pH around 6.5 for optimal reproduction. However, the pathogenicity of
361:
since they typically parasitize on fruit and vegetable crops. For post-planting control some non-fumigant nematicides can be used, but the effectiveness is not always consistent.
682:
Ingham, R., and K. Merrifield. 1996. "A Guide to
Nematode Biology and Management in Mint." Integrated Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University. Corvallis. Pub 996. 38p.
387:
in mint caused losses of 25% - 36% when planted in soil with 8000 nematodes/ quart, which shows it does not play an antagonistic role. Overall, the disease severity of
301:, males are not common and it is possible for females to lay fertilized eggs without mating. Females tend to lay more eggs when feeding than when they are not feeding.
969:
995:
784:
LaRue J. H. and R. S. Johnson. "Peaches, Plums, and
Nectarines: Growing and Handling for Fresh Market". UCANR Publications, Jan 1, 1989. p. 141.
539:
943:
650:
Plant
Nematodes; their bionomics and control. J Christie. Agricultural experiment station University of Florida. Gainesville 1959 p. 213-14.
1069:
1054:
243:. If the symptoms of wilting and chlorosis present in scattered groups or clusters, then the soil and root samples should be screened for
351:. Fumigation would also kill the plants you are trying to cultivate, so the soil would need to be fumigated before the planting date.
904:
638:
Plant
Pathogens; the plant parasitic nematodes. KS Singh and K Sitaramaiah. International Science Publisher. New York p. 242-43.
554:"Vegetable Crop Pest Management." NEMATODE MANAGEMENT Ch.8 (n.d.): 86. Michigan State Integrated Pest Management. Web. 11 Nov. 2014.
255:
from morphological features such as their small size and stylet morphology to confirm their presence. Another clue in diagnosis a
1021:
31:
393:
is variable and is specific to the species of plant that it is parasitizing on and the concentration at which it is found.
1059:
43:
865:
188:
inhabits soils in both Europe and North
America, and was originally isolated from fig in central California in 1950.
1000:
922:
407:
935:
870:
402:
261:
infestation is to look at the amount of nematodes present in the soil sample. Because of their small size
1074:
1064:
833:
412:
624:
Anceps Cobb. - CAB Direct." Proceedings of the
Helminthological Society of Washington 17.1 (1950): 27-35.
417:
138:
1026:
237:
The disease is diagnosed through the above ground symptoms and examination of the roots and soil for
1049:
987:
201:
nematodes have a wide variety of hosts with a recorded 25 different plants it is able to infect.
38:
540:"Nematode Host Range Results." Nemaplex. University of California Davis, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2014.
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759:
738:
718:
Rhoades, H.L. and M.B. Linford. 1961a. Biological studies on some members of the genus
587:
566:
374:
has been shown to have different levels of effect on different crops. In
California,
1043:
352:
115:
105:
883:
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982:
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85:
856:
344:
330:
175:
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179:
55:
820:
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596:
524:“Pin Nematode Life Cycle.” Oregon State University, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2014.
501:
225:
has also been documented to cause patchy areas of chlorosis and wilting in
850:
571:
Micoletzky, 1922 and
Descriptions of New Species. Part II of Three Parts"
523:
480:
Nematodes Causing Yield Reduction to Dryland Peas and Lentils in Idaho".
208:
75:
948:
226:
30:
961:
722:. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington. 28:51-59.
249:. Since the nematodes are the only signs a pathologist must identify
212:
65:
827:
343:
in the soil, but the process typically kills most of the beneficial
896:
452:." University of California Davis, 27 Dec. 2013. Web. 21 Oct. 2014.
216:
347:
as well. This can have additional negative repercussions on the
831:
700:
Eck, J.A. 1970. The host-parasite relationship and control of
468:
Riga, E.; Porter, L. D.; Mojtahedi, H.; Erickson, D. (2008). "
704:
on Iris germanica. M.S. Thesis, Oklahoma State university.
620:, Two Nematodes Associated with Fig Roots, with a Note on
355:
with small grains is also another management tool for
322:
at pH levels lower than 6.5 is typically not altered.
840:
795:"Nematode Community Structure in a Vineyard Soil"
337:can be an effective tool to reduce the number of
8:
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20:
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737:Braun, A. L.; Lownsbery, B. F. (1975).
634:
632:
630:
608:
606:
429:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
463:
461:
459:
871:Paratylenchus_(Paratylenchus)_hamatus
267:is found in extremely large numbers.
7:
936:08ea56e8-76fa-45e7-88d4-46dda80ec041
743:, on Myrobalan Plum and Other Hosts"
793:Ferris, H.; McKenry, M. V. (1976).
170:, is a species of migratory plant
14:
42:
741:Paratylenchus neoamblycephalus
612:Allen, M. W., and G. Thorne. "
1:
1070:Nematodes described in 1950
1055:Agricultural pest nematodes
1091:
614:Paratylenchus hamatus N.sp
408:List of carnation diseases
178:resulting in symptoms of
174:, that causes lesions on
144:
137:
39:Scientific classification
37:
28:
23:
403:List of alfalfa diseases
154:Thorne and Allen, (1950)
702:Paratylenchus projectus
567:"Revision of the Genus
494:10.1094/pdis-92-6-0979b
470:Pratylenchus neglectus
413:List of grape diseases
207:feeds on the roots of
842:Paratylenchus hamatus
799:Journal of Nematology
747:Journal of Nematology
618:Xiphinema Index N.sp.
575:Journal of Nematology
565:Raski, D. J. (1975).
478:Paratylenchus hamatus
450:Paratylenchus Hamatus
418:List of mint diseases
358:Paratylenchus hamatus
277:Paratylenchus hamatus
204:Paratylenchus hamatus
163:Paratylenchus hamatus
148:Paratylenchus hamatus
1060:Grape pest nematodes
931:Fauna Europaea (new)
16:Species of roundworm
739:"The Pin Nematode,
340:Paratylenchus spp.
319:Paratylenchus spp.
313:Paratylenchus spp.
284:Paratylenchus spp.
198:Paratylenchus spp.
192:Hosts and Symptoms
1037:
1036:
1009:Open Tree of Life
834:Taxon identifiers
335:1,2-dibromoethane
159:
158:
24:Fig pin nematode
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168:fig pin nematode
150:
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33:
21:
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130:P. hamatus
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12:
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5:
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918:Fauna Europaea
914:
901:
888:
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846:
844:
838:
837:
832:
826:
825:
805:(2): 131–137.
787:
786:
774:
753:(4): 336–343.
724:
706:
684:
652:
640:
626:
602:
581:(3): 274–295.
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35:
34:
26:
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15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1087:
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1075:Endoparasites
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1065:Mint diseases
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766:
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720:Paratylenchus
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569:Paratylenchus
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482:Plant Disease
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353:Crop rotation
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298:Paratylenchus
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172:endoparasites
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139:Binomial name
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117:Paratylenchus
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106:Tylenchulidae
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18:
983:NatureServe
957:iNaturalist
349:soil health
305:Environment
176:plant roots
86:Secernentea
1050:Tylenchida
1044:Categories
488:(6): 979.
474:P. thornei
424:References
390:P. hamatus
384:P. hamatus
377:P. hamatus
371:P. hamatus
365:Importance
345:soil fauna
331:Fumigation
326:Management
291:P. hamatus
271:Life cycle
264:P. hamatus
258:P. hamatus
252:P. hamatus
246:P. hamatus
240:P. hamatus
222:P. hamatus
185:P. hamatus
96:Tylenchida
988:2.1094704
233:Diagnosis
209:fig trees
180:chlorosis
124:Species:
62:Kingdom:
56:Eukaryota
975:11477577
857:Q7136228
851:Wikidata
821:19308210
769:19308178
597:19308171
502:30769752
397:See also
102:Family:
76:Nematoda
72:Phylum:
66:Animalia
52:Domain:
1027:1425806
1014:3585766
1001:1458027
949:5777113
812:2620165
760:2620128
588:2620108
227:lentils
217:peaches
112:Genus:
92:Order:
82:Class:
962:681880
923:225405
910:248853
897:PARAHA
819:
809:
767:
757:
616:, and
595:
585:
500:
476:, and
213:celery
166:, the
1022:WoRMS
970:IRMNG
905:EUNIS
884:8GNZV
333:with
996:NCBI
944:GBIF
892:EPPO
817:PMID
765:PMID
593:PMID
498:PMID
879:CoL
866:AFD
807:PMC
755:PMC
583:PMC
490:doi
1046::
1024::
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815:.
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777:^
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577:.
573:.
546:^
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510:^
496:.
486:92
484:.
472:,
458:^
432:^
219:.
211:,
823:.
803:8
771:.
751:7
599:.
579:7
504:.
492::
448:"
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