154:. This network then became the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA) in 1928. Other transnational networks appeared following the second World War to foster bonds between localities worldwide, such as Sister Cities International in 1956, the Arab Towns organization in 1957, the Union of African Cities in 1975, and the French-Speaking Mayors Association in 1979. The creation of the Network of Regional Governments for Sustainable Development in 2002 (now Regions4) also illustrates how provinces and regions alongside cities formalized their global involvement through transnational networking, a phenomenon that has led to the creation of more than 300 networks linking localities and regions within and across all continents. The dynamic of subnational governments' global involvement has been gradually acknowledged by international institutions. At continental scale, this led, for example, to the creation of the European Conference of Local Authorities in 1957, allowing for territorial authorities to complement (or counterweight) the so-far nation-led Council of Europe. At the global scale, progressive recognition of the subnational level by the
767:
appropriate, as stated in
Article 55. The cantons may also conclude treaties with foreign countries within the domain relevant to their competencies, provided they are not contrary to the law and interests of the Federation nor to the right of other cantons. They may deal directly with subordinated foreign authorities, but treaties concluded with foreign nations can only be signed by the central authorities (Article 56). Article 147 reinforces the cantons' role in Swiss foreign affairs by stating that "the cantons (...) are heard in the course of the preparation of important decrees and other projects of substantial impact, and on important international treaties". Provisions concerning mandatory and optional referendums concerning the entry of Switzerland into organizations for collective security, into supranational communities or the implementation of some international treaties (Articles 140, 141 and 141a) may also imply cantonal participation if such referendum is proposed by eight cantons.
444:
This faculty includes the drafting of treaties, which are ratified by the French and the
Flemish Community Councils by decree (article 128 (1.1)). Article 130 (4) provides the same right to the German-speaking Community, and adds "personal issues" to its fields of competence. Since the Communities have acquired exclusive right to develop their international relations on those exclusive matters, the King cannot sign, ratify or denounce treaties on their behalf. Only treaties concluded before 18 May 1993 may be denounced by the King. The rigidity of sphere of competences raised legal difficulties to the approval of international treaties dealing with both federal and community's issues. These treaties are known as
422:(states) to conclude treaties with neighboring states or with its constituent states in matters of their constitutional competence. The governor of the Land must inform the federal government from whom he must obtain authorization before engaging in international negotiations. If the federal government fails to respond within eight weeks, the request will be deemed to have been approved. The approval, whether express or tacit, obliges the Federal President to the agreed text, which must be countersigned by a federal authority. However, upon request of the federal government, the
77:, proposing the clear definition of "direct and indirect entries of non-central governments into the field of international relations". The academic field of paradiplomatic studies is nonetheless suffering from fragmentation and terminological scatterdness, resulting both from ongoing debates within scholars, and from the diversity of terms characterizing subnational governments worldwide. Other current denominations for paradiplomacy and related concepts can be
143:
variety of transborder agreements worldwide, such as between US and
Canadian states in the 1980s, between Russian and Japanese provinces in the 1990s, and between Spanish, French and Italian neighbor regions from 1992 and onward, a trend that led to numerous collaborations and agreements for migration and cultural purposes, but also for the management of environmental resources and issues transcending regional limitations and nations' borders.
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742:"has the right to enter into relations with other states, conclude treaties with them, exchange diplomatic and consular representatives, and take part in the work of international organizations" (article 80). The new text went as far as to formally declare that each Union republic "shall retain the right freely to secede from the USSR" (Article 72), which all republics ultimately exercised in 1991 with the
397:(articles 124 and 125) to establish treaties and agreements with foreign nations to the effect of the administration of justice, economic interest or common utility works. Those treaties are "partial" (non-political) and must not contravene national law, affect the nation's public credit nor go against the external policies of the Argentine nation. It must also be approved by the
826:". However, the third paragraph of the same Section 10 opens the possibility for the States to engage in international affairs by stating that "no State shall, without the Consent of Congress, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay". A
334:
sub-national communities, diplomacy is increasingly becoming a decentralized prerogative. Some states do formally recognize the stakes their political and administrative units have in foreign affairs and have, accordingly, set the required legal basis at a constitutional level. Legal provisions on this matter are present in the constitution of the following federations:
254:
based on sovereign constitutional prerogatives. This can not be the object of the international law. Only the internal law of the states is to determine which internal powers are entitled to do so and to which extent. In some states, the outward relations of their non-central governments is a constitutional matter directly related to the issue of legal competence.
130:
subnational government may have been signed in 1907 between the
Brazilian state of Sao Paulo and the country of Japan, for immigration management purposes. Cultural motivations led to the first city-to-city twinnings in 1918 between European localities, a growingly popular form of subnational cooperation later labelled "people-to-people diplomacy" by US President
3342:
159:
Advisory
Committee of Local Authorities (UNACLA) was created in 1999 by the Commission on Human Settlements, aiming to facilitate the dialogue of subnational governments with the UN System. This Committee claims today to represent on the global stage around 323,000 institutions of all scales through its member organizations. Second, the global network named
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non-central units without a common border but situated in neighboring states and c) contacts between units belonging to states without common borders. An additional type labelled d) "protodiplomacy" implies actions motivated by separatist/secessionnist objectives - also framed as "sovereignty paradiplomacy" in the more recent typology proposed by
703:(the German senate), as one of the "bodies competent in any specific case", on the approval of Treaties "which regulate the political relations of the Federation or relate to matters of Federal legislation". The German Bundesrat has been especially keen to assure the participation of the LĂ€nder in the European decision-making process.
158:
led in 1996 to the organization of WACLA, the first World
Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities, gathering more than 500 mayors from around the world along the Habitat II conference in Istanbul. The assembly laid the groundwork for the creation of two major organizations. First, the United Nations
125:
The global involvement of subnational government is often linked with the post-war town twinning movement, but can actually be traced back even further. Throughout history, cities and towns "have played a central role economically, politically, and culturally in all human societies and precede nation
698:
have power to legislate, they may, with the consent of the
Federal Government, conclude treaties with foreign states". The federal government must consult with the LĂ€nder, "in sufficient time", before concluding an international treaty that affects the special interest of one or more LĂ€nder. Article
443:
revision granted
Regions and Communities the right to develop international co-operation, including the celebration of treaties, in matters of their exclusive competence (article 167 (3)). Cultural and educational matters are, according to article 127 (3), those fields of their exclusive competence.
202:
Local governments seek international cooperation for a diversity of reasons, such as economic, cultural or political. They can engage in such actions within or parallel to the frame of national foreign policies, usually following principles of subsidiarity as local scales hold specific capacities in
253:
Non-central governments may be allowed to negotiate and sign agreements with foreign non-central authorities or even with the government of a foreign state. Conditions can vary largely from a limited capacity to negotiate with the assistance of their central authorities to a most complete autonomy
333:
countries ordinarily set apart in their constitutions, when it comes to the internal division of powers, matters that are exclusive of the central authority. "National defense", "currency" and "external relations" are typically the case. However, as cross-border contacts become an imperative for
142:
Formal cross-border connections also intensified with Europe's post-war efforts to overcome the defensive legacy of frontiers, fostering peaceful transborder relations through formal economic and cultural agreements. Generally facilitated by a decentralization process, the following decades saw a
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PAQUIN, Stéphane and
Chaloux, Annie. "La paradiplomatie multilatĂ©rale du QuĂ©bec aux Ătats-Unis", in Lachapelle, Guy (Ă©d.). Le destin amĂ©ricain du QuĂ©bec : amĂ©ricanitĂ©, amĂ©ricanisation et anti-amĂ©ricanisme. QuĂ©bec, Presses de l'UniversitĂ© Laval, 2010, p. 239-312. (Prisme). (FC 2919 D476
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In spite of the active role
Chinese provincial, municipal and district leaders play on the diplomatic field, these government officials do not act on behalf of local political groups or from a merely "local" perspective. They are indeed extensions of the central government, carrying out policies
183:
pointed out a distinction between different types of paradiplomatic engagements: a) cross-border regional paradiplomacy, b) transregional paradiplomacy and c) global paradiplomacy, to describe: a) contacts between non-central units situated across borders in different states, b) contacts between
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does not explicitly confer its non-central authorities the same rights, but states in article 72 that "coordination of the international and external economic relations of the subjects of the Russian Federation" belongs to the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the subjects of the
116:
laws. Some subnational governments engage in paradiplomatic activities to promote development by exploring complementarity with partners facing similar problems, with a view to joining forces to arrive at solutions more easily. In addition, they can explore opportunities alongside international
225:
As to the political aspects, local governments may join efforts internationally to pressure their central governments into a desired course of action. This strategy is exemplified in the case of eight memoranda of understanding signed, in the years 1980, between three American states and three
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CHALOUX, Annie et Paquin, Stéphane. "Green Paradiplomacy in North America : Successes and Limits of the NEG-ECP", in Bruyninckx, Hans (éd.), Happaerts, Sander (éd.) et Brande, Karoline van den (éd.). Sustainable Development and Subnational Governments : Policy-Making and Multi-Level
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states that foreign relations are a federal matter. However, the cantons shall be considered, having a say in the preparation of decisions of foreign policy concerning their competencies or their essential interests, whenever they are affected, and participate in international negotiations as
649:. Diplomatic initiatives at the local level can be initiated and undertaken by any of those administrative bodies. Friendship associations, usually under the management of the FAOs, act to promote contacts with non-central governments abroad and organizing events on international cooperation.
129:
The first envoys of non-sovereign subnational governments acting as diplomatic representatives can be traced back to the second half of the nineteenth century, with delegates of overseas colonial governments settling in Paris or London. And the first formal diplomatic agreement involving a
163:(UCLG) emerged in 2004, with the mission to "promote and represent local governments on the world stage". UCLG has since worked both as a network counting more than 240,000 members worldwide, and as an advocacy platform, initiating the creation of the complementary coordination mechanism
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Canadian provinces are among the most active sub-national units on the international stage. The total amount spent on diplomacy by the ten Canadian provinces is equal to that of the fifty American states, despite the fact Canada's population is one-ninth the size and the economy is only
126:
states by some 5,000 years". The historical role and stability of cities can be noted when compared to modern forms of central governance, and the recent appearance of "Westphalian" nation-states four centuries ago, binding subnational governments to the sovereignty of nations.
637:(CCP) as long as their interests are convergent with those of Beijing. This is evidenced by the fact that the internationalization of Chinese non-central governments was primarily a creative product of the international isolation of the Chinese central government caused by the
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the Consent of Congress") implies that they are actually allowed to "compact with a foreign Power", as long as the Congress sanctioned those acts. This control was meant to assure that international commitments contracted by the States were not against the federal law.
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PAQUIN, StĂ©phane and Christian Lequesne, « Federalism, Paradiplomacy and Foreign Policy: A Case of Mutual Neglect», International Negotiation, No.22, pp. 183â204http://www.stephanepaquin.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Lequesne-Paquin-paradiplomacy.pdf.
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DUCHACEK, Ivo., Perforated Sovereignties and International Relations, Trans-Sovereign Contacts of Subnational Governments, Greenwood Press. DUCHACEK, I., The Territorial Dimension of Politics: Within, Among, and Across Nations (Boulder and London: Westview
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and cities seek their way to promote cooperation, cultural exchanges, trade and partnership, in a large diversity of ways and objectives depending on their decentralization, cultural, and socio-economical contexts. This trend raises new questions concerning
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one-fourteenth as large. Canadian provinces are largely motivated by economic concerns, stemming from the high degree of economic diversity between regions of the country and because of Canada's integration into world markets, especially the US market via
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PAQUIN, StĂ©phane and Guy Lachapelle, « Why do sub-states and regions practice international relations», StĂ©phane Paquin & Guy Lachapelle (dirs.), Mastering Globalization: New Statesâ Strategies in the World Economy, London, Routledge, 2005,
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SOLDATOS, Panayotis, "An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federal States as Foreign-policy Actors" In: Federalism and International Relations: the Role of Subnational Units. Ed. Hans MICHELMANN e Panayotis, SOLDATOS. Oxford. Clarendon Press,
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became an officially recognized instrument of peace and reconciliation in the aftermath of the Second World War, inciting a lasting dynamic that led to more than 11,000 twinnings worldwide in the 1990s, and reaching over 40,000 partnerships today.
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There is no text of law regulating diplomatic activities carried out by local authorities. Those relations are agreed upon among local governments, local permanent committees of the CCP and local Foreign Affairs Office (FAO), subordinated to the
241:
A particular kind of local political activism is called "protodiplomacy", through which a local government may seek international support for their emancipation or independence plans. This is typically the case of the Canadian province of
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Interactions. Houndmills (Royaume-Uni), Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 217-236. (Communication présentée lors d'un atelier table-ronde, tenu à l'Université catholique de Louvain, le 23 juin 2010). (HC 79 E5 S964b 2012, Québec)
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celebrar convenios internacionales en tanto no sean incompatibles con la polĂtica exterior de la NaciĂłn y no afecten las facultades delegadas al Gobierno nacional o al crĂ©dito pĂșblico de la NaciĂłn; con conocimiento del Congreso
188:. A comprising view of the phenomenon should also consider formal and informal contacts in a wide range of multilateral associations of local authorities, and their growing presence in global summits and governance instances.
627:
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must denounce the treaty. If the Land does not dully complies with its obligation, the federal government overtakes the responsibility. Paragraphs 4 and 5 of Article 16 regulate further the competencies of the
559:. Nine of the ten provinces trade more with the United States than with the rest of Canada. Relations with major trading partners, most especially the United States, are the most important. At the same time,
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is mostly in use in the European context and seen as an instrument of international development aid, although its precise definition can vary from country to country. It is generally understood as "
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CORNAGO, Noé, "Diplomacy and Paradiplomacy in the Redefinition of International Security: Dimensions of Conflict and Co-operation", in: *Keating, Paradiplomacy in Action. London: Frank Cass, 1999.
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30:, non-central governments have been playing increasingly influential roles on the global scene, connecting across national borders and developing their own foreign policies. Regions, states,
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LAGASSE, Charles-Etienne, Le SystÚme des Rélations Internationales dans la Belgique Fédéral, Textes et Pratiques. Centre de Recherche et dŽInformation Socio-Politique, p. 32. Bruxelles.
448:, and is the object of a co-operation agreement between the federal state, the Communities and the Regions (8 March 1994), which provides for a complex mechanism of shared responsibilities.
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and opened a debate on the global governance regime, and the evolution of the nation-led system that has provided the grounds for the international political order in the last centuries.
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PAQUIN, StĂ©phane and Guy Lachapelle, Mondialisation et gouvernance : les nouvelles stratĂ©gies subĂ©tatiques (avec Guy Lachapelle), QuĂ©bec, Presses de lâUniversitĂ© Laval, 2004, 234 p.
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SMITH, Nancy Paige, "Paradiplomacy Between the U. S. and Canadian Provinces: the Case of Acid Rain Memoranda of Understanding". Journal of Bordelands Studies, Vol III, Nr 1, p. 17.
2027:
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Alger, Chadwick F. (2014). "Searching for Democratic Potential in Emerging Global Governance: What Are the Implications of Regional and Global Involvements of Local Governments?".
230:, as the Reagan Administration and the American Congress could not reach a consensus on the matter. The cross-borders paradiplomatic efforts eventually led Washington to amend the
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Paradiplomacy being a very context-specific global phenomenon, the following section is not exhaustive and only illustrates a few examples linked to their national context.
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Parallel to bilateral forms of cooperation, multilateralism also developed at the local scale. In 1913, the first transnational network of local governments was created in
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KEISER, Robert., Subnational Governments as Actors in International Relations: Federal Reforms and Regional Mobilization in Germany and the United States, Stuttgart, 2000.
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PAQUIN, StĂ©phane, « Paradiplomatie identitaire en Catalogne et les relations Barcelone-Madrid », Ătudes internationales, vol. XXXIII, no 1, 2002, p. 57-98.
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Russian Federation, and that this provision "shall equally apply to the republics, territories, regions, federal cities, the autonomous region and autonomous areas".
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In the cultural field, some regions may seek to promote themselves internationally as an autonomous cultural entity - a form of "identity paradiplomacy" as framed by
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Jordan, Andrew; Huitema, Dave; Schoenefeld, Jonas; van Asselt, Harro; Forster, Johanna (3 May 2018). "Governing Climate Change Polycentrically: Setting the Scene".
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KEATING, Michael, Paradiplomacy and Regional Networking, conference organized by the Forum of Federations: an International Federalism, Hannover, October 2000.
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222:. Some regions may seek to cooperate with their diasporas worldwide and try to gain the support of their nationals abroad in attaining their diplomatic goals.
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Scott, James Wesley (1989). "Transborder Cooperation, Regional Initiatives, and Sovereignty Conflicts in Western Europe: The Case of the Upper Rhine Valley".
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The intentions of subnational governments are diverse and depend on the level of devolution of power form the central government following the principle of
638:
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680:, Reykjavik and Washington, D.C., working closely with Danish embassies. The office in Brussels also acts a point of liaison with the European Union.
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493:
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ALEXEEV, M., Russia's Periphery in the Global Arena: Do Regions Matter in the Kremlin's Foreign Policy?, San Diego State University, October 2000.
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LESSA, José V. S., Paradiplomacia no Brasil e no Mundo, O Poder de Celebrar tratados dos Governos Não Centrais, Editora UFV, Viçosa, Brasil, 2007.
489:
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MICHELMANN, Hans J. and Panayotis Soldatos. (Eds) Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
714:, the world's most extensive state, shows a tradition of conveying the weight of its territorial units to foster external policy objectives. The
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Jaros, Kyle A; Newland, Sara A (2024-06-21). "Paradiplomacy in Hard Times: Cooperation and Confrontation in Subnational U.S.âChina Relations".
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and other instruments; c) participating in international "local" fora; d) establishing permanent representative offices or delegations abroad.
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operates trade missions, working closely with British embassies. The office in Brussels also acts a point of liaison with the European Union.
497:
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1910:
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567:. Furthermore, Canada's constitution is generally interpreted in a decentralist way, giving the provinces a great deal of responsibilities.
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FRY, Earl H. The Expanding Role of State and Local Governments in U.S. Foreign Affairs. New York: Council of Foreign Relations Press, 1998.
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Paquin, Stéphane (7 June 2005). "La paradiplomatie identitaire : Le Québec, la Catalogne et la Flandre en relations internationales".
2019:
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1542:"La capacidad de poder de los gobiernos locales en el campo del desarrollo: un anĂĄlisis de la posiciĂłn de Minas Gerais a partir de 2003"
1106:"La capacidad de poder de los gobiernos locales en el campo del desarrollo: un anĂĄlisis de la posiciĂłn de Minas Gerais a partir de 2003"
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Non-central governments may formally develop official international relations by: a) sending delegations in official visits; b) signing
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2155:"Grupo de investigaciĂłn: Estudios Europeos e Internacionales (ZEIS) | Grupo de investigaciĂłn: Estudios Europeos e Internacionales"
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organizations that offer assistance programs for local development projects, with ideas of cross-cultural connections and reciprocity.
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acknowledged the evolution of town twinning into city diplomacy, particularly around trade and tourism, but also in culture and post-
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is the involvement of non-central governments in international relations. The phenomenon includes a variety of practices, from
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Paradiplomatie et relations internationales : théorie des stratégies internationales des régions face à la mondialisation
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MCMILLAN, Samuel Lucas. The Involvement of State Governments in U.S. Foreign Relations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
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to transnational networking, decentralized cooperation, and advocacy in international summits. Following the movement of
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restricts the states' capacity to establish formal external ties to cross-border issues. Article 16 of the reformed text
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HOCKING, Brian. Localizing Foreign Policy, Non-central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy, Palgrave Macmillan, 1993.
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310:. SĂŁo Paulo has aggressively pursued âcity-diplomacyâ and has not only become the first subnational government in the
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working closely with Danish embassies. The office in Brussels also acts a point of liaison with the European Union.
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aid extended by local and regional governments to reinforce capacities and service delivery in partner authorities
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has motivated the French-speaking province of Quebec to pursue closer ties with France and the other members of
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agreements are widely observed as a means to establish permanent links with non-central governments elsewhere.
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AMEN, Mark, et al. (Eds). Cities and Global Governance: New Sites for International Relations. Ashgate, 2011.
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Estudio de casos: pråcticas, modelos e instrumentos. El enfoque francés de la cooperación descentralizada
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Paradiplomacy may be performed both in support of and in complementarity to the central state conducted
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HOBBS, Heidi H. City Hall Goes Abroad: The Foreign Policy of Local Politics. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994.
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CRIEKEMANS, David.(Ed.) Regional Sub-State Diplomacy Today. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010.
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Kihlgren Grandi, Lorenzo (2020). "The Historical, Legal, and Geographic Evolution of City Diplomacy".
1250:"Town-twinning as a Factor Generating International Flows of Goods and People â the Example of Poland"
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TAVARES, Rodrigo. Paradiplomacy: Cities and States as Global Players. Oxford University Press, 2016.
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Acuto, Michele; Leffel, Benjamin (July 2021). "Understanding the Global Ecosystem of City Networks".
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2411:"Bilateral dialogue with the PRC at both ends: Czech-Chinese "friendship" extends to social credit"
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105:") issues, which takes local and regional concerns to the central stage of international affairs.
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500:. While not provided in the Dayton Agreement, since 2009 Republika Srpska has opened a number of
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SCHIAVON, Jorge. Comparative Paradiplomacy. 1st ed. Federalism Studies. London: Routledge, 2018.
1286:. Observatorio de CooperaciĂłn Descentralizada. UniĂłn Europea-AmĂ©rica Latina. pp. 324â356.
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DEHOUSSE, R. Fédéralisme et Relations Internationales, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 1991, p. 102.
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806:, the first federal constitution sets an array of prohibitions to the States in Section 10 of
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Having established that the power to make treaties and conduct external affairs belong to the
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101:. This latter concept expresses a growing trend to the internationalization of domestic ("
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has gained increased usage and acceptance, particularly as a strand of paradiplomacy and
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and corresponds to bilateral partnerships formalized through conventions and agreements.
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Town Twinning, Transnational Connections and Trans-local Citizenship Practices in Europe
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2020:"Decentralised Cooperation: The human face of international development | Capacity4dev"
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Duchacek, Ivo D. (1984). "The International Dimension of Subnational Self-Government".
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Duchacek, Ivo D. (1984). "The International Dimension of Subnational Self-Government".
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https://www.gov.scot/policies/international-relations/international-offices-brussels/
2381:"Uncovering China's Influence in Europe: How Friendship Groups Coopt European Elites"
2090:"'City-to-city Diplomacy â Question for Short Debate', Lords Hansard, 26 March, 2014"
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1920:
1846:. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. Vol. 8. pp. 133â159.
1767:
1195:
853:
823:
719:
607:
368:
319:
315:
135:
27:
23:
2471:
https://naalakkersuisut.gl/da/Naalakkersuisut/Groenlands-Repraesentation-i-Reykjavik
2440:
https://www.government.fo/en/foreign-relations/missions-of-the-faroe-islands-abroad/
1154:
476:
with neighboring countries consistent with sovereignty and territorial integrity of
2220:
715:
575:
517:
465:
109:
102:
2451:
3310:
3157:
2991:
2057:
1902:
1851:
611:
579:
461:
363:
42:
The term combines the Greek word "para" (ÏαÏα) and "diplomacy" to imply actions
3239:
2801:
2712:
2292:
2257:
1825:"United Nations Advisory Committee of Local Authorities (UNACLA) | UN-Habitat"
1451:
Mediterranean Paradiplomacies: The Dynamics of Diplomatic Reterritorialization
1146:
811:
330:
131:
2333:
2324:
2307:
2265:
1759:
1426:
Resolving the Russo-Japanese Territorial Dispute: Hokkaido-Sakhalin Relations
3255:
2920:
2645:
1934:
1122:
1105:
536:
political representatives as further proof of efforts in the direction of a
513:
509:
338:
227:
215:
203:
territorial management and planning that can complement national expertise.
176:
1017:
Federalism and international relations : the role of subnational units
926:
Federalism and international relations : the role of subnational units
243:
2614:
1708:
734:). That situation was not to be reflected in constitutional law until the
2955:
2649:
1262:
1249:
525:
65:
If the term "paradiplomacy" has sometimes been used to refer to informal
31:
783:
in Beijing, Berlin, Brussels, Dublin, London, Paris and Washington D.C.
606:; it continues to promote the province's industries from delegations in
1487:
1371:
1001:
665:
has representative offices in Copenhagen, Brussels, London, Moscow and
599:
595:
587:
533:
353:
348:
343:
238:
in which both countries agree on a timetable to reduce acid emissions.
3096:
2722:
2004:
1807:"World Assembly of Local and Regional Governments | Global Taskforce"
1783:
Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units
815:
711:
603:
591:
529:
505:
192:
2279:
Cornago, Noé (2010). "On the Normalization of Sub-State Diplomacy".
1170:"The Origins, Development, and Possible Decline of the Modern State"
884:. In Balzacq, Thierry; Charillon, Frédéric; Ramel, Frédéric (eds.).
69:, its definition has crystallized in the 1980's through the work of
628:
Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries
556:
147:
2216:"PRC Perspectives on Subnational Diplomacy in China-US Relations"
2186:"Quebec spending millions on diplomatic offices around the world"
16:
Involvement of non-central governments in international relations
2618:
2048:
Kihlgren Grandi, Lorenzo (2020). "Decentralized Cooperation".
1679:
1629:
1611:
431:
and of the federal state in the implementation of treaties.
718:
is the only country ever to have subnational entities (the
641:. However, local particularities are to be heeded as well.
150:(Belgium) in the form of a global municipal movement: the
1654:
2409:
LomovĂĄ, Olga; Lulu, Jichang; HĂĄla, Martin (2019-07-28).
1954:
Paradiplomacy : cities and states as global players
951:
Paradiplomacy : cities and states as global players
886:
Global Diplomacy: An Introduction to Theory and Practice
570:
While Quebec has the strongest paradiplomatic presence,
2502:
https://tradeandinvest.wales/contact-us?countryarea=71
1680:"Association internationale des Maires francophones"
3274:
3248:
3150:
2974:
2903:
2883:
2855:
2799:
2766:
2750:
2705:
2672:
2663:
2656:
1876:"Centenary of the International Municipal Movement"
1594:"Centenary of the International Municipal Movement"
699:59(2) requires the consent or participation of the
179:, or come in conflict or compete with it. In 1990,
112:, and from the level of local democracy defined by
2550:. Brussels: Presses interuniversitaire européenne.
1503:Paradiplomacy: Cities and States as Global Players
1387:Paradiplomacy: Cities and States as Global Players
1211:Paradiplomacy: Cities and States as Global Players
901:Paradiplomacy: Cities and States as Global Players
272:"territorial collectivities' international action"
165:Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments
1104:Salles, Fernanda; Santos, Silvia Guiomar (2014).
692:states in its article 32(3) that "Insofar as the
578:formerly operated economic trade offices abroad.
2379:Yoshihara, Toshi; Bianchi, Jack (July 1, 2020).
888:. Vol. 1. London: Palgrave. pp. 49â61.
2500:Welsh Government trade and investment offices
2452:https://naalakkersuisut.gl/en/Naalakkersuisut/
2385:Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments
1015:Michelmann, Hans; Soldatos, Panayotis (1990).
234:in 1990 and to sign with Canada, in 1991, the
2630:
2308:"Chinese Paradiplomacy: A Theoretical Review"
2138:
1844:The UN System and Cities in Global Governance
314:to sign direct bilateral agreements with the
290:. It is formally used in the workings of the
8:
639:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
464:, formally acknowledged the high degree of
2669:
2660:
2637:
2623:
2615:
2115:"Paradiplomacy: Globalization of Localism"
1976:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1525:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1409:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1335:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1233:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1064:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
973:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
676:has representative offices in Copenhagen,
2323:
2306:Liu, Tianyang; Song, Yao (January 2020).
1540:Salles, Fernanda; Santos, Silvia (2014).
1261:
1185:
1121:
226:Canadian provinces to control and combat
3379:Foreign relations by dependent territory
2481:Scottish Government offices in Brussels
1187:10.1146/annurev.polisci.5.101501.145837
869:
730:, which lasted from 1945 to 1991 (see:
490:Agreement on Special Parallel Relations
210:. This can be the case for the Spanish
2450:Greenlandic Government offices abroad
1969:
1574:
1563:
1518:
1402:
1328:
1315:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire.
1226:
1057:
966:
751:Constitution of the Russian Federation
538:proposed secession of Republika Srpska
318:and Britain. It has also been crowned
270:". In France, it is framed within the
2822:Conseiller chargé des investissements
1364:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a037760
1248:Furmankiewicz, Marek (30 June 2005).
1110:Apuntes: Revista de Ciencias Sociales
726:) recognized as member states in the
302:. A March 2014 debate in the British
7:
3341:
2469:Greenland Representation, ReykjavĂk
1612:"Sister Cities International (SCI)"
532:. The policy was criticized by the
488:(Serbia and Montenegro) signed the
472:, including the right to establish
296:C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group
292:United Cities and Local Governments
161:United Cities and Local Governments
2438:Faroese Government offices abroad
2391:from the original on July 16, 2020
2249:Publius: The Journal of Federalism
1174:Annual Review of Political Science
14:
1719:from the original on 11 July 2024
1616:Sister Cities International (SCI)
498:Republika SrpskaâSerbia relations
3340:
3329:
3328:
2214:Yan, Flora (December 16, 2021).
1079:KUZNETSOV, ALEXANDER S. (2020).
387:Since 1994, an amendment to the
3316:Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy
2421:from the original on 2020-05-04
2361:from the original on 2024-06-30
2228:from the original on 2024-03-18
2196:from the original on 2016-03-03
2096:from the original on 2016-06-09
2030:from the original on 2024-07-11
1690:from the original on 2024-07-11
1661:from the original on 2024-07-11
1636:from the original on 2022-09-26
1293:from the original on 2015-07-12
744:dissolution of the Soviet Union
590:formerly had representation in
236:US/Canada Air Quality Agreement
152:Union Internationale des Villes
2281:The Hague Journal of Diplomacy
486:Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
300:USC Center on Public Diplomacy
1:
1935:"About Us | Global Taskforce"
1548:(74): 169â195. Archived from
1168:Spruyt, Hendrik (June 2002).
582:operated a tourism office in
468:decentralised powers for two
322:State of the Future 2018â19.
3311:Twin towns and sister cities
2347:Yu, Cheryl (June 21, 2024).
1785:. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
1019:. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
928:. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
390:ConstituciĂłn de la Republica
246:in the seventies, under the
2058:10.1007/978-3-030-60717-3_3
2018:Elong Mbassi, Jean Pierre.
1903:10.1007/978-3-030-60717-3_2
1852:10.1007/978-3-319-00512-6_7
1311:Langenohl, Andreas (2015).
1040:Schiavon, Jorge A. (2019).
903:. Oxford University Press.
707:Russia and the Soviet Union
647:Ministry of Foreign Affairs
416:(28. June 2002) allows the
3395:
3304:Plenipotentiary Conference
814:shall not "enter into any
621:
547:
494:independence of Montenegro
474:special parallel relations
197:memoranda of understanding
95:people-to-people diplomacy
3324:
2544:Paquin, Stéphane (2004).
2293:10.1163/1871191x-05010102
2139:
1952:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
1781:Duchacek, Ivo D. (1990).
1655:"Union of African Cities"
1630:"Arab Towns organization"
1501:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
1385:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
1209:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
1147:10.1017/9781108284646.002
1042:Comparative paradiplomacy
949:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
924:Duchacek, Ivo D. (1990).
899:Tavares, Rodrigo (2016).
877:Paquin, Stéphane (2019).
550:Quebec Government Offices
282:In recent years the term
264:decentralized cooperation
258:Decentralized cooperation
91:decentralized cooperation
3294:Parliamentary delegation
3173:Diplomatic accreditation
2939:African Diplomatic Corps
2680:Permanent representative
2325:10.1177/2158244019899048
1939:www.global-taskforce.org
1811:www.global-taskforce.org
1760:10.1177/0042098020929261
1277:Massiah, Gustav (2006).
1213:. New York. p. 11.
1139:Governing Climate Change
736:1977 Soviet Constitution
375:Paradiplomacy by country
121:History of paradiplomacy
37:public international law
2742:Deputy chief of mission
2697:Resident representative
2258:10.1093/publius/pjae014
1424:Williams, Brad (2007).
1123:10.21678/apuntes.74.706
635:Chinese Communist Party
492:, which after the 2006
411:Constitution of Austria
308:conflict reconciliation
3188:Diplomatic credentials
2318:(1): 215824401989904.
2119:www.investindia.gov.in
1880:www.rabat2013.uclg.org
1598:www.rabat2013.uclg.org
1573:Cite journal requires
1449:Duran, Manuel (2015).
674:Greenlandic Government
502:representative offices
496:led to development of
478:Bosnia and Herzegovina
452:Bosnia and Herzegovina
395:provinces of Argentina
298:and recognised by the
212:autonomous communities
79:multilayered diplomacy
2779:Resident commissioner
2751:Bilateral-subnational
1993:Politique et Sociétés
1428:. London: Routledge.
1044:. London. p. 3.
622:Further information:
87:subnational diplomacy
2911:Apostolic nunciature
2811:Agricultural attaché
2354:Jamestown Foundation
1263:10.4000/belgeo.12466
690:Basic Law of Germany
624:United front (China)
62:national diplomacy.
3203:Diplomatic immunity
3163:Consular assistance
2692:Ambassador-at-large
1752:2021UrbSt..58.1758A
777:Scottish Government
439:In Belgium, a 1993
312:Southern Hemisphere
99:intermestic affairs
67:track-two diplomacy
3374:Types of diplomacy
3261:Letter of credence
3223:Diplomatic uniform
3218:Diplomatic service
3198:Diplomatic illness
3193:Diplomatic history
2946:Diplomatic mission
2863:Diplomatic courier
2843:Trade commissioner
2706:Bilateral-national
2488:2021-04-25 at the
2457:2020-10-20 at the
2052:. pp. 53â67.
1897:. pp. 37â51.
764:Swiss Constitution
762:Article 54 of the
738:stipulated that a
732:Ukraine and the UN
663:Faroese Government
561:Quebec nationalism
484:and what was then
470:composite entities
460:, which ended the
359:Russian Federation
75:Panayotis Soldatos
3356:
3355:
3266:Letter of protest
3234:Persona non grata
3168:Consular immunity
2966:Exclusive mandate
2899:
2898:
2851:
2850:
2816:Chargé de mission
2767:Bilateral-insular
2731:Chargé d'affaires
2718:High commissioner
2067:978-3-030-60716-6
1912:978-3-030-60716-6
1861:978-3-319-00511-9
1460:978-90-04-28541-5
1453:. Leiden: BRILL.
399:National Congress
3386:
3344:
3343:
3332:
3331:
3183:Diplomatic cable
2961:Protecting power
2934:Diplomatic corps
2875:Foreign minister
2868:King's Messenger
2833:Military attaché
2828:Cultural attaché
2670:
2661:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2616:
2551:
2504:
2498:
2492:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2327:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2166:
2160:. Archived from
2159:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2005:10.7202/010890ar
1999:(2â3): 203â237.
1988:
1982:
1981:
1975:
1967:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1746:(9): 1758â1774.
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1641:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1524:
1516:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1408:
1400:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1334:
1326:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1285:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1256:(1â2): 145â162.
1245:
1239:
1238:
1232:
1224:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1189:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1063:
1055:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1012:
1006:
1005:
985:
979:
978:
972:
964:
946:
940:
939:
921:
915:
914:
896:
890:
889:
883:
874:
849:De facto embassy
788:Welsh Government
724:Byelorussian SSR
633:outlined by the
572:British Columbia
482:Republika Srpska
458:Dayton Agreement
288:public diplomacy
114:decentralization
3394:
3393:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3320:
3282:Development aid
3270:
3244:
3213:Diplomatic rank
3146:
2970:
2951:High commission
2895:
2891:Diplomatic rank
2879:
2847:
2838:Science attaché
2795:
2762:
2746:
2737:Head of mission
2701:
2665:
2652:
2643:
2543:
2512:
2507:
2499:
2495:
2490:Wayback Machine
2480:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2459:Wayback Machine
2449:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2424:
2422:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2364:
2362:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2231:
2229:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2197:
2184:
2183:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2121:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2099:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2068:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2033:
2031:
2017:
2016:
2012:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1968:
1964:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1913:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1720:
1715:. 23 May 2019.
1707:
1706:
1702:
1693:
1691:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1572:
1562:
1555:
1553:
1552:on 12 July 2015
1539:
1538:
1534:
1517:
1513:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1401:
1397:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1327:
1323:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1225:
1221:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1116:(74): 169â195.
1103:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1083:. : ROUTLEDGE.
1078:
1077:
1073:
1056:
1052:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1014:
1013:
1009:
987:
986:
982:
965:
961:
948:
947:
943:
936:
923:
922:
918:
911:
898:
897:
893:
881:
879:"Paradiplomacy"
876:
875:
871:
867:
862:
845:
828:double negation
796:
773:
760:
709:
686:
659:
630:
620:
584:Portland, Maine
565:la Francophonie
552:
546:
522:Washington D.C.
454:
437:
407:
385:
377:
328:
280:
262:The concept of
260:
248:Parti Québécois
208:Stephane Paquin
186:Rodrigo Tavares
173:
123:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3392:
3390:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3361:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3338:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3296:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3278:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3208:Diplomatic law
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3178:Diplomatic bag
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2931:
2923:
2918:
2916:Consular corps
2913:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2887:
2885:
2884:Classification
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2818:
2813:
2807:
2805:
2800:By portfolio (
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2685:United Nations
2676:
2674:
2667:
2658:
2654:
2653:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2634:
2627:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2561:p. 77-89.
2558:
2555:
2552:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2493:
2474:
2462:
2443:
2431:
2401:
2371:
2339:
2298:
2287:(1â2): 11â36.
2271:
2238:
2206:
2192:. 2014-08-03.
2177:
2146:
2130:
2106:
2081:
2066:
2050:City Diplomacy
2040:
2010:
1983:
1962:
1944:
1926:
1911:
1895:City Diplomacy
1885:
1867:
1860:
1834:
1816:
1798:
1791:
1773:
1730:
1700:
1671:
1646:
1621:
1603:
1584:
1575:|journal=
1532:
1511:
1493:
1466:
1459:
1441:
1434:
1416:
1395:
1377:
1358:(1): 139â156.
1342:
1321:
1303:
1269:
1240:
1219:
1201:
1180:(1): 127â149.
1160:
1129:
1096:
1089:
1071:
1050:
1032:
1025:
1007:
980:
959:
941:
934:
916:
909:
891:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
857:
856:
851:
844:
841:
795:
792:
772:
771:United Kingdom
769:
759:
756:
740:Union republic
728:United Nations
708:
705:
685:
682:
658:
655:
619:
616:
545:
542:
453:
450:
446:traités mixtes
441:constitutional
436:
433:
406:
403:
384:
381:
376:
373:
372:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
327:
324:
320:Latin American
304:House of Lords
284:city diplomacy
279:
278:City diplomacy
276:
259:
256:
220:Basque Country
172:
169:
156:United Nations
122:
119:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3391:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3369:Paradiplomacy
3367:
3366:
3364:
3349:
3348:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:Paradiplomacy
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:Full-spectrum
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2791:Agent-general
2789:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2666:leader titles
2662:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2635:
2633:
2628:
2626:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2542:
2540:2010, Québec)
2538:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2521:9780190462116
2518:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2435:
2432:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2402:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2372:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2343:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2242:
2239:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2167:on 2012-03-31
2163:
2156:
2150:
2147:
2134:
2131:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1973:
1965:
1963:9780190462116
1959:
1955:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1830:
1829:unhabitat.org
1826:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1794:
1792:0-19-827491-2
1788:
1784:
1777:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1740:Urban Studies
1734:
1731:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1689:
1686:(in French).
1685:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1647:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1567:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1522:
1514:
1512:9780190462116
1508:
1504:
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1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1437:
1435:9780203960998
1431:
1427:
1420:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1398:
1396:9780190462116
1392:
1388:
1381:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1343:
1338:
1332:
1324:
1322:9781137021229
1318:
1314:
1307:
1304:
1289:
1282:
1281:
1273:
1270:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1222:
1220:9780190462116
1216:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1130:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1097:
1092:
1090:9780367600402
1086:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1053:
1051:9781351012317
1047:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1026:0-19-827491-2
1022:
1018:
1011:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
984:
981:
976:
970:
962:
960:9780190462116
956:
952:
945:
942:
937:
935:0-19-827491-2
931:
927:
920:
917:
912:
910:9780190462116
906:
902:
895:
892:
887:
880:
873:
870:
864:
859:
855:
854:Town twinning
852:
850:
847:
846:
842:
840:
837:
834:State shall,
833:
829:
825:
824:Confederation
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
794:United States
793:
791:
789:
784:
782:
778:
770:
768:
765:
757:
755:
752:
747:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
720:Ukrainian SSR
717:
713:
706:
704:
702:
697:
696:
691:
683:
681:
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
656:
654:
652:
648:
642:
640:
636:
629:
625:
617:
615:
613:
609:
608:New York City
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
568:
566:
562:
558:
551:
543:
541:
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535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
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467:
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451:
449:
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434:
432:
430:
425:
421:
420:
415:
412:
404:
402:
400:
396:
392:
391:
382:
380:
374:
370:
369:United States
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
335:
332:
325:
323:
321:
317:
316:United States
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
277:
275:
273:
269:
265:
257:
255:
251:
249:
245:
239:
237:
233:
232:Clean Air Act
229:
223:
221:
217:
213:
209:
204:
200:
198:
194:
189:
187:
182:
178:
170:
168:
166:
162:
157:
153:
149:
144:
140:
137:
136:Town twinning
133:
127:
120:
118:
115:
111:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
40:
38:
33:
29:
28:globalisation
25:
24:town twinning
21:
20:Paradiplomacy
3346:
3334:
3275:Other topics
3232:
3142:Wolf warrior
3091:
2926:
2820:
2729:
2673:Multilateral
2546:
2496:
2477:
2465:
2446:
2434:
2423:. Retrieved
2414:
2404:
2393:. Retrieved
2374:
2363:. Retrieved
2352:
2342:
2315:
2311:
2301:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2247:
2241:
2230:. Retrieved
2221:The Diplomat
2219:
2209:
2198:. Retrieved
2189:
2180:
2169:. Retrieved
2162:the original
2149:
2133:
2122:. Retrieved
2118:
2109:
2098:. Retrieved
2084:
2049:
2043:
2032:. Retrieved
2023:
2013:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1956:. New York.
1953:
1947:
1938:
1929:
1894:
1888:
1879:
1870:
1843:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1782:
1776:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1723:28 September
1721:. Retrieved
1712:
1703:
1692:. Retrieved
1683:
1674:
1663:. Retrieved
1649:
1638:. Retrieved
1624:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1587:
1566:cite journal
1554:. Retrieved
1550:the original
1545:
1535:
1505:. New York.
1502:
1496:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1450:
1444:
1425:
1419:
1389:. New York.
1386:
1380:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1312:
1306:
1295:. Retrieved
1279:
1272:
1253:
1243:
1210:
1204:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1138:
1132:
1113:
1109:
1099:
1080:
1074:
1041:
1035:
1016:
1010:
993:
989:
983:
953:. New York.
950:
944:
925:
919:
900:
894:
885:
872:
835:
831:
797:
785:
774:
761:
748:
716:Soviet Union
710:
693:
687:
671:
660:
643:
631:
586:until 2009.
576:Saskatchewan
569:
553:
518:Thessaloniki
501:
473:
466:subsidiarily
455:
445:
438:
428:
423:
417:
408:
388:
386:
378:
329:
283:
281:
271:
267:
263:
261:
252:
240:
224:
205:
201:
190:
181:Ivo Duchacek
174:
145:
141:
128:
124:
110:subsidiarity
107:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
71:Ivo Duchacek
64:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
41:
19:
18:
3158:Appeasement
2856:Other roles
1482:(4): 5â31.
996:(4): 5â31.
758:Switzerland
612:Los Angeles
580:Nova Scotia
480:. In 1997,
462:Bosnian War
393:allows the
364:Switzerland
103:intermestic
3363:Categories
3240:Soft power
3112:Preventive
3102:Pilgrimage
2997:Commercial
2713:Ambassador
2664:Diplomatic
2425:2020-04-22
2395:2020-08-08
2365:2024-06-30
2232:2024-07-09
2200:2017-09-07
2171:2010-11-08
2124:2020-03-04
2100:2017-09-07
2034:2022-04-13
1709:"Regions4"
1694:2022-09-28
1665:2022-09-28
1640:2022-09-28
1297:2009-09-15
860:References
548:See also:
331:Federative
326:Federalism
193:agreements
132:Eisenhower
54:and even,
3256:Exequatur
3249:Documents
3107:Ping-pong
3077:Migration
3052:Guerrilla
3042:Freelance
3017:Debt-trap
2987:Checkbook
2921:Consulate
2650:diplomats
2646:Diplomacy
2334:2158-2440
2312:SAGE Open
2266:0048-5950
2141:nacional.
2076:232293409
2024:europa.eu
1972:cite book
1921:229608988
1768:225543614
1521:cite book
1405:cite book
1331:cite book
1229:cite book
1196:145637947
1060:cite book
969:cite book
808:Article I
800:president
749:The 1993
701:Bundesrat
667:Reykjavik
514:Jerusalem
510:Stuttgart
456:The 1995
383:Argentina
339:Argentina
228:acid rain
216:Catalonia
177:diplomacy
167:in 2013.
32:provinces
3335:Category
3287:Agencies
3228:Protocol
3137:Track II
3032:Economic
3007:Culinary
3002:Cultural
2992:Coercive
2956:Legation
2927:De facto
2774:Resident
2486:Archived
2455:Archived
2419:Archived
2415:Sinopsis
2389:Archived
2359:Archived
2226:Archived
2194:Archived
2190:The Star
2094:Archived
2028:Archived
1717:Archived
1713:Regions4
1688:Archived
1659:Archived
1634:Archived
1288:Archived
1155:55290798
1141:: 3â26.
843:See also
820:Alliance
804:Congress
802:and the
678:Brussels
651:Twinning
526:Brussels
294:and the
218:and the
83:substate
3347:Commons
3132:Stadium
3127:Shuttle
3122:Science
3072:Medical
3062:Hostage
3057:Gunboat
3022:Digital
3012:Defence
2929:embassy
2904:Offices
2802:Attaché
2593:Press).
2510:Sources
1748:Bibcode
1556:10 July
1488:3330188
1476:Publius
1372:3330569
1352:Publius
1002:3330188
990:Publius
836:without
781:offices
684:Germany
657:Denmark
600:Chicago
596:Atlanta
588:Ontario
534:Bosniak
435:Belgium
405:Austria
354:Germany
349:Belgium
344:Austria
171:Context
60:against
56:despite
3299:Summit
3151:Topics
3117:Public
3097:Parley
3037:Energy
3027:Dollar
2982:Caviar
2758:Consul
2723:Nuncio
2519:
2332:
2264:
2074:
2064:
1960:
1919:
1909:
1858:
1789:
1766:
1592:UCLG.
1509:
1486:
1457:
1432:
1393:
1370:
1319:
1254:Belgeo
1217:
1194:
1153:
1087:
1048:
1023:
1000:
957:
932:
907:
816:Treaty
812:states
810:. The
712:Russia
695:LĂ€nder
604:Dallas
592:Boston
544:Canada
530:Vienna
506:Moscow
429:LĂ€nder
424:LĂ€nder
419:LĂ€nder
244:Québec
3087:Panda
2975:Types
2786:Envoy
2657:Roles
2586:1990.
2165:(PDF)
2158:(PDF)
2072:S2CID
1917:S2CID
1764:S2CID
1484:JSTOR
1368:JSTOR
1291:(PDF)
1284:(PDF)
1192:S2CID
1151:S2CID
998:JSTOR
882:(PDF)
865:Notes
822:, or
618:China
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