Parthenogenesis - Knowledge (XXG)

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regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis. To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote. Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb by developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular and is approximately 50% smaller than biparental offspring placentae: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.

365:). In these species asexual reproduction occurs either in summer (aphids) or as long as conditions are favourable. This is because in asexual reproduction a successful genotype can spread quickly without being modified by sex or wasting resources on male offspring who will not give birth. Some species can produce both sexually and through parthenogenesis, and offspring in the same clutch of a species of tropical lizard can be a mix of sexually produced offspring and parthenogenically produced offspring. In California Condors facultative parthenogenesis can occur even when a male is present and available for a female to breed with. In times of stress, offspring produced by sexual reproduction may be fitter as they have new, possibly beneficial gene combinations. In addition, sexual reproduction provides the benefit of meiotic recombination between non- 612:

albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as a result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations. There are a number of documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process. A female will produce an ovum with a full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring.

1044:, queens produce more queens through automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion. Sterile workers usually are produced from eggs fertilized by males. In some of the eggs fertilized by males, however, the fertilization can cause the female genetic material to be ablated from the zygote. In this way, males pass on only their genes to become fertile male offspring. This is the first recognized example of an animal species where both females and males can reproduce clonally resulting in a complete separation of male and female gene pools. As a consequence, the males will only have fathers and the queens only mothers, while the sterile workers are the only ones with both parents of both sexes. 1682:) to be lacking in any genetic content from his father. Scientists believe that an unfertilized egg began to self-divide but then had some (but not all) of its cells fertilized by a sperm cell; this must have happened early in development, as self-activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilized. The unfertilized cells eventually duplicated their DNA, boosting their chromosomes to 46. When the unfertilized cells hit a developmental block, the fertilized cells took over and developed that tissue. The boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but was otherwise healthy. This would make him a parthenogenetic 1627: 1265:. This female American crocodile, housed at Parque Reptilania, produced a genetically identical foetus, with a 99.9% similarity to herself. The scientists speculate that this unique ability might be inherited from an evolutionary ancestor, suggesting that even dinosaurs could have possessed the capability for self-reproduction. The 18-year-old crocodile laid the egg in January 2018, the fully formed foetus did not hatch and was stillborn. Notably, this crocodile had been kept separated from other crocodiles throughout her entire life since being acquired at the age of two. 436: 4726: 1643:

enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.

991:, which normally suppress ovarian development in workers. Worker bees are unable to mate, and the unfertilized eggs produce only drones (males), which can mate only with a queen. Thus, in a relatively short period, all the worker bees die off, and the new drones follow if they have not been able to mate before the collapse of the colony. This behavior is believed to have evolved to allow a doomed colony to produce drones which may mate with a virgin queen and thus preserve the colony's genetic progeny. 1671:), claimed in 1955 that parthenogenesis, which occurs in the guppy in nature, may also occur (though very rarely) in the human species, leading to so-called "virgin births". This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike. Sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilization, but it cannot fully develop on its own; so while it may create some skin and nerve cells, it cannot create others (such as skeletal muscle) and becomes a type of benign tumor called an ovarian 1280: 2037: 956: 1686:(a child with two cell lineages in his body). While over a dozen similar cases have been reported since then (usually discovered after the patient demonstrated clinical abnormalities), there have been no scientifically confirmed reports of a non-chimeric, clinically healthy human parthenote (i.e. produced from a single, parthenogenetic-activated oocyte). 1574: 324: 554:; presumably, this is the default reproductive mode of all species in this insect order. Facultative parthenogenesis has generally been believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male. A female may undergo facultative parthenogenesis if a male is absent from the habitat or if it is unable to produce viable offspring. However, 1690:

The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular female for the treatment of degenerative diseases that might affect her. In December 2007, Dr. Revazova and ISCC published an article illustrating a breakthrough in the use of parthenogenesis to produce human stem cells that are

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created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he contributed a major breakthrough to stem cell research by creating human embryos using parthenogenesis. The truth was discovered in 2007, long after the embryos

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In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers. The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis.

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in Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis. On 10 October 2008, scientists confirmed the second case of a "virgin birth" in a shark. The Journal of Fish Biology reported a study in which scientists said DNA testing proved that a pup carried by a female Atlantic blacktip shark in the Virginia Aquarium

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of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined. The criterion for "sexuality" varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where the nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to

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Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors, the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products

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unknowingly produced the first human embryos resulting from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos, a result later found to be fabricated. Further examination of the chromosomes of these cells show indicators of parthenogenesis in

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region of DNA. These stem cells are called HLA homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells (hpSC-Hhom) and have unique characteristics that would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted into millions of people without immune rejection. With proper selection of oocyte donors according to HLA

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During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF,

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Some reptile species use a ZW chromosome system, which produces either males (ZZ) or females (ZW). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female

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Facultative parthenogenesis is the term for when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction. Facultative parthenogenesis is extremely rare in nature, with only a few examples of animal taxa capable of facultative parthenogenesis. One of the best-known examples of taxa

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genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring in order for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental

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of which 15 species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis. These lizards live in the dry and sometimes harsh climate of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. All these asexual species appear to have arisen through the hybridization of two or three of the sexual species in the genus

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On 26 June 2007, the International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California-based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis.

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occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or the fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the mother's genetic material and heterozygosity is mostly preserved (if the mother has two alleles for a locus, it is likely that the offspring will get both). This is because in

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To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor,

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in Nebraska, in a tank containing three female hammerheads, but no males. The pup was thought to have been conceived through parthenogenesis. It was concluded after DNA testing that the reproduction was parthenogenetic, as the female pup's DNA matched only one female who lived in the tank, and no

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Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have been shown to transition to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis have been found in numerous metazoan taxa,

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are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years. It is believed that the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the

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An interesting aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that mating behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One female plays the role played by the male in closely related species, and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the

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In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always

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for use in medical treatment, not as a reproductive strategy. In 2022, researchers reported that they have achieved parthenogenesis in mice for viable offspring born from unfertilized eggs, addressing the problems of genomic imprinting by "targeted DNA methylation rewriting of seven imprinting

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Parthenogenetic development of swine oocytes. High metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a

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individuals. The mechanism by which the mixing of chromosomes from two or three species can lead to parthenogenetic reproduction is unknown. Recently, a hybrid parthenogenetic whiptail lizard was bred in the laboratory from a cross between an asexual and a sexual whiptail. Because multiple

343:), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy or heterogony). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season ( 784:

rotifers, females can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction (cyclical parthenogenesis). At least in one normally cyclical parthenogenetic species obligate parthenogenesis can be inherited: a recessive allele leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.

599:, and a variety of domesticated birds were widely attributed to facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are examples of spontaneous parthenogenesis. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by a meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via 29: 982:

are produced from unfertilized eggs. Usually, eggs are laid only by the queen, but the unmated workers may also lay haploid, male eggs either regularly (e.g. stingless bees) or under special circumstances. An example of non-viable parthenogenesis is common among domesticated

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In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that the males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO).

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hormonal cycles of the females, which cause them to behave like males shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, and to take the female role in mating before laying eggs, when estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courtship ritual have greater

671:, strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards, snakes, birds, and sharks, with fish, amphibians, and reptiles exhibiting various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an incomplete form of parthenogenesis). The first all-female (unisexual) reproduction in 987:. The queen bee is the only fertile female in the hive; if she dies without the possibility of a viable replacement queen, it is not uncommon for the worker bees to lay eggs. This is a result of the lack of the queen's pheromones and the pheromones secreted by uncapped 376:

Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost the sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes cannot pair for meiosis.

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These ants get both the benefits of both asexual and sexual reproduction—the daughters who can reproduce (the queens) have all of the mother's genes, while the sterile workers whose physical strength and disease resistance are important are produced sexually.

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in order to develop. However, the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring. Since gynogenetic species are all female, activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus. Some

717:, resulting in an organism that is genetically identical to the donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the genetic material contained within an egg cell and the new organism is not necessarily genetically identical to the parent. 681:

in 1932. Since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrate have been described, including at least 20 fish, 25 lizards, a single snake species, frogs, and salamanders. Other usually sexual species may occasionally reproduce parthenogenetically; the

623:: it obviates the need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates; and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly (potentially twice as fast). Examples include several 1384:

A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event, highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis.

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hybridization events can occur, individual parthenogenetic whiptail species can consist of multiple independent asexual lineages. Within lineages, there is very little genetic diversity, but different lineages may have quite different genotypes.

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the homologous chromosomes are separated. Heterozygosity is not completely preserved when crossing over occurs in central fusion. In the case of pre-meiotic doubling, recombination, if it happens, occurs between identical sister chromatids.

1675:. Spontaneous ovarian activation is not rare and has been known about since the 19th century. Some teratomas can even become primitive fetuses (fetiform teratoma) with imperfect heads, limbs and other structures, but are non-viable. 423:, the ploidy is restored to diploidy by various means. This is because haploid individuals are not viable in most species. In automictic parthenogenesis, the offspring differ from one another and from their mother. They are called 494:(restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the 1720:

were created by him and his team in February 2004. This made Hwang the first, unknowingly, to successfully perform the process of parthenogenesis to create a human embryo and, ultimately, a human parthenogenetic stem cell line.

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Murphy, R.W.; Darevsky, I.S.; MacCulloch, R.D.; Fu, J.; Kupriyanova, L.A.; Upton, D.E.; Danielyan, F. (1997). "Old age, multiple formations or genetic plasticity? Clonal diversity in a parthenogenetic Caucasian rock lizard,

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Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Gergits, W.F.; Casna, N.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M.; et al. (1997). "Production of offspring in the absence of males: Evidence for facultative parthenogenesis in bisexual snakes".

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A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the

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held in captivity from all males for eight years was reported pregnant in 2024. In June 2024, the aquarium where the ray resided reported that she was not pregnant, and instead had a rare reproductive disease.

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are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.

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Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Kindarova, L.B.; Kuzmichev, L.N.; Janus, J.D.; Pryzhkova, M.V. (2007). "Patient-Specific Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Parthenogenetic Blastocysts".

698:, there are both costs (low genetic diversity and therefore susceptibility to adverse mutations that might occur) and benefits (reproduction without the need for a male) associated with parthenogenesis. 564:

both can produce parthenogenic offspring in the presence of males, indicating that facultative parthenogenesis may be more common than previously thought and is not simply a response to a lack of males.

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Some lizard parthenogens show a pattern of geographic parthenogenesis, occupying high mountain areas where their ancestral forms have an inferior competition ability. In Caucasian rock lizards of genus

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from an experimental cross were germinated, and some of the progeny were genetically identical to one or other parent, implying that meiosis did not occur and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis.

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Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Agapova, L.S.; Sebastian, J.L.; Pryzhkova, M.V.; et al. (2008). "HLA homozygous stem cell lines derived from human parthenogenetic blastocysts".

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Kawahara, Manabu; Wu, Qiong; Takahashi, Nozomi; Morita, Shinnosuke; Yamada, Kaori; Ito, Mitsuteru; et al. (2007). "High-frequency generation of viable mice from engineered bi-maternal embryos".

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There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild. Parthenogenetic progeny of mammals would have two X chromosomes, and would therefore be genetically female.

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breeding program hatch. This is the first known example of parthenogenesis in this species, as well as one of the only known examples of parthenogenesis happening where males are still present.

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in the 1990s. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis. Spinycheek crayfish (

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and those having only half are called half clones. Full clones are usually formed without meiosis. If meiosis occurs, the offspring will get only a fraction of the mother's alleles since

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chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother's

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than those kept in isolation, due to the increase in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for

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Examples of parthenogenesis, in the form of reproduction from a single individual (typically a god), are common in mythology and folklore around the world, including in ancient

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Facultative parthenogenesis is often used to describe cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals. For example, many cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in

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Ryder, Oliver A; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021). Murphy, William J. (ed.).

1478:; most embryos produced in this way die early in development. Rarely, viable birds result from this process, and the rate at which this occurs in turkeys can be increased by 1115:), which normally reproduces sexually, has also been suggested to reproduce by parthenogenesis, although no individuals of this species have been reared this way in the lab. 1592: 822:, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines. 615:

Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been

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Vrijenhoek, R.C.; Parker, E.D. (2009). "Geographical parthenogenesis: General purpose genotypes and frozen niche variation". In Schön I; Martens K.; van Dijk P. (eds.).

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Kono, T.; Obata, Y.; Wu, Q.; Niwa, K.; Ono, Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Park, E.S.; Seo, J.-S.; Ogawa, H. (2004). "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood".

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Funk, David H.; Sweeney, Bernard W.; Jackson, John K. (2010). "Why stream mayflies can reproduce without males but remain bisexual: A case of lost genetic variation".

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A related phenomenon, polyembryony is a process that produces multiple clonal offspring from a single egg cell. This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in

259:). This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice. 5789:

Reynolds, R.G.; Booth, W.; Schuett, G.W.; Fitzpatrick, B.M.; Burghardt, G.M. (2012). "Successive virgin births of viable male progeny in the checkered gartersnake,

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Diploidy might be restored by the doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is referred to as an

6881: 309:, they have either two Z chromosomes (male) or two W chromosomes (mostly non-viable but rarely a female), or they could have one Z and one W chromosome (female). 6238: 5615: 335:, produced through parthenogenesis. Komodo dragons are an example of a species which can produce offspring both through sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. 894:) are known to occur. The egg cells, depending on the species may be produced without meiosis (apomictically) or by one of the several automictic mechanisms. 5532:

Darevskii IS. 1967. Rock lizards of the Caucasus: systematics, ecology and phylogenesis of the polymorphic groups of Caucasian rock lizards of the subgenus

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In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the

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This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's side and has half new genetic material from the father's side.

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Pujade-Villar, Juli; Bellido, D.; Segu, G.; Melika, George (2001). "Current state of knowledge of heterogony in Cynipidae (Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea)".

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Ryder, Oliver A.; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021).

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Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring.

7858: 1152:, are thought to be parthenogenetic, as no males have ever been collected. Parthenogenetic reproduction has been demonstrated in the laboratory for 3205:

Cuellar, Orlando (1 February 1971). "Reproduction and the mechanism of meiotic restitution in the parthenogenetic lizard Cnemidophorus uniparens".

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A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa,

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Tarkhnishvili, D.N. (2012). "Evolutionary history, habitats, diversification, and speciation in Caucasian rock lizards". In Jenkins, O.P. (ed.).

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Copeland, Claudia S.; Hoy, Marjorie A.; Jeyaprakash, Ayyamperumal; Aluja, Martin; Ramirez-Romero, Ricardo; Sivinski, John M. (1 September 2010).

462:. Other species restore their ploidy by the fusion of the meiotic products. The chromosomes may not separate at one of the two anaphases (called 4434:

Lentati, G. Benazzi (1966). "Amphimixis and pseudogamy in fresh-water triclads: Experimental reconstitution of polyploid pseudogamic biotypes".

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Parthenogenesis in insects can cover a wide range of mechanisms. The offspring produced by parthenogenesis may be of both sexes, only female (

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the offspring genotype may be one of ZW (female), ZZ (male), or WW (non-viable in most species, but a fertile, viable female in a few, e.g.,

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Kratochvíl, Lukáš; Vukić, Jasna; Červenka, Jan; Kubička, Lukáš; Johnson Pokorná, Martina; Kukačková, Dominika; et al. (November 2020).

7625: 1222:, a type of carpet shark. DNA genotyping demonstrated that individual zebra sharks can switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction. 5916: 3263:"Genetic Polymorphism and Evolution in Parthenogenetic Animals. Ii. Diploid and Polyploid Solenobia Triquetrella (lepidoptera: Psychidae)" 5163:

Robinson, D.P.; Baverstock, W.; Al-Jaru, A.; Hyland, K.; Khazanehdari, K.A. (2011). "Annually recurring parthenogenesis in a zebra shark

5385: 1455:. In most cases the egg fails to develop normally or completely to hatching. The first description of parthenogenetic development in a 477:

The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of automixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when

400:. Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the 4549:"Population Structure of an Invasive Parthenogenetic Gastropod in Coastal Lakes and Estuaries of Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa" 2211:; Serrano-Serrano, Martha; Barrera-Redondo, Josué; Luthringer, Rémy; Peters, Akira F.; Destombe, Christophe; et al. (July 2021). 1192:

male DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a twin or clone of her mother, but rather, contained only half of her mother's DNA ("

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Booth, Warren; Levine, Brenna A.; Corush, Joel B.; Davis, Mark A.; Dwyer, Quetzal; De Plecker, Roel; Schuett, Gordon W. (June 2023).

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Some female birds, reptiles, and other animals can make a baby on their own. But for mammals like us, eggs and sperm need each other.

2271: 2087: – German-born American physiologist and biologist – caused the eggs of sea urchins to begin embryonic development without sperm 7552: 7495: 7480: 7391: 7333: 1610: 1360:

are unisexual and obligately parthenogenetic. Other reptiles, such as the Komodo dragon, other monitor lizards, and some species of

3521:"Lack of detectable genetic recombination on the X chromosome during the parthenogenetic production of female and male aphids" 2439: 274:

as their mother's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have the

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Groot, T V M; E Bruins; J A J Breeuwer (28 February 2003). "Molecular genetic evidence for parthenogenesis in the Burmese python,

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eggs parthenogenetically, and replacing the queen if she dies; other examples include some species of small carpenter bee, (genus

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Muñoz, Joaquín; Gómez, Africa; Green, Andy J.; Figuerola, Jordi; Amat, Francisco; Rico, Ciro; Moreau, Corrie S. (4 August 2010).

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Fournier, Denis; Estoup, Arnaud; Orivel, Jérôme; Foucaud, Julien; Jourdan, Hervé; Le Breton, Julien Le; Keller, Laurent (2005).

7030: 6882:"Phylogenetic relationships between parthenogens and their sexual relatives: the possible routes to parthenogenesis in animals" 6516:

Mori, Hironori; Mizobe, Yamato; Inoue, Shin; Uenohara, Akari; Takeda, Mitsuru; Yoshida, Mitsutoshi; Miyoshi, Kazuchika (2008).

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Hales, Dinah F.; Wilson, Alex C.C.; Sloane, Mathew A.; Simon, Jean-Christophe; Legallic, Jean-François; Sunnucks, Paul (2002).

2217: 1516: 4020: 466:) or the nuclei produced may fuse or one of the polar bodies may fuse with the egg cell at some stage during its maturation. 7134:"Global Analysis of the Small RNA Transcriptome in Different Ploidies and Genomic Combinations of a Vertebrate Complex – The 5840:

Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M. (1998). "Fatherless sons: A new type of parthenogenesis in snakes".

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Cosín, Darío J. Díaz, Marta Novo, and Rosa Fernández. "Reproduction of Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis". In

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before meiosis or by central fusion. ZZ and WW offspring occur either by terminal fusion or by endomitosis in the egg cell.

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Holsbeek, G.; Jooris, R. (2010). "Potential impact of genome exclusion by alien species in the hybridogenetic water frogs (

4909:"A successful crayfish invader is capable of facultative parthenogenesis: A novel reproductive mode in decapod crustaceans" 2171: 5564:

Watts, P.C.; Buley, K.R.; Sanderson, S.; Boardman, W.; Ciofi, C.; Gibson, R. (2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons".

2064: – Genevan botanist (1720–1793) – conducted experiments that established what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids 1777: 1738: 1247: 6589: 4500:

Ben-Ami, F.; Heller, J. (2005). "Spatial and temporal patterns of parthenogenesis and parasitism in the freshwater snail

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of second parental species (B), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. First genome (A) is restored by

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Vrijenhoek, R.C., R.M. Dawley, C.J. Cole, and J.P. Bogart. 1989. "A list of the known unisexual vertebrates", pp. 19–23

4108: 4032: 2305: 1678:

In 1995, there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis; a boy was found to have some of his cells (such as

713:

cell from a donor organism is inserted into an enucleated egg cell and the cell is then stimulated to undergo continued

5408: 6994: 6254: 6192: 3965: 2857: 2053:- a form of quasi-sexual reproduction in which a male is the sole source of the nuclear genetic material in the embryo 1274: 935:

and sperm are produced by the same individual, but is not a type of parthenogenesis. This is seen in three species of

523: 519: 306: 302: 298: 4793:

Scholtz, Gerhard; Braband, Anke; Tolley, Laura; Reimann, André; Mittmann, Beate; Lukhaup, Chris; et al. (2003).

4076: 1812:

So hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: half of genome is passed to the next generation

7571: 1380:

were previously considered as cases of facultative parthenogenesis, but may be cases of accidental parthenogenesis.

435: 7737: 5623: 5133:

Chapman, D.D.; Firchau, B.; Shivji, M. S. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a large-bodied requiem shark, the blacktip".

1208: 7342:"Can artificial parthenogenesis sidestep ethical pitfalls in human therapeutic cloning? An historical perspective" 5859: 4021:"Novel microsatellite DNA markers indicate strict parthenogenesis and few genotypes in the invasive willow sawfly 3730: 1948:). First one is the primary hybridisation generating hybrid, second one is most widespread type of hybridogenesis. 720:

Parthenogenesis may be achieved through an artificial process as described below under the discussion of mammals.

7613:

Scientists confirm shark's 'virgin birth' Article by Steve Szkotak AP updated 1:49 a.m. ET, Fri., 10 October 2008

7612: 4308: 1900: 1882: 1843: 34: 5902: 952:

systems. They also cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to develop into female offspring.

388:(e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females, the phenomenon is called deuterotoky. 6421:

Bischoff, S.R.; Tsai, S.; Hardison, N.; Motsinger-Reif, A.A.; Freking, B.A.; Nonneman, D.; et al. (2009).

5274: 1626: 1196:"). This type of reproduction had been seen before in bony fish, but not in cartilaginous fish such as sharks. 1117: 967: 515: 2735:

n. g., n. sp. (Nematoda: Sphaerularioidea: Anandranematidae n. fam.) parasitic in the palm-pollinating weevil

1710:

On 2 August 2007, after an independent investigation, it was revealed that discredited South Korean scientist

1057:), where females reproduce parthenogenetically during the gall-forming phase of their life cycle and in grass 196:, parthenogenesis can mean the development of an embryo from either an individual sperm or an individual egg. 6694: 6474:"Developmental competence of parthenogenetic mouse and human embryos after chemical or electrical activation" 1067:

there have been, despite the very limited number of species in the genus, several transitions to asexuality.

282:. In some types of parthenogenesis the offspring having all of the mother's genetic material are called full 6427: 6270: 5314:

Dudgeon, Christine L.; Coulton, Laura; Bone, Ren; Ovenden, Jennifer R.; Thomas, Severine (16 January 2017).

5296: 4907:

Buřič, Miloš; Hulák, Martin; Kouba, Antonín; Petrusek, Adam; Kozák, Pavel; Etges, William J. (31 May 2011).

4186:

Chapman, Demian D.; Shivji, Mahmood S.; Louis, Ed; Sommer, Julie; Fletcher, Hugh; Prodöhl, Paulo A. (2007).

2443: 2056: 1695: 1353: 1327: 1142: 996: 4257:

Hubbs, C.L.; Hubbs, L.C. (1932). "Apparent parthenogenesis in nature, in a form of fish of hybrid origin".

2792: 705:, a process where the new organism is necessarily genetically identical to the cell donor. In cloning, the 572:, a generation sexually conceived by a male and a female produces only females. The reason for this is the 7698: 6518:"Effects of Cycloheximide on Parthenogenetic Development of Pig Oocytes Activated by Ultrasound Treatment" 3481: 3337: 2143: 1555:

abortive development. As a consequence, research on human parthenogenesis is focused on the production of

1505: 1023:

The workers in five ant species and the queens in some ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis. In

40: 4302:

Hurtado-Gonzales, O. P.; Lamour, K. H. (2009). "Evidence for inbreeding and apomixis in close crosses of

6250: 3018:"On some terms used in the cytogenetics and reproductive biology of scale insects (Homoptera: Coccinea)" 2535:"Parental sex effect of parthenogenesis on progeny production and performance of Chinese Painted Quail ( 2148: 1894: 1875: 1855: 1799: 1652: 839: 753: 694:

are recent additions to the known list of spontaneous parthenogenetic vertebrates. As with all types of

287: 6795:

Schultz, R. Jack (November–December 1969). "Hybridization, unisexuality, and polyploidy in the teleost

5949: 4669: 1527:

to produce bi-maternal mice at high frequency and subsequently show that fatherless mice have enhanced

1033:, the queens and workers can produce new queens by parthenogenesis. The workers are produced sexually. 5671:

Kinney, M.E.; Wack, R.F.; Grahn, R.A.; Lyons, L. (2013). "Parthenogenesis in a Brazilian rainbow boa (

4150:

Schut, E.; Hemmings, N.; Birkhead, T.R. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a passerine bird, the Zebra finch

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in Detroit. They hatched 15 weeks after being laid in an aquarium containing only two female sharks.

814:

individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the

695: 161: 38:(center), which reproduces via parthenogenesis, is shown flanked by two sexual species having males, 3342: 7648: 5897: 5269: 3858: 3728:

Lampert, K.P. (2008). "Facultative parthenogenesis in vertebrates: Reproductive error or chance?".

3486: 2922: 2480: 1964: 1849: 1817: 1703:, it is possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be 1444: 1431:

has a broader niche than either of its bisexual ancestors and its expansion throughout the Central

1392: 1307: 1212: 1111: 629: 560: 46: 7398:

Hore, T; Rapkins, R; Graves, J (2007). "Construction and evolution of imprinted loci in mammals".

6843: 4547:

Miranda, Nelson A. F.; Perissinotto, Renzo; Appleton, Christopher C.; Lalueza-Fox, Carles (2011).

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Vorburger, Christoph (2003). "Environmentally related patterns of reproductive modes in the aphid

3129:

Zakharov, I. A. (April 2005). "Intratetrad mating and its genetic and evolutionary consequences".

3017: 1651:

Reports of human parthenogenesis have famously existed since ancient times, featuring prominently

502:

This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother.

7460: 7269: 7226: 7107: 7057: 6824: 6816: 6774: 6353: 6132: 5748: 5597: 4889: 4834: 4708: 4529: 4451: 4125: 4057: 3998: 3755: 3647: 3606: 3433: 3371: 3238: 3162: 2898: 2772: 2568: 2276: 2252: 2042: 1888: 1683: 1543: 1479: 1334: 1148: 1105: 1025: 847: 471: 7244:

Mantovani, Barbara; Scali, Valerio (1992). "Hybridogenesis and androgenesis in the stick-insect

6678:"Stem cell fraudster made 'virgin birth' breakthrough: Silver lining for Korean science scandal" 4335:

Read, V. M. St. J. (July 1988). "The Onychophora of Trinidad, Tobago, and the Lesser Antilles".

1916: 522:, parthenogenetic offspring will have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the 6677: 6150:

Tarkhnishvili, D.; Gavashelishvili, A.; Avaliani, A.; Murtskhvaladze, M.; Mumladze, L. (2010).

5926: 4727:"Evolution of asexuality via different mechanisms in grass thrips (Thysanoptera: Aptinothrips)" 2351: 7678: 7548: 7491: 7476: 7452: 7415: 7387: 7371: 7329: 7300: 7277: 7218: 7177: 7099: 7049: 6976: 6958: 6860: 6766: 6659: 6624: 6539: 6495: 6454: 6394: 6345: 6287: 6219: 6124: 6069: 6010: 5692: 5589: 5512: 5494: 5361: 5343: 5192: 5068: 5003: 4950: 4881: 4826: 4775: 4700: 4588: 4521: 4416: 4284: 4259: 4219: 4082: 4049: 3990: 3938: 3885: 3834: 3747: 3710: 3573: 3544: 3525: 3501: 3425: 3363: 3355: 3292: 3230: 3222: 3154: 3146: 3081: 3032: 2998: 2988: 2957: 2939: 2890: 2882: 2809: 2764: 2756: 2711: 2684: 2622: 2560: 2515: 2497: 2420: 2402: 2330: 2244: 2236: 2090: 1991: 1869: 1656: 1490: 988: 555: 495: 454: 366: 7747: 7515: 5381:"Charlotte the stingray due to give birth within weeks despite no male ray company for years" 2117: 7863: 7532: 7511: 7444: 7407: 7361: 7353: 7261: 7208: 7167: 7157: 7091: 7039: 6966: 6948: 6896: 6808: 6758: 6651: 6616: 6529: 6485: 6444: 6436: 6384: 6337: 6312: 6279: 6209: 6201: 6163: 6116: 6059: 6049: 6000: 5990: 5802: 5740: 5684: 5581: 5502: 5486: 5478: 5351: 5335: 5184: 5142: 5103: 5058: 5048: 4993: 4985: 4940: 4930: 4873: 4816: 4799: 4765: 4755: 4692: 4645: 4578: 4568: 4513: 4482: 4443: 4406: 4396: 4344: 4317: 4276: 4209: 4201: 4165: 4117: 4041: 3982: 3928: 3920: 3875: 3867: 3824: 3814: 3739: 3700: 3639: 3598: 3534: 3491: 3417: 3347: 3282: 3274: 3214: 3138: 3111: 3071: 3063: 2980: 2947: 2931: 2917: 2874: 2801: 2748: 2674: 2664: 2612: 2604: 2550: 2533:

Ramachandran, R.; Nascimento dos Santos, M.; Parker, H.M.; McDaniel, C.D. (September 2018).

2505: 2489: 2410: 2394: 2226: 2187: 1997: 1783: 1679: 1188: 1184: 835: 687: 677: 620: 616: 537:

In polyploid obligate parthenogens, like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female.

64: 28: 4744:"Profiling sex-biased gene expression during parthenogenetic reproduction in Daphnia pulex" 3907:

Booth, W.; Smith, C.F.; Eskridge, P.H.; Hoss, S.K.; Mendelson, J.R.; Schuett, G.W. (2012).

7602: 7523:

Simon, J; Rispe, Claude; Sunnucks, Paul (2002). "Ecology and evolution of sex in aphids".

6283: 4192: 3683: 3188:, edited by Ayten Karaca, 24:69–86. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011. 3052:"Asexual but Not Clonal: Evolutionary Processes in Automictic Populations | Genetics" 2975:

Bernstein, H; Hopf, FA; Michod, RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".

2595: 2375:"Molecular evidence for the first records of facultative parthenogenesis in elapid snakes" 2122: 2014: 1952:

Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e.

1523:. Using gene targeting, they were able to manipulate two imprinted loci H19/IGF2 and DLK1/ 1452: 1432: 1218:

In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated in a captive

1053: 855: 807: 634: 581: 577: 531: 449:

is a term that covers several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic.

5969:

Lutes, Aracely A.; Baumann, Diana P.; Neaves, William B.; Baumann, Peter (14 June 2011).

2555: 2534: 2067: 1084:

alternates between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction. Among the better-known large

7587: 7440: 7153: 7044: 7025: 6944: 6754: 6045: 5986: 5766:

Dubach, J.; Sajewicz, A.; Pawley, R. (1997). "Parthenogenesis in the Arafura filesnake (

5577: 5507: 5466: 5437: 5331: 5210: 5180: 5044: 4926: 4869: 4812: 4688: 4564: 4392: 4272: 3978: 3810: 3696: 3460:

Booth, Warren; Larry Million; R. Graham Reynolds; Gordon M. Burghardt; Edward L. Vargo;

3413: 3397: 2870: 2851: 2660: 2447: 2390: 1109:) can reproduce both sexually and by parthenogenesis. The Louisiana red swamp crayfish ( 780:, females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (obligate parthenogenesis), while in 373:

double-strand breaks and other DNA damages that may be induced by stressful conditions.

305:

sex-determination system have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the

7366: 7341: 7172: 7133: 6449: 6422: 6214: 6187: 6005: 5970: 5356: 5315: 5063: 5022: 4998: 4969: 4945: 4908: 4770: 4743: 4583: 4548: 4411: 4376: 4348: 4214: 4187: 4156: 3933: 3908: 3880: 3853: 3829: 3792: 3626: 3287: 3115: 3076: 3051: 2952: 2679: 2644: 2617: 2590: 2510: 2475: 2415: 2374: 2099: – Production of seedless fruit without fertilisation – plants with seedless fruit 2061: 1716: 1520: 1231: 1200: 1169: 1011: 702: 691: 637:

habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into the Southern Hemisphere.

440: 236: 7536: 6152:"Unisexual rock lizard might be outcompeting its bisexual progenitors in the Caucasus" 6064: 6029: 2984: 1809:

of these gametes with gametes from the first species (AA, sexual host, usually male).

7852: 7742: 7712: 7595: 7566: 6971: 6924: 6901: 6168: 6151: 5806: 5409:"After saying Charlotte, a lone stingray, was pregnant, aquarium now says she's sick" 5188: 5146: 5087: 4517: 4321: 4169: 3986: 3675: 2902: 2731:

Poinar, George O Jr; Trevor A Jackson; Nigel L Bell; Mohd B-asri Wahid (July 2002). "

2704: 2208: 2096: 1806: 1791: 1711: 1660: 1369: 1342: 1323: 1311: 1283: 1080: 1037: 949: 932: 683: 596: 328: 173: 7230: 7111: 7061: 6828: 6778: 6136: 4893: 4838: 4533: 4455: 4061: 4002: 3651: 3610: 3437: 3398:"Conditional Use of Sex and Parthenogenesis for Worker and Queen Production in Ants" 3262: 3242: 3166: 2572: 2256: 1427:, which have six parthenogenetic forms of hybrid origin hybrid parthenogenetic form 1279: 1051:

Other examples of insect parthenogenesis can be found in gall-forming aphids (e.g.,

541:

diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically.

396:

Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called

7777: 7693: 7464: 6357: 5601: 4712: 3759: 3466:"Consecutive Virgin Births in the New World Boid Snake, the Colombian Rainbow Boa, 3375: 2776: 2084: 2050: 1828: 1765: 1489:

In 2021, the San Diego Zoo reported that they had two unfertilized eggs from their

1464: 1373: 1122: 1063: 979: 975: 971: 898: 879: 819: 730: 706: 204: 20: 6440: 6306: 6030:"Behavioral facilitation of reproduction in sexual and unisexual whiptail lizards" 2036: 404:

can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are

384:(e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as 7162: 5053: 4935: 4573: 4401: 3819: 2213:"Evolution of life cycles and reproductive traits: Insights from the brown algae" 1310:, but parthenogenesis has been observed to occur naturally in certain species of 7792: 7772: 7757: 5242: 4280: 4247:. R.M. Dawley and J.P. Bogart (eds.) Bulletin 466, New York State Museum, Albany 3278: 3189: 3067: 1937: 1734: 1552: 1460: 1377: 1219: 1173: 1139: 1100: 1092: 1088: 925: 905: 875: 800: 762: 672: 668: 459: 401: 385: 356: 232: 181: 7583:

National Geographic News: Virgin Birth Expected at Christmas – By Komodo Dragon

6490: 6473: 6268:

Sarvella, P. (1974). "Testes structure in normal and parthenogenetic turkeys".

619:. Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an 351:), or by a lack of males or by conditions that favour rapid population growth ( 7833: 7809: 7787: 7576: 7411: 7095: 6762: 6575:

de Carli, Gabriel Jose, and Tiago Campos Pereira. "On human parthenogenesis".

6120: 5864: 4877: 4742:

Eads, Brian D; Colbourne, John K; Bohuski, Elizabeth; Andrews, Justen (2007).

4045: 3705: 3539: 3520: 3461: 3142: 2805: 2752: 2032: 1929: 1834: 1754: 1691: 1365: 1258: 1180: 1165: 1076: 1030: 883: 831: 781: 774: 514:

When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring will depend on the type of

483: 348: 340: 271: 248: 240: 216: 212: 7103: 7053: 6962: 6770: 5711: 5498: 5347: 4852:

Martin, Peer; Kohlmann, Klaus; Scholtz, Gerhard (2007). "The parthenogenetic

4486: 3359: 3261:

Lokki, Juhani; Esko Suomalainen; Anssi Saura; Pekka Lankinen (1 March 1975).

3226: 3150: 3036: 2943: 2935: 2886: 2813: 2790:

White, Michael J.D. (1984). "Chromosomal mechanisms in animal reproduction".

2760: 2501: 2493: 2406: 2240: 818:

does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is

7357: 7197:"Mitochondrial gene introgression between spined loaches via hybridogenesis" 6389: 6372: 6054: 5995: 5921: 5023:"Evolutionary origin and phylogeography of the diploid obligate parthenogen 4760: 3871: 3496: 3465: 3421: 3218: 2739:

Faust, with a phylogenetic synopsis of the Sphaerularioidea Lubbock, 1861".

2669: 1921: 1759: 1700: 1528: 1456: 1423: 1410: 1401: 1348: 1319: 1262: 1261:, where researchers identified the first documented case of a self-pregnant 1164:

Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in at least three species, the

1134: 1016: 984: 959: 955: 944: 909: 871: 811: 761:

were shown to reproduce parthenogenetically. This species is the only known

600: 381: 208: 7456: 7419: 7375: 7281: 7222: 7181: 7002: 6980: 6663: 6628: 6543: 6499: 6458: 6398: 6349: 6128: 6014: 5696: 5593: 5516: 5482: 5365: 5196: 5072: 5007: 4954: 4885: 4830: 4779: 4704: 4592: 4525: 4420: 4288: 4223: 4205: 4106:(Teiidae), with comments on the evolution of parthenogenesis in reptiles". 4053: 3994: 3942: 3924: 3889: 3838: 3751: 3714: 3548: 3505: 3429: 3367: 3351: 3158: 3085: 2961: 2894: 2768: 2688: 2626: 2608: 2564: 2519: 2424: 2248: 948:

have been noted to induce automictic thelytoky in many insect species with

7607: 6953: 6655: 6620: 6472:

Versieren, K; Heindryckx, B; Lierman, S; Gerris, J; De Sutter, P. (2010).

6291: 6073: 5108: 3296: 3234: 3002: 415:

is more complicated. In some cases, the offspring are haploid (e.g., male

7668: 7590: 6699: 6423:"Characterization of conserved and nonconserved imprinted genes in swine" 6223: 6205: 5971:"Laboratory synthesis of an independently reproducing vertebrate species" 5954: 5646: 5553:. Vol. 2. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 79–120. 5442: 5215: 5031: 4913: 4650: 4629: 2075: 1826:

This form of reproduction is seen in some live-bearing fish of the genus

1672: 1548: 1295: 1096: 1085: 1006: 917: 913: 777: 758: 735: 664: 551: 352: 220: 189: 7448: 5869: 5490: 4696: 2398: 1435:

caused decline of the ranges of both its maternal and paternal species.

380:

The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as

323: 7804: 7732: 7727: 7673: 7617: 7273: 7213: 7196: 6820: 5752: 4989: 4447: 4129: 3643: 1979: 1475: 1471: 1448: 1204:& Marine Science Center contained no genetic material from a male. 1001: 921: 795: 739: 714: 710: 660: 655: 646: 412: 361: 283: 275: 267: 263: 252: 7026:"Evolutionary genetics and ecology of sperm-dependent parthenogenesis" 6534: 6517: 5688: 5339: 3743: 2878: 2852:"Mixed-sex offspring produced via cryptic parthenogenesis in a lizard" 2440:

A guide to the recognition of parthenogenesis in incubated turkey eggs

2231: 2212: 1707:

with a significant number of individuals within the human population.

180:, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized 7762: 5585: 5316:"Switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction in a zebra shark" 3602: 2645:"Viable offspring derived from single unfertilized mammalian oocytes" 2018: 1802: 1795: 1787: 1539: 1509: 1483: 1482:, however male turkeys produced from parthenogenesis exhibit smaller 1361: 1299: 1058: 804: 592: 588: 569: 527: 279: 177: 165: 7265: 7077:"A genetic mechanism of species replacement in European waterfrogs?" 6341: 5744: 4821: 4794: 4630:"Genetic Characteristics of Bisexual and Female-Only Populations of 4121: 3572:, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 1–635 (see p. 295). 2589:

Booth, W.; Johnson, D.H.; Moore, S.; Schal, C.; Vargo, E.L. (2010).

1639:

thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis.

1542:

often results in abnormal development. This is because mammals have

6812: 5467:"Discovery of facultative parthenogenesis in a new world crocodile" 4618:(Vincent H. Resh and R. T. Carde, Eds.) Academic Press. pp. 851–856 3963:

and the predominance of two 'superclones' in Victoria, Australia".

3676:"Parthenogenesis: Birth of a new lineage or reproductive accident?" 1075:

Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The

339:

Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the

6923:

Vrijenhoek, J.M.; Avise, J.C.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1 January 1992).

4102:

Price, A.H. (1992). "Comparative behavior in lizards of the genus

3570:

The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality

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Parthenogenesis in turkeys appears to result from a conversion of

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Schlupp, Ingo (2005). "The Evolutionary Ecology of Gynogenesis".

4670:"Clonal reproduction by males and females in the little fire ant" 3102:

Mogie, Michael (1986). "Automixis: its distribution and status".

2591:"Evidence for viable, non-clonal but fatherless boa constrictors" 667:, and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants. Among 4614:

Kirkendall, L. R. & Normark, B. (2003) "Parthenogenesis" in

4375:

Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).

3797: 3791:

Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).

2079: 2022: 1524: 1014:

are known to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by

416: 256: 244: 7621: 7132:

Inácio, A; Pinho, J; Pereira, PM; Comai, L; Coelho, MM (2012).

5616:"Self-impregnated snake in Missouri has another 'virgin birth'" 4361:"Bdelloids: No sex for over 40 million years". TheFreeLibrary. 2203: 2201: 1663:, a geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the 5416: 4377:"Loss of Sexual Reproduction and Dwarfing in a Small Metazoan" 3793:"Loss of sexual reproduction and dwarfing in a small metazoan" 1567: 931:

In addition to these forms is hermaphroditism, where both the

834:

have been studied, especially with respect to their status as

370: 291: 228: 169: 5086:

Korenko, Stanislav; Šmerda, Jakub & Pekár, Stano (2009).

6571: 6569: 5158: 5156: 4856:(marbled crayfish) produces genetically uniform offspring". 4469:

Wallace, C. (1992). "arthenogenesis, sex and chromosomes in

3909:"Facultative parthenogenesis discovered in wild vertebrates" 2352:"Scientists discover unknown lizard species at lunch buffet" 115: 76: 73: 6246: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 2844: 2842: 2272:"Self-love is important, but we mammals are stuck with sex" 458:

cycle. This may also happen by the fusion of the first two

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Simon, J.-C.; Delmotte, F.; Rispe, C.; Crease, T. (2003).

5975:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

3854:"Phenotypic of an allele causing obligate parthenogenesis" 2093: – Conceptions and births by miraculous circumstances 1715:

those extracted stem cells, similar to those found in the

91: 7547:(Experientia Supplementum, Vol. 55). Boston: Birkhauser. 3632:

Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Mikroskopische Anatomie

3464:; Athanasia C. Tzika; Gordon W. Schuett (December 2011). 2469: 2467: 2465: 2373:

Allen, L.; Sanders, K.L.; Thomson, V.A. (February 2018).

1443:

Parthenogenesis in birds is known mainly from studies of

1187:, was found to have produced a pup, born live in 2001 at 1121:

is a species or series of populations of parthenogenetic

297:

Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the

118: 106: 100: 79: 4970:"Discovery of four natural clones in a crayfish species 4968:

Yue GH, Wang GL, Zhu BQ, Wang CM, Zhu ZY, Lo LC (2008).

2979:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–370. 7382:

Futuyma, Douglas J. & Slatkin, Montgomery. (1983).

5725:

Magnusson, W.E. (1979). "Production of an embryo by an

2072:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1588: 649:

species. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in

7567:

Reproductive behavior in whiptails at Crews Laboratory

6091:. Berlin, DE: Springer Publications. pp. 99–131. 5088:"Life-history of the parthenogenetic oönopid spider, 4019:

Caron, V.; Norgate, M.; Ede, F.J.; Nyman, T. (2013).

2306:"Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find" 1547:

abnormalities. It has been suggested that defects in

874:, e.g., aphids and some hymenopterans) or only male ( 439:

The effects of central fusion and terminal fusion on

121: 109: 103: 97: 82: 67: 7504:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

5647:"Observations of parthenogenesis in monitor lizards" 1508:

reported successfully inducing parthenogenesis in a

1391:

Parthenogenesis has been studied extensively in the

70: 7822: 7711: 7655: 7588:"'Virgin births' for giant lizards (Komodo dragon)" 6933:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA

3627:"Der Chromosomenzyklus von Tetraneura ulmi de Geer" 3591:

Journal of the North American Benthological Society

2918:"Facultative Parthenogenesis in California Condors" 2476:"Facultative parthenogenesis in California condors" 1583:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

147: 133: 88: 7596:Reuther: Komodo dragon proud mum (and dad) of five 7075:Vorburger, Christoph; Reyer, Heinz-Ulrich (2003). 6311:. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company – via 3625: 2850: 2703: 1551:folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine 1463:, although the dividing cells exhibited irregular 1290:, rarely reproduces offspring via parthenogenesis. 518:and the type of apomixis. In species that use the 7486:Michod, Richard E. & Levin, Bruce R. (1988). 7324:Dawley, Robert M. & Bogart, James P. (1989). 3396:Pearcy, M.; Aron, S; Doums, C; Keller, L (2004). 199:Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants, 6416: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6408: 5544: 5542: 4235: 4233: 2638: 2636: 1794:exclude one of parental genomes (A) and produce 1739:Parthenogenesis in amphibians § Gynogenesis 294:takes place during meiosis, creating variation. 6034:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5438:"Crocodile found to have made herself pregnant" 4663: 4661: 1091:, some crayfish reproduce by parthenogenesis. " 7326:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates 6732: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6718: 4245:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates 4181: 4179: 3786: 3784: 3200: 3198: 1133:At least two species of spiders in the family 7633: 6925:"An Ancient clonal lineage in the fish genus 6790: 6788: 6028:Crews, D.; Grassman, M.; Lindzey, J. (1986). 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3190:https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-14636-7_5 1257:In June 2023, discovery was made at a zoo in 8: 6849:. In Knobil, Ernst; Neill, Jimmy D. (eds.). 6181: 6179: 5297:"First virgin birth of zebra shark in Dubai" 4978:International Journal of Biological Sciences 4014: 4012: 3954: 3952: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3180: 3178: 3176: 2325:Halliday, Tim R. (1986). Kraig Adler (ed.). 1782:Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of 1519:used parthenogenesis successfully to create 701:Parthenogenesis is distinct from artificial 188:, parthenogenesis is a component process of 50:(right), which naturally hybridized to form 5528: 5526: 5128: 5126: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4602: 550:exhibiting facultative parthenogenesis are 408:of their mother. Examples include aphids. 160:, 'creation') is a natural form of 7826: 7717: 7661: 7640: 7626: 7618: 7024:Beukeboom, L.W.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1998). 3674:van der Kooi, C.J.; Schwander, T. (2015). 2320: 2318: 2182:. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press – via 16:Asexual reproduction without fertilization 7545:The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences 7475:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7365: 7212: 7171: 7161: 7043: 6970: 6952: 6900: 6889:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 6533: 6489: 6448: 6388: 6213: 6167: 6156:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 6063: 6053: 6004: 5994: 5860:"Virgin births discovered in wild snakes" 5795:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 5506: 5355: 5107: 5062: 5052: 4997: 4944: 4934: 4820: 4795:"Parthenogenesis in an outsider crayfish" 4769: 4759: 4725:CJ van der Kooi & T Schwander (2014) 4649: 4582: 4572: 4410: 4400: 4337:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 4213: 3932: 3879: 3828: 3818: 3775:Cytology and Evolution in Parthenogenesis 3704: 3538: 3495: 3485: 3341: 3286: 3104:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 3075: 3016:Gavrilov, I.A.; Kuznetsova, V.G. (2007). 2951: 2678: 2668: 2616: 2554: 2509: 2442:(Report). Department of Animal Sciences. 2414: 2230: 1786:. Hybridogenetic hybrids (for example AB 1611:Learn how and when to remove this message 1595:, without removing the technical details. 1451:, although it has also been noted in the 1000:, where workers are capable of producing 32:The asexual, all-female whiptail species 7577:Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs 7516:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152629 7490:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. 7386:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. 6855:. Vol. 3. Academic Press. pp. 6511: 6509: 3097: 3095: 2643:Wei Y, Yang CR, Zhao ZA (7 March 2022). 2584: 2582: 1886:(Italian edible frog) – unknown origin: 262:Normal egg cells form in the process of 6522:Journal of Reproduction and Development 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 2438:Savage, Thomas F. (11 February 2008) . 2270:Preston, Elizabeth (13 February 2024). 2109: 2078:and a pioneer of parthenogenesis among 1816:, unrecombined, intact (B), other half 419:). In other cases, collectively called 7195:Saitoh, K; Kim, I-S; Lee, E-H (2004). 6799:(Poeciliidae) and other vertebrates". 3852:Scheuerl, Thomas; et al. (2011). 1838:spp. ("green frogs" or "waterfrogs"): 1768:is known to reproduce by gynogenesis. 1631:Induction of parthenogenesis in swine. 474:in their mechanism and consequences. 369:, a process associated with repair of 164:in which growth and development of an 7608:Female sharks capable of virgin birth 6284:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a108530 5891:Highfield, Roger (21 December 2006). 5265:"Shark gives virgin birth in Detroit" 3773:Suomalainen, E.; et al. (1987). 2284:from the original on 13 February 2024 1968:× hypothetical ancestor related with 1593:make it understandable to non-experts 1326:, and snakes. Some of these like the 966:Among species with the haplo-diploid 7: 7800:Males, Females & Hermaphrodites: 7297:Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity 6844:"Parthenogenesis and Natural Clones" 6373:"Longevity in mice without a father" 5379:Hewson, Georgie (14 February 2024). 4188:"Virgin birth in a hammerhead shark" 2829:Sessio Conjunta DEntomologia ICHNSCL 2556:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.05.027 2170:Liddell; Scott; Jones, eds. (1940). 2147:. English definition. Archived from 757:have been found, and specimens from 7045:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1998.11060755.x 6590:"The boy whose blood has no father" 5868:. 12 September 2012. Archived from 5710:Shepherd, Kyle (18 December 2014). 5386:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 5239:"'Virgin birth' for aquarium shark" 2070: – Polish apiarist (1811–1906) 830:Several species of parthenogenetic 6695:"No sex for all-girl fish species" 5211:"Captive shark had 'virgin birth'" 4349:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1988.tb01362.x 4033:Bulletin of Entomological Research 3116:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1986.tb01761.x 2350:Walker, Brian (11 November 2010). 793:At least two species in the genus 765:to reproduce via parthenogenesis. 645:Parthenogenesis does not apply to 14: 7525:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 7328:. Albany: New York State Museum. 6559:, 28 November 1955; Editorial in 5950:"Snake has unique 'virgin birth'" 5925:. 25 January 2007. Archived from 2977:Molecular Genetics of Development 882:). Both true parthenogenesis and 728:Apomixis can apparently occur in 7299:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 6902:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00175.x 6169:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01498.x 5948:Walker, Matt (3 November 2010). 5807:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01954.x 5273:. September 2002. Archived from 5189:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03110.x 5147:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02018.x 4518:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00791.x 4322:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2009.02059.x 4170:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00755.x 3987:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01998.x 2035: 1572: 633:, which is sexual in its native 530:). ZW offspring are produced by 63: 7859:Asexual reproduction in animals 7295:Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010). 7031:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 6995:"Hybridogenesis in water frogs" 6371:Kawahara, M.; Kono, T. (2009). 4506:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2218:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2190:, Medford & Somerville, MA. 1517:Tokyo University of Agriculture 1388:offspring with WW chromosomes. 1193: 892:sperm-dependent parthenogenesis 627:species and the willow sawfly, 6929:(Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae)" 6842:Vrijenhoek, Robert C. (1998). 5893:"No sex please, we're lizards" 5823:Herpetological Natural History 5772:Herpetological Natural History 5407:Chappell, Bill (4 June 2024). 5096:European Journal of Entomology 2329:. Torstar Books. p. 101. 2123:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 1959:Tropidophoxinellus alburnoides 1036:In Central and South American 319:Origin and function of meiosis 1: 7785:Females & Hermaphrodites: 7572:Types of asexual reproduction 7537:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02331-X 7471:Maynard Smith, John. (1978). 6441:10.1095/biolreprod.109.078139 2985:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7 1778:Hybridogenesis in water frogs 1515:In April 2004, scientists at 1248:Parthenogenesis in amphibians 7743:Simultaneous hermaphroditism 7579:from Oregon State University 7543:Stearns, Stephan C. (1988). 7163:10.1371/journal.pone.0041158 6852:Encyclopedia of Reproduction 6239:"Parthenogenesis in turkeys" 5551:Advances in Zoology Research 5054:10.1371/journal.pone.0011932 4936:10.1371/journal.pone.0020281 4574:10.1371/journal.pone.0024337 4475:Journal of Molluscan Studies 4402:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854 4075:Smith, John Maynard (1978). 3820:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854 3777:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 2706:Concise encyclopedia biology 2009:Parthenogenesis in mythology 1467:and the eggs did not hatch. 1459:was demonstrated in captive 1099:that were discovered in the 1061:. In the grass thrips genus 974:(ants, bees, and wasps) and 156: 142: 7770:Males & Hermaphrodites: 6193:Journal of Medical Genetics 5729:isolated for seven years". 5673:Epicrates cenchria cenchria 4281:10.1126/science.76.1983.628 4081:. CUP Archive. p. 42. 3131:Russian Journal of Genetics 3068:10.1534/genetics.116.196873 1790:), usually females, during 1534:Induced parthenogenesis in 1275:Parthenogenesis in squamata 1209:white-spotted bamboo sharks 1199:In the same year, a female 838:. Such species include the 524:ZW sex-determination system 520:XY sex-determination system 307:ZW sex-determination system 7882: 7738:Sequential hermaphroditism 7001:. Note 579. Archived from 6491:10.1016/j.rbmo.2010.07.001 5624:United Press International 5027:(Branchiopoda: Anostraca)" 4365:. Retrieved 30 April 2011. 3624:Schwartz, Hermann (1932). 3050:Engelstädter, Jan (2017). 2379:Royal Society Open Science 2021:was born from the head of 1832:as well as in some of the 1775: 1732: 1272: 1245: 1194:automictic parthenogenesis 1176:, and reported in others. 675:was described in the fish 421:automictic parthenogenesis 411:Parthenogenesis involving 316: 207:animal species (including 148: 134: 18: 7829: 7720: 7664: 7412:10.1016/j.tig.2007.07.003 7346:Journal of Medical Ethics 7252:(Insecta, Phasmatodea)". 6763:10.1007/s10530-009-9427-2 6241:. The Tremendous Turkey. 5917:"Virgin birth of dragons" 4878:10.1007/s00114-007-0260-0 4634:(Hymenoptera: Figitidae)" 4046:10.1017/S0007485312000429 3706:10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.055 3540:10.1017/S0016672302005657 3279:10.1093/genetics/79.3.513 3143:10.1007/s11177-005-0103-z 2806:10.1080/11250008409439455 2733:Elaeolenchus parthenonema 2327:Reptiles & Amphibians 2003:Bacillus grandii benazzii 1346:, Caucasian rock lizards 398:apomictic parthenogenesis 35:Aspidoscelis neomexicanus 6305:Pincus, Gregory (2018). 5025:Artemia parthenogenetica 4616:Encyclopaedia of Insects 3326:Python molars bivittatus 3025:Comparative Cytogenetics 1920:Example crosses between 1335:Indo-Pacific house gecko 1118:Artemia parthenogenetica 968:sex-determination system 942:Parasitic bacteria like 844:Potamopyrgus antipodarum 558:and the tropical lizard 516:sex determination system 19:Not to be confused with 7358:10.1136/jme.2004.010199 7096:10.1023/A:1023346824722 6801:The American Naturalist 6428:Biology of Reproduction 6271:The Journal of Heredity 6243:oardc.ohio-state.edu/4h 6121:10.1023/A:1018392603062 6055:10.1073/pnas.83.24.9547 5996:10.1073/pnas.1102811108 5169:Journal of Fish Biology 5135:Journal of Fish Biology 4761:10.1186/1471-2164-8-464 3422:10.1126/science.1105453 3219:10.1002/jmor.1051330203 2753:10.1023/A:1015741820235 2741:Systematic Parasitology 2737:Elaeidobius kamerunicus 2670:10.1073/pnas.2115248119 2444:Oregon State University 2180:A Greek-English Lexicon 2057:Telescoping generations 1657:various other religions 1486:and reduced fertility. 1340:, the hybrid whiptails 1331:Lepidodactylus lugubris 1201:Atlantic blacktip shark 997:Apis mellifera capensis 168:occur directly from an 7699:Vegetative propagation 7148:(7: e41158): 359–368. 6644:Cloning and Stem Cells 6609:Cloning and Stem Cells 5712:"A virgin snake birth" 5645:Wiechmann, R. (2012). 5483:10.1098/rsbl.2023.0129 4632:Odontosema anastrephae 4502:Melanoides tuberculata 4487:10.1093/mollus/58.2.93 4206:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0189 3925:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0666 3352:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800210 2936:10.1093/jhered/esab052 2702:Scott, Thomas (1996). 2609:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0793 2494:10.1093/jhered/esab052 2144:OxfordDictionaries.com 1949: 1867:(Graf's hybrid frog): 1635: 1506:Gregory Goodwin Pincus 1417:reproductive success. 1291: 1095:" are parthenogenetic 1042:Wasmannia auropunctata 963: 852:Melanoides tuberculata 574:non-random segregation 443: 336: 55: 7084:Conservation Genetics 6954:10.1073/pnas.89.1.348 6739:Pelophylax esculentus 6656:10.1089/clo.2007.0063 6621:10.1089/clo.2007.0033 6390:10.1093/humrep/dep400 6251:Ohio State University 6237:Nestor, Karl (2009). 6186:Mittwoch, U. (1978). 5727:Acrochordus javanicus 5109:10.14411/eje.2009.028 5092:(Araneae: Oonopidae)" 3872:10.1093/jhered/esr036 3497:10.1093/jhered/esr080 3207:Journal of Morphology 3186:Biology of Earthworms 2793:Bolletino di Zoologia 2710:. Walter de Gruyter. 2312:, 23 May 2007; p. A02 1936:) and their hybrid – 1919: 1629: 1358:Indotyphlops braminus 1338:Hemidactylus garnotii 1294:Most reptiles of the 1282: 958: 840:New Zealand mud snail 754:Epiperipatus imthurni 464:restitutional meiosis 438: 326: 317:Further information: 146:, 'virgin' + 31: 7755:Males & Females: 7649:Reproductive systems 7488:The Evolution of Sex 7473:The Evolution of Sex 7340:Fangerau, H (2005). 7136:Squalius alburnoides 6743:Biological Invasions 6329:Nature Biotechnology 6206:10.1136/jmg.15.3.165 5872:on 13 September 2012 5791:Thamnophis marcianus 5768:Acrochordus arafurae 5536:. Nauka: Leningrad . 5277:on 29 September 2002 5165:Stegostoma fasciatum 4651:10.1653/024.093.0318 4638:Florida Entomologist 4304:Phytophthora capsici 4078:The Evolution of Sex 2151:on 12 September 2012 1971:Anaecypris hispanica 1669:Lebistes reticulatus 1653:in Christianity 1557:embryonic stem cells 1445:domesticated turkeys 803:sub-division of the 696:asexual reproduction 506:Sex of the offspring 392:Types and mechanisms 270:, with half as many 162:asexual reproduction 52:A. neomexicanus 7449:10.1038/nature02402 7441:2004Natur.428..860K 7154:2012PLoSO...741158I 6945:1992PNAS...89..348Q 6755:2010BiInv..12....1H 6308:The Eggs of Mammals 6046:1986PNAS...83.9547C 5987:2011PNAS..108.9910L 5905:on 11 October 2007. 5898:The Daily Telegraph 5626:. 21 September 2015 5578:2006Natur.444.1021W 5572:(7122): 1021–1022. 5332:2017NatSR...740537D 5303:. 12 December 2011. 5270:National Geographic 5181:2011JFBio..79.1376R 5045:2010PLoSO...511932M 4972:Procambarus clarkii 4927:2011PLoSO...620281B 4870:2007NW.....94..843M 4858:Naturwissenschaften 4813:2003Natur.421..806S 4697:10.1038/nature03705 4689:2005Natur.435.1230F 4683:(7046): 1230–1234. 4565:2011PLoSO...624337M 4393:2010PLoSO...512854S 4273:1932Sci....76..628H 4152:Taeniopygia guttata 4023:Nematus oligospilus 3979:2003MolEc..12.3493V 3859:Journal of Heredity 3811:2010PLoSO...512854S 3697:2015CBio...25.R659V 3474:Journal of Heredity 3414:2004Sci...306.1780P 3408:(5702): 1780–1783. 2923:Journal of Heredity 2871:2020MolEc..29.4118K 2661:2022PNAS..11915248W 2655:(12): e2115248119. 2481:Journal of Heredity 2399:10.1098/rsos.171901 2391:2018RSOS....571901A 2310:The Washington Post 1965:Squalius pyrenaicus 1926:Pelophylax lessonae 1393:New Mexico whiptail 1354:brahminy blindsnake 1288:Varanus komodoensis 1213:Belle Isle Aquarium 1112:Procambarus clarkii 799:, flatworms in the 630:Nematus oligospilus 580:'X' and 'O' during 561:Lepidophyma smithii 333:Varanus komodoensis 227:, some mites, some 172:, without need for 7601:9 May 2021 at the 7400:Trends in Genetics 7214:10.2108/zsj.21.795 7201:Zoological Science 6579:106 (2017): 57–60. 6577:Medical Hypotheses 6377:Human Reproduction 5320:Scientific Reports 5090:Triaeris stenaspis 4990:10.7150/ijbs.4.279 4448:10.1007/BF00331894 3731:Sexual Development 3644:10.1007/BF00585855 2537:Coturnix chinensis 2277:The New York Times 2142:Oxford Dictionary 2126:. Merriam-Webster. 2043:Crustaceans portal 1950: 1820:, recombined (A). 1636: 1560:control regions". 1521:a fatherless mouse 1480:selective breeding 1308:reproduce sexually 1292: 1235:(Urobatis halleri) 1183:, a type of small 1149:Triaeris stenaspis 1137:(goblin spiders), 1106:Orconectes limosus 1026:Cataglyphis cursor 964: 848:red-rimmed melania 641:Natural occurrence 556:California condors 472:self-fertilization 444: 427:of their mother. 367:sister chromosomes 337: 313:Life history types 56: 7846: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7818: 7817: 7707: 7706: 7435:(6985): 860–864. 7306:978-0-230-61886-2 6866:978-0-12-227020-8 6676:Williams, Chris. 6535:10.1262/jrd.20064 6188:"Parthenogenesis" 6040:(24): 9547–9550. 5981:(24): 9910–9915. 5929:on 1 October 2007 5689:10.1002/zoo.21050 5340:10.1038/srep40537 5245:. 10 October 2008 4267:(1983): 628–630. 4088:978-0-521-21887-0 3973:(12): 3493–3504. 3966:Molecular Ecology 3744:10.1159/000195678 3691:(15): R659–R661. 3578:978-0-520-04583-5 3568:Bell, G. (1982). 3526:Genetics Research 2994:978-0-12-017624-3 2879:10.1111/mec.15617 2865:(21): 4118–4127. 2858:Molecular Ecology 2717:978-3-11-010661-9 2336:978-0-920269-81-7 2232:10.1111/jeb.13880 2138:"parthenogenesis" 2118:"parthenogenesis" 2091:Miraculous births 1901:P. kl. esculentus 1883:P. kl. hispanicus 1844:P. kl. esculentus 1724:Similar phenomena 1680:white blood cells 1659:. More recently, 1621: 1620: 1613: 1491:California condor 1211:were born at the 1154:T. stenaspis 962:on a plum blossom 860:Tarebia granifera 496:sister chromatids 341:bdelloid rotifers 132:; from the Greek 41:A. inornatus 7871: 7827: 7718: 7662: 7642: 7635: 7628: 7619: 7540: 7519: 7468: 7423: 7379: 7369: 7311: 7310: 7292: 7286: 7285: 7250:Grandii benazzii 7246:Bacillus rossius 7241: 7235: 7234: 7216: 7192: 7186: 7185: 7175: 7165: 7129: 7123: 7122: 7120: 7118: 7081: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7047: 7021: 7015: 7014: 7012: 7010: 6991: 6985: 6984: 6974: 6956: 6920: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6909: 6904: 6886: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6848: 6839: 6833: 6832: 6807:(934): 605–619. 6792: 6783: 6782: 6734: 6713: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6691: 6685: 6684:, 3 August 2007. 6674: 6668: 6667: 6639: 6633: 6632: 6603: 6597: 6586: 6580: 6573: 6564: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6537: 6513: 6504: 6503: 6493: 6469: 6463: 6462: 6452: 6418: 6403: 6402: 6392: 6368: 6362: 6361: 6336:(9): 1045–1050. 6323: 6317: 6316: 6313:Internet Archive 6302: 6296: 6295: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6257:on 14 July 2010. 6253:. Archived from 6234: 6228: 6227: 6217: 6183: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6147: 6141: 6140: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6067: 6057: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6008: 5998: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5945: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5934: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5901:. Archived from 5888: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5877: 5856: 5850: 5849: 5837: 5831: 5830: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5722: 5716: 5715: 5714:(Press release). 5707: 5701: 5700: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5651: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5612: 5606: 5605: 5586:10.1038/4441021a 5561: 5555: 5554: 5546: 5537: 5530: 5521: 5520: 5510: 5462: 5456: 5455: 5453: 5451: 5434: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5423: 5404: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5359: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5293: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5224: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5175:(5): 1376–1382. 5160: 5151: 5150: 5141:(6): 1473–1477. 5130: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5111: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5066: 5056: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5001: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4948: 4938: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4824: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4773: 4763: 4739: 4733: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4674: 4665: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4625: 4619: 4612: 4597: 4596: 4586: 4576: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4414: 4404: 4372: 4366: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4254: 4248: 4237: 4228: 4227: 4217: 4183: 4174: 4173: 4147: 4134: 4133: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4029: 4016: 4007: 4006: 3956: 3947: 3946: 3936: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3883: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3832: 3822: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3708: 3680: 3671: 3656: 3655: 3629: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3603:10.1899/10-015.1 3597:(4): 1258–1266. 3586: 3580: 3566: 3553: 3552: 3542: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3499: 3489: 3468:Epicrates maurus 3457: 3442: 3441: 3393: 3380: 3379: 3345: 3321: 3308: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3290: 3258: 3247: 3246: 3202: 3193: 3182: 3171: 3170: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3099: 3090: 3089: 3079: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3022: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2955: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2854: 2846: 2837: 2836: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2709: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2682: 2672: 2640: 2631: 2630: 2620: 2586: 2577: 2576: 2558: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2513: 2471: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2446:. Archived from 2435: 2429: 2428: 2418: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2322: 2313: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2289: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2234: 2205: 2196: 2191: 2175: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2114: 2073: 2045: 2040: 2039: 1616: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1576: 1575: 1568: 1189:Henry Doorly Zoo 1185:hammerhead shark 836:invasive species 678:Poecilia formosa 621:invasive species 578:sex chromosomess 159: 153: 152: 151: 145: 139: 138: 137: 131: 130: 127: 126: 123: 120: 117: 112: 111: 108: 105: 102: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 81: 78: 75: 72: 69: 7881: 7880: 7874: 7873: 7872: 7870: 7869: 7868: 7849: 7848: 7847: 7838: 7814: 7725:Hermaphrodites: 7703: 7689:Parthenogenesis 7651: 7646: 7603:Wayback Machine 7563: 7558: 7522: 7501: 7426: 7397: 7352:(12): 733–735. 7339: 7320: 7318:Further reading 7315: 7314: 7307: 7294: 7293: 7289: 7266:10.2307/2409646 7243: 7242: 7238: 7194: 7193: 7189: 7131: 7130: 7126: 7116: 7114: 7079: 7074: 7073: 7069: 7023: 7022: 7018: 7008: 7006: 7005:on 14 July 2014 6993: 6992: 6988: 6922: 6921: 6917: 6907: 6905: 6884: 6879: 6878: 6874: 6867: 6846: 6841: 6840: 6836: 6794: 6793: 6786: 6736: 6735: 6716: 6706: 6704: 6703:. 23 April 2008 6693: 6692: 6688: 6675: 6671: 6641: 6640: 6636: 6605: 6604: 6600: 6587: 6583: 6574: 6567: 6563:, 2: 967 (1955) 6555: 6551: 6515: 6514: 6507: 6471: 6470: 6466: 6420: 6419: 6406: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6342:10.1038/nbt1331 6325: 6324: 6320: 6304: 6303: 6299: 6267: 6266: 6262: 6236: 6235: 6231: 6185: 6184: 6177: 6149: 6148: 6144: 6101: 6100: 6096: 6086: 6085: 6081: 6027: 6026: 6022: 5968: 5967: 5963: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5932: 5930: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5875: 5873: 5858: 5857: 5853: 5839: 5838: 5834: 5819: 5818: 5814: 5788: 5787: 5783: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5745:10.2307/1443886 5724: 5723: 5719: 5709: 5708: 5704: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5649: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5629: 5627: 5614: 5613: 5609: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5548: 5547: 5540: 5531: 5524: 5471:Biology Letters 5464: 5463: 5459: 5449: 5447: 5436: 5435: 5431: 5421: 5419: 5406: 5405: 5401: 5391: 5389: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5280: 5278: 5263: 5262: 5258: 5248: 5246: 5237: 5236: 5232: 5222: 5220: 5209: 5208: 5204: 5162: 5161: 5154: 5132: 5131: 5124: 5114: 5112: 5085: 5084: 5080: 5020: 5019: 5015: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4906: 4905: 4901: 4864:(10): 843–846. 4851: 4850: 4846: 4822:10.1038/421806a 4792: 4791: 4787: 4741: 4740: 4736: 4724: 4720: 4672: 4667: 4666: 4659: 4627: 4626: 4622: 4613: 4600: 4546: 4545: 4541: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4360: 4356: 4334: 4333: 4329: 4309:Plant Pathology 4301: 4300: 4296: 4256: 4255: 4251: 4238: 4231: 4193:Biology Letters 4185: 4184: 4177: 4149: 4148: 4137: 4122:10.2307/1446193 4101: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4074: 4073: 4069: 4027: 4018: 4017: 4010: 3958: 3957: 3950: 3913:Biology Letters 3906: 3905: 3901: 3896:23 October 2012 3895: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3727: 3726: 3722: 3684:Current Biology 3678: 3673: 3672: 3659: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3567: 3556: 3518: 3517: 3513: 3459: 3458: 3445: 3395: 3394: 3383: 3343:10.1.1.578.4368 3323: 3322: 3311: 3301: 3299: 3260: 3259: 3250: 3204: 3203: 3196: 3183: 3174: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3101: 3100: 3093: 3062:(2): 993–1009. 3049: 3048: 3044: 3020: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2995: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2848: 2847: 2840: 2835:(1999): 87–107. 2826: 2825: 2821: 2789: 2788: 2784: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2642: 2641: 2634: 2596:Biology Letters 2588: 2587: 2580: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2473: 2472: 2463: 2453: 2451: 2450:on 16 July 2012 2437: 2436: 2432: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2357: 2355: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2324: 2323: 2316: 2304: 2300: 2287: 2285: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2225:(7): 992–1009. 2207: 2206: 2199: 2173: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2071: 2041: 2034: 2031: 2017:; for example, 2011: 1977:spined loaches 1956:Iberian minnow 1907:and perhaps in 1847:(edible frog): 1780: 1774: 1741: 1731: 1726: 1649: 1617: 1606: 1600: 1597: 1589:help improve it 1586: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1499: 1453:domestic pigeon 1441: 1433:Lesser Caucasus 1277: 1271: 1255: 1250: 1244: 1228: 1162: 1131: 1073: 1054:Pemphigus betae 1012:parasitic wasps 939:scale insects. 868: 856:Quilted melania 828: 808:Platyhelminthes 791: 771: 749: 726: 692:blacktip sharks 643: 609: 582:spermatogenesis 547: 532:endoreplication 508: 492:terminal fusion 433: 394: 321: 315: 237:parasitic wasps 149: 135: 114: 66: 62: 59:Parthenogenesis 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7879: 7878: 7875: 7867: 7866: 7861: 7851: 7850: 7844: 7843: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7836: 7830: 7824: 7820: 7819: 7816: 7815: 7813: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7796: 7795: 7790: 7781: 7780: 7775: 7766: 7765: 7760: 7751: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7721: 7715: 7709: 7708: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7665: 7659: 7653: 7652: 7647: 7645: 7644: 7637: 7630: 7622: 7616: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7593: 7585: 7580: 7574: 7569: 7562: 7561:External links 7559: 7557: 7556: 7541: 7520: 7499: 7484: 7469: 7424: 7406:(9): 440–448. 7395: 7380: 7337: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7313: 7312: 7305: 7287: 7260:(3): 783–796. 7236: 7207:(7): 795–798. 7187: 7124: 7090:(2): 141–155. 7067: 7038:(6): 755–782. 7016: 6986: 6939:(1): 348–352. 6915: 6872: 6865: 6834: 6813:10.1086/282629 6784: 6714: 6686: 6669: 6634: 6615:(3): 432–449. 6598: 6588:Philip Cohen, 6581: 6565: 6549: 6528:(5): 364–369. 6505: 6484:(6): 769–775. 6464: 6435:(5): 906–920. 6404: 6383:(2): 457–461. 6363: 6318: 6297: 6278:(5): 287–290. 6260: 6229: 6200:(3): 165–181. 6175: 6162:(2): 447–460. 6142: 6115:(2): 125–130. 6094: 6079: 6020: 5961: 5940: 5908: 5883: 5851: 5832: 5812: 5801:(3): 566–572. 5781: 5758: 5739:(4): 744–745. 5717: 5702: 5683:(2): 172–176. 5663: 5637: 5607: 5556: 5538: 5534:Archaeolacerta 5522: 5457: 5429: 5399: 5371: 5306: 5288: 5256: 5230: 5202: 5152: 5122: 5102:(2): 217–223. 5078: 5013: 4984:(5): 279–282. 4960: 4899: 4844: 4785: 4734: 4718: 4657: 4644:(3): 437–443. 4620: 4598: 4539: 4512:(1): 138–146. 4492: 4461: 4426: 4367: 4354: 4343:(3): 225–257. 4327: 4316:(4): 715–722. 4294: 4249: 4229: 4200:(4): 425–427. 4175: 4164:(1): 197–199. 4135: 4116:(2): 323–331. 4094: 4087: 4067: 4008: 3961:Myzus persicae 3948: 3919:(6): 983–985. 3899: 3866:(4): 409–415. 3844: 3780: 3765: 3738:(6): 290–301. 3720: 3657: 3638:(4): 645–687. 3616: 3581: 3554: 3533:(3): 203–209. 3511: 3487:10.1.1.414.384 3480:(6): 759–763. 3443: 3381: 3336:(2): 130–135. 3309: 3273:(3): 513–525. 3248: 3213:(2): 139–165. 3194: 3172: 3137:(4): 402–411. 3121: 3110:(3): 321–329. 3091: 3042: 3031:(2): 169–174. 3008: 2993: 2967: 2930:(7): 569–574. 2908: 2838: 2819: 2782: 2747:(3): 219–225. 2723: 2716: 2694: 2632: 2603:(2): 253–256. 2578: 2543:Theriogenology 2525: 2488:(7): 569–574. 2461: 2430: 2365: 2342: 2335: 2314: 2298: 2262: 2209:Heesch, Svenja 2197: 2162: 2129: 2108: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2065: 2062:Charles Bonnet 2059: 2054: 2047: 2046: 2030: 2027: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 1995:stick insects 1988: 1986:C. longicorpus 1975: 1905: 1904: 1879: 1860: 1773: 1772:Hybridogenesis 1770: 1730: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1648: 1645: 1619: 1618: 1580: 1578: 1571: 1565: 1562: 1498: 1495: 1440: 1437: 1328:mourning gecko 1324:Komodo dragons 1273:Main article: 1270: 1267: 1254: 1251: 1246:Main article: 1243: 1240: 1232:round stingray 1227: 1224: 1170:blacktip shark 1161: 1158: 1130: 1127: 1072: 1069: 976:thysanopterans 867: 864: 827: 824: 790: 787: 770: 767: 748: 745: 725: 722: 703:animal cloning 642: 639: 608: 605: 597:Komodo dragons 546: 543: 507: 504: 479:central fusion 441:heterozygosity 432: 429: 393: 390: 314: 311: 243:(such as some 47:A. tigris 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7877: 7876: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7835: 7832: 7831: 7828: 7825: 7821: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7768: 7767: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7710: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7684:Fragmentation 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7666: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7643: 7638: 7636: 7631: 7629: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7564: 7560: 7554: 7553:0-8176-1807-4 7550: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7500: 7497: 7496:0-87893-459-6 7493: 7489: 7485: 7482: 7481:0-521-29302-2 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7430: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7396: 7393: 7392:0-87893-228-3 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7338: 7335: 7334:1-55557-179-4 7331: 7327: 7323: 7322: 7317: 7308: 7302: 7298: 7291: 7288: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7240: 7237: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7191: 7188: 7183: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7137: 7128: 7125: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7078: 7071: 7068: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7032: 7027: 7020: 7017: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6990: 6987: 6982: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6928: 6919: 6916: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6876: 6873: 6868: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6853: 6845: 6838: 6835: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6791: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6733: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6702: 6701: 6696: 6690: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6673: 6670: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6638: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6602: 6599: 6595: 6594:New Scientist 6591: 6585: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6553: 6550: 6545: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6512: 6510: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6478:Reprod Biomed 6475: 6468: 6465: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6429: 6424: 6417: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6405: 6400: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6367: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6322: 6319: 6314: 6310: 6309: 6301: 6298: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6264: 6261: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6233: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6182: 6180: 6176: 6170: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6143: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6105:Lacerta dahli 6098: 6095: 6090: 6083: 6080: 6075: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6024: 6021: 6016: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5951: 5944: 5941: 5928: 5924: 5923: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5887: 5884: 5871: 5867: 5866: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5836: 5833: 5828: 5824: 5816: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5785: 5782: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5733: 5728: 5721: 5718: 5713: 5706: 5703: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5664: 5659: 5655: 5648: 5641: 5638: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5560: 5557: 5552: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5461: 5458: 5446:. 7 June 2023 5445: 5444: 5439: 5433: 5430: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5403: 5400: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5375: 5372: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5310: 5307: 5302: 5301:Sharkyear.com 5298: 5292: 5289: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5260: 5257: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5231: 5219:. 23 May 2007 5218: 5217: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5129: 5127: 5123: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5091: 5082: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5039:(8): e11932. 5038: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5026: 5017: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4973: 4964: 4961: 4956: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4921:(5): e20281. 4920: 4916: 4915: 4910: 4903: 4900: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4807:(6925): 806. 4806: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4789: 4786: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4722: 4719: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4633: 4624: 4621: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4559:(8): e24337. 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4540: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4496: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4481:(2): 93–107. 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4430: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4387:(9): e12854. 4386: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4305: 4298: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4261: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4194: 4189: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4158: 4153: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4104:Cnemidophorus 4098: 4095: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4071: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4034: 4026: 4024: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3900: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3848: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3805:(9): e12854. 3804: 3800: 3799: 3794: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3769: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3724: 3721: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3685: 3677: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3620: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3515: 3512: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3012: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2924: 2919: 2912: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2853: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800:(1–2): 1–23. 2799: 2795: 2794: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2724: 2719: 2713: 2708: 2707: 2698: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2538: 2529: 2526: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2482: 2477: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2385:(2): 171901. 2384: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2366: 2353: 2346: 2343: 2338: 2332: 2328: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2299: 2295: 2283: 2279: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2166: 2163: 2150: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2130: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2113: 2110: 2103: 2098: 2097:Parthenocarpy 2095: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2069: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1960: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1934:P. ridibundus 1931: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1912: 1911: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1896: 1895:P. ridibundus 1891: 1890: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1877: 1876:P. ridibundus 1872: 1871: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1858: 1857: 1856:P. ridibundus 1852: 1851: 1846: 1845: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1807:fertilization 1804: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792:gametogenesis 1789: 1785: 1779: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1762: 1761: 1757:of the genus 1756: 1751: 1747: 1740: 1736: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1713: 1712:Hwang Woo-Suk 1708: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1661:Helen Spurway 1658: 1654: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1615: 1612: 1604: 1601:December 2021 1594: 1590: 1584: 1581:This article 1579: 1570: 1569: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1461:zebra finches 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1406: 1403: 1398: 1395:in the genus 1394: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1344: 1343:Cnemidophorus 1339: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1284:Komodo dragon 1281: 1276: 1268: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1207:In 2002, two 1205: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1123:brine shrimps 1120: 1119: 1114: 1113: 1108: 1107: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1081:Daphnia pulex 1078: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1038:electric ants 1034: 1032: 1031:formicine ant 1029:, a European 1028: 1027: 1021: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1003: 999: 998: 992: 990: 986: 981: 980:haploid males 977: 973: 972:hymenopterans 969: 961: 957: 953: 951: 947: 946: 940: 938: 934: 929: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 902: 900: 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 880:hymenopterans 878:, e.g., most 877: 873: 865: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 825: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 806: 802: 798: 797: 788: 786: 783: 779: 776: 768: 766: 764: 760: 756: 755: 746: 744: 741: 737: 733: 732: 723: 721: 718: 716: 712: 708: 704: 699: 697: 693: 689: 685: 684:Komodo dragon 680: 679: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 657: 652: 648: 640: 638: 636: 632: 631: 626: 622: 618: 613: 606: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 585: 583: 579: 575: 571: 566: 563: 562: 557: 553: 544: 542: 538: 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 512: 505: 503: 500: 497: 493: 488: 485: 480: 475: 473: 467: 465: 461: 457: 456: 450: 448: 442: 437: 430: 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 409: 407: 403: 399: 391: 389: 387: 383: 378: 374: 372: 368: 364: 363: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 334: 330: 329:Komodo dragon 325: 320: 312: 310: 308: 304: 300: 295: 293: 289: 288:crossing over 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 239:), and a few 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 197: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 174:fertilization 171: 167: 163: 158: 144: 129: 60: 53: 49: 48: 43: 42: 37: 36: 30: 26: 22: 7799: 7784: 7778:Andromonoecy 7769: 7754: 7724: 7694:Sporogenesis 7688: 7544: 7528: 7524: 7507: 7503: 7487: 7472: 7432: 7428: 7403: 7399: 7383: 7349: 7345: 7325: 7296: 7290: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7239: 7204: 7200: 7190: 7145: 7141: 7135: 7127: 7115:. Retrieved 7087: 7083: 7070: 7035: 7029: 7019: 7007:. Retrieved 7003:the original 6998: 6989: 6936: 6932: 6927:Poeciliopsis 6926: 6918: 6906:. Retrieved 6892: 6888: 6875: 6851: 6837: 6804: 6800: 6797:Poeciliopsis 6796: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6705:. Retrieved 6698: 6689: 6682:The Register 6681: 6672: 6650:(1): 11–24. 6647: 6643: 6637: 6612: 6608: 6601: 6593: 6584: 6576: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6525: 6521: 6481: 6477: 6467: 6432: 6426: 6380: 6376: 6366: 6333: 6327: 6321: 6307: 6300: 6275: 6269: 6263: 6255:the original 6242: 6232: 6197: 6191: 6159: 6155: 6145: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6097: 6088: 6082: 6037: 6033: 6023: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5953: 5943: 5931:. Retrieved 5927:the original 5920: 5911: 5903:the original 5896: 5886: 5876:12 September 5874:. Retrieved 5870:the original 5863: 5854: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5761: 5736: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5705: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5666: 5657: 5653: 5640: 5628:. 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Retrieved 2149:the original 2141: 2132: 2121: 2112: 2085:Jacques Loeb 2068:Jan Dzierżon 2051:Androgenesis 2012: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1985: 1978: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1941: 1933: 1925: 1910:P. demarchii 1908: 1906: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1881: 1874: 1868: 1864:P. kl. grafi 1862: 1854: 1848: 1842: 1833: 1829:Poeciliopsis 1827: 1825: 1822: 1811: 1800:unrecombined 1781: 1766:amazon molly 1758: 1745: 1742: 1709: 1688: 1677: 1668: 1650: 1641: 1637: 1630: 1622: 1607: 1598: 1582: 1533: 1514: 1503: 1500: 1488: 1469: 1442: 1428: 1422: 1419: 1414: 1407: 1397:Aspidoscelis 1396: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378:rattlesnakes 1374:gartersnakes 1357: 1347: 1341: 1337: 1330: 1320:rock lizards 1293: 1287: 1256: 1234: 1229: 1217: 1206: 1198: 1178: 1163: 1153: 1147: 1138: 1132: 1116: 1110: 1104: 1079: 1074: 1064:Aptinothrips 1062: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1035: 1024: 1022: 1015: 1005: 995: 993: 965: 950:haplodiploid 943: 941: 936: 930: 903: 899:Strepsiptera 896: 891: 887: 869: 859: 851: 843: 829: 820:pseudogamous 794: 792: 772: 752: 751:No males of 750: 747:Velvet worms 731:Phytophthora 729: 727: 719: 700: 676: 654: 644: 628: 614: 610: 586: 567: 559: 548: 539: 536: 513: 509: 501: 491: 489: 478: 476: 468: 463: 453: 451: 446: 445: 424: 420: 410: 405: 397: 395: 379: 375: 360: 338: 332: 296: 261: 205:invertebrate 198: 58: 57: 51: 45: 39: 33: 25: 21:Pathogenesis 7793:Gynomonoecy 7773:Androdioecy 7758:Gonochorism 7510:: 399–417. 7384:Coevolution 6895:: 151–163. 6749:(1): 1–13. 6741:complex)". 6596:, 7.10.1995 6249:/ Poultry. 5848:(3): 20–25. 5778:(1): 11–18. 5677:Zoo Biology 5660:(1): 11–21. 5392:17 February 5243:Metro.co.uk 5223:23 December 4854:Marmorkrebs 4797:. Ecology. 4363:ScienceNews 3302:20 December 2358:11 November 2288:16 February 1982:hankugensis 1938:edible frog 1850:P. lessonae 1755:salamanders 1735:Gynogenesis 1729:Gynogenesis 1705:MHC-matched 1400:leading to 1220:zebra shark 1174:zebra shark 1140:Heteroonops 1093:Marmorkrebs 1089:crustaceans 1071:Crustaceans 926:Hymenoptera 924:, and some 906:Phasmatodea 888:gynogenesis 876:arrhenotoky 854:), and the 801:Turbellaria 763:velvet worm 673:vertebrates 669:vertebrates 545:Facultative 460:blastomeres 455:endomitotic 431:Automictic 425:half clones 406:full clones 402:gametophyte 386:arrhenotoky 357:cladocerans 272:chromosomes 241:vertebrates 233:Phasmatodea 217:water fleas 213:tardigrades 44:(left) and 7853:Categories 7834:Heterogamy 7810:Trimonoecy 7788:Gynodioecy 6999:tolweb.org 6561:The Lancet 5933:3 February 5865:BBC Nature 5829:(1): 1–10. 5249:10 October 4436:Chromosoma 3462:Coby Schal 2549:: 96–102. 2155:20 January 2104:References 2015:Greek myth 1998:B. rossius 1946:esculentus 1930:marsh frog 1889:P. bergeri 1835:Pelophylax 1776:See also: 1733:See also: 1692:homozygous 1553:parthenote 1429:D. "dahli" 1370:filesnakes 1352:, and the 1259:Costa Rica 1253:Crocodiles 1242:Amphibians 1181:bonnethead 1172:, and the 1166:bonnethead 1143:spinimanus 1077:water flea 985:honey bees 978:(thrips), 970:, such as 914:Aleurodids 884:pseudogamy 832:gastropods 810:, include 782:monogonont 688:hammerhead 617:introduced 484:anaphase I 349:gall wasps 249:amphibians 7531:: 34–39. 7254:Evolution 7104:1566-0621 7054:1420-9101 6963:0027-8424 6771:1387-3547 5922:The Hindu 5630:3 October 5499:1744-957X 5348:2045-2322 5326:: 40537. 4730:Evolution 3482:CiteSeerX 3360:0018-067X 3338:CiteSeerX 3227:1097-4687 3151:1022-7954 3037:1993-078X 2944:0022-1503 2903:221474843 2887:0962-1083 2814:0373-4137 2761:0165-5752 2502:1465-7333 2407:2054-5703 2241:1010-061X 2074:– Polish 1922:pool frog 1870:P. perezi 1760:Ambystoma 1701:haplotype 1549:placental 1544:imprinted 1529:longevity 1504:In 1936, 1474:cells to 1457:passerine 1424:Darevskia 1411:fecundity 1402:polyploid 1349:Darevskia 1312:whiptails 1296:squamatan 1263:crocodile 1230:A female 1135:Oonopidae 1101:pet trade 1017:Wolbachia 960:Honey bee 945:Wolbachia 910:Hemiptera 872:thelytoky 812:polyploid 789:Flatworms 724:Oomycetes 665:nematodes 647:isogamous 635:Holarctic 601:automixis 447:Automixis 382:thelytoky 221:scorpions 209:nematodes 143:parthénos 7669:Apomixis 7599:Archived 7591:BBC News 7457:15103378 7420:17683825 7376:16319240 7282:28568678 7231:40846660 7223:15277723 7182:22815952 7142:PLOS ONE 7112:20453910 7062:85833296 7009:13 March 6981:11607248 6829:84812427 6779:23535815 6700:BBC News 6664:18092905 6629:17594198 6544:18635923 6500:21051286 6459:19571260 6399:19952375 6350:17704765 6137:11145792 6129:16220367 6109:Genetica 6089:Lost Sex 6015:21543715 5955:BBC News 5697:23086743 5594:17183308 5517:37282490 5508:10244963 5443:BBC News 5366:28091617 5281:17 April 5216:BBC News 5197:22026614 5115:30 April 5073:20694140 5032:PLoS One 5008:18781225 4955:21655282 4914:PLoS One 4894:21568188 4886:17541537 4839:84740187 4831:12594502 4780:18088424 4705:15988525 4593:21904629 4553:PLOS ONE 4534:10422561 4526:15669970 4456:21654518 4442:: 1–14. 4421:20862222 4381:PLOS ONE 4289:17730035 4224:17519185 4062:25210471 4054:22929915 4003:32192796 3995:14629364 3943:22977071 3890:21576287 3839:20862222 3752:19276631 3715:26241141 3652:43030757 3611:86088826 3549:12220127 3506:21868391 3438:37558595 3430:15576621 3368:12634818 3330:Heredity 3267:Genetics 3243:19729047 3167:21542999 3159:15909911 3086:28381586 3056:Genetics 2962:34718632 2895:32881125 2769:12075153 2689:35254875 2627:21047849 2573:47008147 2565:29886358 2520:34718632 2454:19 March 2425:29515892 2282:Archived 2257:92334399 2249:34096650 2188:Tufts U. 2076:apiarist 2029:See also 1992:Bacillus 1818:sexually 1814:clonally 1746:presence 1673:teratoma 1449:chickens 1269:Squamata 1097:crayfish 1010:). 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