1645:
regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis. To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote. Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb by developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular and is approximately 50% smaller than biparental offspring placentae: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.
376:). In these species asexual reproduction occurs either in summer (aphids) or as long as conditions are favourable. This is because in asexual reproduction a successful genotype can spread quickly without being modified by sex or wasting resources on male offspring who will not give birth. Some species can produce both sexually and through parthenogenesis, and offspring in the same clutch of a species of tropical lizard can be a mix of sexually produced offspring and parthenogenically produced offspring. In California Condors facultative parthenogenesis can occur even when a male is present and available for a female to breed with. In times of stress, offspring produced by sexual reproduction may be fitter as they have new, possibly beneficial gene combinations. In addition, sexual reproduction provides the benefit of meiotic recombination between non-
623:
albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as a result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations. There are a number of documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process. A female will produce an ovum with a full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring.
1055:, queens produce more queens through automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion. Sterile workers usually are produced from eggs fertilized by males. In some of the eggs fertilized by males, however, the fertilization can cause the female genetic material to be ablated from the zygote. In this way, males pass on only their genes to become fertile male offspring. This is the first recognized example of an animal species where both females and males can reproduce clonally resulting in a complete separation of male and female gene pools. As a consequence, the males will only have fathers and the queens only mothers, while the sterile workers are the only ones with both parents of both sexes.
1693:) to be lacking in any genetic content from his father. Scientists believe that an unfertilized egg began to self-divide but then had some (but not all) of its cells fertilized by a sperm cell; this must have happened early in development, as self-activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilized. The unfertilized cells eventually duplicated their DNA, boosting their chromosomes to 46. When the unfertilized cells hit a developmental block, the fertilized cells took over and developed that tissue. The boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but was otherwise healthy. This would make him a parthenogenetic
1638:
1276:. This female American crocodile, housed at Parque Reptilania, produced a genetically identical foetus, with a 99.9% similarity to herself. The scientists speculate that this unique ability might be inherited from an evolutionary ancestor, suggesting that even dinosaurs could have possessed the capability for self-reproduction. The 18-year-old crocodile laid the egg in January 2018, the fully formed foetus did not hatch and was stillborn. Notably, this crocodile had been kept separated from other crocodiles throughout her entire life since being acquired at the age of two.
447:
4737:
1654:
enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF/cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote
Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo-vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference.
1002:, which normally suppress ovarian development in workers. Worker bees are unable to mate, and the unfertilized eggs produce only drones (males), which can mate only with a queen. Thus, in a relatively short period, all the worker bees die off, and the new drones follow if they have not been able to mate before the collapse of the colony. This behavior is believed to have evolved to allow a doomed colony to produce drones which may mate with a virgin queen and thus preserve the colony's genetic progeny.
1682:), claimed in 1955 that parthenogenesis, which occurs in the guppy in nature, may also occur (though very rarely) in the human species, leading to so-called "virgin births". This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike. Sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilization, but it cannot fully develop on its own; so while it may create some skin and nerve cells, it cannot create others (such as skeletal muscle) and becomes a type of benign tumor called an ovarian
1291:
2048:
967:
1697:(a child with two cell lineages in his body). While over a dozen similar cases have been reported since then (usually discovered after the patient demonstrated clinical abnormalities), there have been no scientifically confirmed reports of a non-chimeric, clinically healthy human parthenote (i.e. produced from a single, parthenogenetic-activated oocyte).
1585:
335:
565:; presumably, this is the default reproductive mode of all species in this insect order. Facultative parthenogenesis has generally been believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male. A female may undergo facultative parthenogenesis if a male is absent from the habitat or if it is unable to produce viable offspring. However,
1701:
The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular female for the treatment of degenerative diseases that might affect her. In
December 2007, Dr. Revazova and ISCC published an article illustrating a breakthrough in the use of parthenogenesis to produce human stem cells that are
1730:
created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he contributed a major breakthrough to stem cell research by creating human embryos using parthenogenesis. The truth was discovered in 2007, long after the embryos
1394:
In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers. The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis.
1214:
in
Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis. On 10 October 2008, scientists confirmed the second case of a "virgin birth" in a shark. The Journal of Fish Biology reported a study in which scientists said DNA testing proved that a pup carried by a female Atlantic blacktip shark in the Virginia Aquarium
481:
of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined. The criterion for "sexuality" varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where the nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to
480:
Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors, the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products
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unknowingly produced the first human embryos resulting from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos, a result later found to be fabricated. Further examination of the chromosomes of these cells show indicators of parthenogenesis in
1709:
region of DNA. These stem cells are called HLA homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells (hpSC-Hhom) and have unique characteristics that would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted into millions of people without immune rejection. With proper selection of oocyte donors according to HLA
1649:
During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF,
1398:
Some reptile species use a ZW chromosome system, which produces either males (ZZ) or females (ZW). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female
560:
Facultative parthenogenesis is the term for when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction. Facultative parthenogenesis is extremely rare in nature, with only a few examples of animal taxa capable of facultative parthenogenesis. One of the best-known examples of taxa
1557:
genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring in order for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental
1410:
of which 15 species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis. These lizards live in the dry and sometimes harsh climate of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. All these asexual species appear to have arisen through the hybridization of two or three of the sexual species in the genus
1700:
On 26 June 2007, the
International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California-based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis.
492:
occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or the fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the mother's genetic material and heterozygosity is mostly preserved (if the mother has two alleles for a locus, it is likely that the offspring will get both). This is because in
1653:
To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor,
1202:
in
Nebraska, in a tank containing three female hammerheads, but no males. The pup was thought to have been conceived through parthenogenesis. It was concluded after DNA testing that the reproduction was parthenogenetic, as the female pup's DNA matched only one female who lived in the tank, and no
622:
Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have been shown to transition to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis have been found in numerous metazoan taxa,
1774:
are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years. It is believed that the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the
1419:
An interesting aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that mating behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One female plays the role played by the male in closely related species, and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the
551:
In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always
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for use in medical treatment, not as a reproductive strategy. In 2022, researchers reported that they have achieved parthenogenesis in mice for viable offspring born from unfertilized eggs, addressing the problems of genomic imprinting by "targeted DNA methylation rewriting of seven imprinting
1644:
Parthenogenetic development of swine oocytes. High metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a
1415:
individuals. The mechanism by which the mixing of chromosomes from two or three species can lead to parthenogenetic reproduction is unknown. Recently, a hybrid parthenogenetic whiptail lizard was bred in the laboratory from a cross between an asexual and a sexual whiptail. Because multiple
354:), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy or heterogony). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season (
795:
rotifers, females can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction (cyclical parthenogenesis). At least in one normally cyclical parthenogenetic species obligate parthenogenesis can be inherited: a recessive allele leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring.
610:, and a variety of domesticated birds were widely attributed to facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are examples of spontaneous parthenogenesis. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by a meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via
40:
993:
are produced from unfertilized eggs. Usually, eggs are laid only by the queen, but the unmated workers may also lay haploid, male eggs either regularly (e.g. stingless bees) or under special circumstances. An example of non-viable parthenogenesis is common among domesticated
521:
In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that the males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO).
1420:
hormonal cycles of the females, which cause them to behave like males shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, and to take the female role in mating before laying eggs, when estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courtship ritual have greater
682:, strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards, snakes, birds, and sharks, with fish, amphibians, and reptiles exhibiting various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an incomplete form of parthenogenesis). The first all-female (unisexual) reproduction in
998:. The queen bee is the only fertile female in the hive; if she dies without the possibility of a viable replacement queen, it is not uncommon for the worker bees to lay eggs. This is a result of the lack of the queen's pheromones and the pheromones secreted by uncapped
387:
Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost the sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes cannot pair for meiosis.
1058:
These ants get both the benefits of both asexual and sexual reproduction—the daughters who can reproduce (the queens) have all of the mother's genes, while the sterile workers whose physical strength and disease resistance are important are produced sexually.
1763:
in order to develop. However, the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring. Since gynogenetic species are all female, activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus. Some
728:, resulting in an organism that is genetically identical to the donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the genetic material contained within an egg cell and the new organism is not necessarily genetically identical to the parent.
692:
in 1932. Since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrate have been described, including at least 20 fish, 25 lizards, a single snake species, frogs, and salamanders. Other usually sexual species may occasionally reproduce parthenogenetically; the
634:: it obviates the need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates; and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly (potentially twice as fast). Examples include several
1395:
A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event, highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis.
1416:
hybridization events can occur, individual parthenogenetic whiptail species can consist of multiple independent asexual lineages. Within lineages, there is very little genetic diversity, but different lineages may have quite different genotypes.
497:
the homologous chromosomes are separated. Heterozygosity is not completely preserved when crossing over occurs in central fusion. In the case of pre-meiotic doubling, recombination, if it happens, occurs between identical sister chromatids.
1686:. Spontaneous ovarian activation is not rare and has been known about since the 19th century. Some teratomas can even become primitive fetuses (fetiform teratoma) with imperfect heads, limbs and other structures, but are non-viable.
434:, the ploidy is restored to diploidy by various means. This is because haploid individuals are not viable in most species. In automictic parthenogenesis, the offspring differ from one another and from their mother. They are called
505:(restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the
1731:
were created by him and his team in
February 2004. This made Hwang the first, unknowingly, to successfully perform the process of parthenogenesis to create a human embryo and, ultimately, a human parthenogenetic stem cell line.
6113:
Murphy, R.W.; Darevsky, I.S.; MacCulloch, R.D.; Fu, J.; Kupriyanova, L.A.; Upton, D.E.; Danielyan, F. (1997). "Old age, multiple formations or genetic plasticity? Clonal diversity in a parthenogenetic
Caucasian rock lizard,
5831:
Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Gergits, W.F.; Casna, N.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M.; et al. (1997). "Production of offspring in the absence of males: Evidence for facultative parthenogenesis in bisexual snakes".
1754:
A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the
1248:
held in captivity from all males for eight years was reported pregnant in 2024. In June 2024, the aquarium where the ray resided reported that she was not pregnant, and instead had a rare reproductive disease.
509:
are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.
6617:
Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Kindarova, L.B.; Kuzmichev, L.N.; Janus, J.D.; Pryzhkova, M.V. (2007). "Patient-Specific Stem Cell Lines
Derived from Human Parthenogenetic Blastocysts".
709:, there are both costs (low genetic diversity and therefore susceptibility to adverse mutations that might occur) and benefits (reproduction without the need for a male) associated with parthenogenesis.
575:
both can produce parthenogenic offspring in the presence of males, indicating that facultative parthenogenesis may be more common than previously thought and is not simply a response to a lack of males.
1431:
Some lizard parthenogens show a pattern of geographic parthenogenesis, occupying high mountain areas where their ancestral forms have an inferior competition ability. In
Caucasian rock lizards of genus
753:
from an experimental cross were germinated, and some of the progeny were genetically identical to one or other parent, implying that meiosis did not occur and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis.
6653:
Revazova, E.S.; Turovets, N.A.; Kochetkova, O.D.; Agapova, L.S.; Sebastian, J.L.; Pryzhkova, M.V.; et al. (2008). "HLA homozygous stem cell lines derived from human parthenogenetic blastocysts".
6337:
Kawahara, Manabu; Wu, Qiong; Takahashi, Nozomi; Morita, Shinnosuke; Yamada, Kaori; Ito, Mitsuteru; et al. (2007). "High-frequency generation of viable mice from engineered bi-maternal embryos".
1512:
There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild. Parthenogenetic progeny of mammals would have two X chromosomes, and would therefore be genetically female.
1504:
breeding program hatch. This is the first known example of parthenogenesis in this species, as well as one of the only known examples of parthenogenesis happening where males are still present.
1114:
in the 1990s. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis. Spinycheek crayfish (
297:
and those having only half are called half clones. Full clones are usually formed without meiosis. If meiosis occurs, the offspring will get only a fraction of the mother's alleles since
289:
chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother's
1424:
than those kept in isolation, due to the increase in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for
7650:
2024:
Examples of parthenogenesis, in the form of reproduction from a single individual (typically a god), are common in mythology and folklore around the world, including in ancient
598:
Facultative parthenogenesis is often used to describe cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals. For example, many cases of spontaneous parthenogenesis in
2927:
Ryder, Oliver A; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021). Murphy, William J. (ed.).
1489:; most embryos produced in this way die early in development. Rarely, viable birds result from this process, and the rate at which this occurs in turkeys can be increased by
1126:), which normally reproduces sexually, has also been suggested to reproduce by parthenogenesis, although no individuals of this species have been reared this way in the lab.
1603:
833:, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.
626:
Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been
2292:
6098:
Vrijenhoek, R.C.; Parker, E.D. (2009). "Geographical parthenogenesis: General purpose genotypes and frozen niche variation". In Schön I; Martens K.; van Dijk P. (eds.).
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Kono, T.; Obata, Y.; Wu, Q.; Niwa, K.; Ono, Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Park, E.S.; Seo, J.-S.; Ogawa, H. (2004). "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood".
3600:
Funk, David H.; Sweeney, Bernard W.; Jackson, John K. (2010). "Why stream mayflies can reproduce without males but remain bisexual: A case of lost genetic variation".
908:
A related phenomenon, polyembryony is a process that produces multiple clonal offspring from a single egg cell. This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in
270:). This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice.
5800:
Reynolds, R.G.; Booth, W.; Schuett, G.W.; Fitzpatrick, B.M.; Burghardt, G.M. (2012). "Successive virgin births of viable male progeny in the checkered gartersnake,
463:
Diploidy might be restored by the doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is referred to as an
6892:
320:, they have either two Z chromosomes (male) or two W chromosomes (mostly non-viable but rarely a female), or they could have one Z and one W chromosome (female).
6249:
5626:
346:, produced through parthenogenesis. Komodo dragons are an example of a species which can produce offspring both through sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis.
905:) are known to occur. The egg cells, depending on the species may be produced without meiosis (apomictically) or by one of the several automictic mechanisms.
5543:
Darevskii IS. 1967. Rock lizards of the
Caucasus: systematics, ecology and phylogenesis of the polymorphic groups of Caucasian rock lizards of the subgenus
5903:
915:
In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the
5275:
1834:
This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi-) clonal on the mother's side and has half new genetic material from the father's side.
7593:
7643:
7609:
5249:
2838:
Pujade-Villar, Juli; Bellido, D.; Segu, G.; Melika, George (2001). "Current state of knowledge of heterogony in Cynipidae (Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea)".
2485:
Ryder, Oliver A.; Thomas, Steven; Judson, Jessica Martin; Romanov, Michael N.; Dandekar, Sugandha; Papp, Jeanette C.; et al. (17 December 2021).
1928:
1634:
Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring.
7869:
1163:, are thought to be parthenogenetic, as no males have ever been collected. Parthenogenetic reproduction has been demonstrated in the laboratory for
3216:
Cuellar, Orlando (1 February 1971). "Reproduction and the mechanism of meiotic restitution in the parthenogenetic lizard Cnemidophorus uniparens".
1005:
A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa,
5560:
Tarkhnishvili, D.N. (2012). "Evolutionary history, habitats, diversification, and speciation in Caucasian rock lizards". In Jenkins, O.P. (ed.).
4639:
Copeland, Claudia S.; Hoy, Marjorie A.; Jeyaprakash, Ayyamperumal; Aluja, Martin; Ramirez-Romero, Ricardo; Sivinski, John M. (1 September 2010).
473:. Other species restore their ploidy by the fusion of the meiotic products. The chromosomes may not separate at one of the two anaphases (called
4445:
Lentati, G. Benazzi (1966). "Amphimixis and pseudogamy in fresh-water triclads: Experimental reconstitution of polyploid pseudogamic biotypes".
2148:
881:
Parthenogenesis in insects can cover a wide range of mechanisms. The offspring produced by parthenogenesis may be of both sexes, only female (
7315:
6875:
4097:
3588:
3003:
2726:
2345:
584:
537:
the offspring genotype may be one of ZW (female), ZZ (male), or WW (non-viable in most species, but a fertile, viable female in a few, e.g.,
2860:
Kratochvíl, Lukáš; Vukić, Jasna; Červenka, Jan; Kubička, Lukáš; Johnson Pokorná, Martina; Kukačková, Dominika; et al. (November 2020).
7636:
1233:, a type of carpet shark. DNA genotyping demonstrated that individual zebra sharks can switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction.
5927:
3274:"Genetic Polymorphism and Evolution in Parthenogenetic Animals. Ii. Diploid and Polyploid Solenobia Triquetrella (lepidoptera: Psychidae)"
5174:
Robinson, D.P.; Baverstock, W.; Al-Jaru, A.; Hyland, K.; Khazanehdari, K.A. (2011). "Annually recurring parthenogenesis in a zebra shark
5396:
1466:. In most cases the egg fails to develop normally or completely to hatching. The first description of parthenogenetic development in a
488:
The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of automixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when
411:. Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the
4560:"Population Structure of an Invasive Parthenogenetic Gastropod in Coastal Lakes and Estuaries of Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa"
2222:; Serrano-Serrano, Martha; Barrera-Redondo, Josué; Luthringer, Rémy; Peters, Akira F.; Destombe, Christophe; et al. (July 2021).
1203:
male DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a twin or clone of her mother, but rather, contained only half of her mother's DNA ("
5476:
Booth, Warren; Levine, Brenna A.; Corush, Joel B.; Davis, Mark A.; Dwyer, Quetzal; De Plecker, Roel; Schuett, Gordon W. (June 2023).
2305:
Some female birds, reptiles, and other animals can make a baby on their own. But for mammals like us, eggs and sperm need each other.
2282:
2098: – German-born American physiologist and biologist – caused the eggs of sea urchins to begin embryonic development without sperm
7563:
7506:
7491:
7402:
7344:
1621:
1371:
are unisexual and obligately parthenogenetic. Other reptiles, such as the Komodo dragon, other monitor lizards, and some species of
3532:"Lack of detectable genetic recombination on the X chromosome during the parthenogenetic production of female and male aphids"
2450:
285:
as their mother's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have the
3335:
Groot, T V M; E Bruins; J A J Breeuwer (28 February 2003). "Molecular genetic evidence for parthenogenesis in the Burmese python,
1015:
eggs parthenogenetically, and replacing the queen if she dies; other examples include some species of small carpenter bee, (genus
5032:
Muñoz, Joaquín; Gómez, Africa; Green, Andy J.; Figuerola, Jordi; Amat, Francisco; Rico, Ciro; Moreau, Corrie S. (4 August 2010).
1715:
5391:
4679:
Fournier, Denis; Estoup, Arnaud; Orivel, Jérôme; Foucaud, Julien; Jourdan, Hervé; Le Breton, Julien Le; Keller, Laurent (2005).
7041:
6893:"Phylogenetic relationships between parthenogens and their sexual relatives: the possible routes to parthenogenesis in animals"
6527:
Mori, Hironori; Mizobe, Yamato; Inoue, Shin; Uenohara, Akari; Takeda, Mitsuru; Yoshida, Mitsutoshi; Miyoshi, Kazuchika (2008).
3530:
Hales, Dinah F.; Wilson, Alex C.C.; Sloane, Mathew A.; Simon, Jean-Christophe; Legallic, Jean-François; Sunnucks, Paul (2002).
2228:
1527:
4031:
477:) or the nuclei produced may fuse or one of the polar bodies may fuse with the egg cell at some stage during its maturation.
7145:"Global Analysis of the Small RNA Transcriptome in Different Ploidies and Genomic Combinations of a Vertebrate Complex – The
5851:
Schuett, G.W.; Fernandez, P.J.; Chiszar, D.; Smith, H.M. (1998). "Fatherless sons: A new type of parthenogenesis in snakes".
3195:
Cosín, Darío J. Díaz, Marta Novo, and Rosa Fernández. "Reproduction of Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis". In
1969:
329:
7087:
545:
before meiosis or by central fusion. ZZ and WW offspring occur either by terminal fusion or by endomitosis in the egg cell.
6748:
Holsbeek, G.; Jooris, R. (2010). "Potential impact of genome exclusion by alien species in the hybridogenetic water frogs (
4920:"A successful crayfish invader is capable of facultative parthenogenesis: A novel reproductive mode in decapod crustaceans"
2182:
5575:
Watts, P.C.; Buley, K.R.; Sanderson, S.; Boardman, W.; Ciofi, C.; Gibson, R. (2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons".
2075: – Genevan botanist (1720–1793) – conducted experiments that established what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids
1788:
1749:
1258:
6600:
4511:
Ben-Ami, F.; Heller, J. (2005). "Spatial and temporal patterns of parthenogenesis and parasitism in the freshwater snail
1816:
of second parental species (B), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. First genome (A) is restored by
7694:
5742:
4250:
Vrijenhoek, R.C., R.M. Dawley, C.J. Cole, and J.P. Bogart. 1989. "A list of the known unisexual vertebrates", pp. 19–23
4119:
4043:
2316:
1689:
In 1995, there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis; a boy was found to have some of his cells (such as
724:
cell from a donor organism is inserted into an enucleated egg cell and the cell is then stimulated to undergo continued
5419:
7005:
6265:
6203:
3976:
2868:
2064:- a form of quasi-sexual reproduction in which a male is the sole source of the nuclear genetic material in the embryo
1285:
946:
and sperm are produced by the same individual, but is not a type of parthenogenesis. This is seen in three species of
534:
530:
317:
313:
309:
4804:
Scholtz, Gerhard; Braband, Anke; Tolley, Laura; Reimann, André; Mittmann, Beate; Lukhaup, Chris; et al. (2003).
4087:
1823:
So hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: half of genome is passed to the next generation
7582:
1391:
were previously considered as cases of facultative parthenogenesis, but may be cases of accidental parthenogenesis.
446:
7748:
5634:
5144:
Chapman, D.D.; Firchau, B.; Shivji, M. S. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a large-bodied requiem shark, the blacktip".
1219:
7353:"Can artificial parthenogenesis sidestep ethical pitfalls in human therapeutic cloning? An historical perspective"
5870:
4032:"Novel microsatellite DNA markers indicate strict parthenogenesis and few genotypes in the invasive willow sawfly
3741:
1959:). First one is the primary hybridisation generating hybrid, second one is most widespread type of hybridogenesis.
731:
Parthenogenesis may be achieved through an artificial process as described below under the discussion of mammals.
7624:
Scientists confirm shark's 'virgin birth' Article by Steve Szkotak AP updated 1:49 a.m. ET, Fri., 10 October 2008
7623:
4319:
1911:
1893:
1854:
45:
5913:
963:
systems. They also cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to develop into female offspring.
399:(e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females, the phenomenon is called deuterotoky.
6432:
Bischoff, S.R.; Tsai, S.; Hardison, N.; Motsinger-Reif, A.A.; Freking, B.A.; Nonneman, D.; et al. (2009).
5285:
1637:
1207:"). This type of reproduction had been seen before in bony fish, but not in cartilaginous fish such as sharks.
1128:
978:
526:
2746:
n. g., n. sp. (Nematoda: Sphaerularioidea: Anandranematidae n. fam.) parasitic in the palm-pollinating weevil
1721:
On 2 August 2007, after an independent investigation, it was revealed that discredited South Korean scientist
1068:), where females reproduce parthenogenetically during the gall-forming phase of their life cycle and in grass
207:, parthenogenesis can mean the development of an embryo from either an individual sperm or an individual egg.
6705:
6485:"Developmental competence of parthenogenetic mouse and human embryos after chemical or electrical activation"
1078:
there have been, despite the very limited number of species in the genus, several transitions to asexuality.
293:. In some types of parthenogenesis the offspring having all of the mother's genetic material are called full
6438:
6281:
5325:
Dudgeon, Christine L.; Coulton, Laura; Bone, Ren; Ovenden, Jennifer R.; Thomas, Severine (16 January 2017).
5307:
4918:
Buřič, Miloš; Hulák, Martin; Kouba, Antonín; Petrusek, Adam; Kozák, Pavel; Etges, William J. (31 May 2011).
4197:
Chapman, Demian D.; Shivji, Mahmood S.; Louis, Ed; Sommer, Julie; Fletcher, Hugh; Prodöhl, Paulo A. (2007).
2454:
2067:
1706:
1364:
1338:
1153:
1007:
4268:
Hubbs, C.L.; Hubbs, L.C. (1932). "Apparent parthenogenesis in nature, in a form of fish of hybrid origin".
2803:
716:, a process where the new organism is necessarily genetically identical to the cell donor. In cloning, the
583:, a generation sexually conceived by a male and a female produces only females. The reason for this is the
7709:
6529:"Effects of Cycloheximide on Parthenogenetic Development of Pig Oocytes Activated by Ultrasound Treatment"
3492:
3348:
2154:
1566:
abortive development. As a consequence, research on human parthenogenesis is focused on the production of
1516:
1034:
The workers in five ant species and the queens in some ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis. In
51:
4313:
Hurtado-Gonzales, O. P.; Lamour, K. H. (2009). "Evidence for inbreeding and apomixis in close crosses of
6261:
3029:"On some terms used in the cytogenetics and reproductive biology of scale insects (Homoptera: Coccinea)"
2546:"Parental sex effect of parthenogenesis on progeny production and performance of Chinese Painted Quail (
2159:
1905:
1886:
1866:
1810:
1663:
850:
764:
705:
are recent additions to the known list of spontaneous parthenogenetic vertebrates. As with all types of
298:
6806:
Schultz, R. Jack (November–December 1969). "Hybridization, unisexuality, and polyploidy in the teleost
5960:
4680:
1538:
to produce bi-maternal mice at high frequency and subsequently show that fatherless mice have enhanced
1044:, the queens and workers can produce new queens by parthenogenesis. The workers are produced sexually.
5682:
Kinney, M.E.; Wack, R.F.; Grahn, R.A.; Lyons, L. (2013). "Parthenogenesis in a Brazilian rainbow boa (
4161:
Schut, E.; Hemmings, N.; Birkhead, T.R. (2008). "Parthenogenesis in a passerine bird, the Zebra finch
7667:
7447:
7160:
6951:
6867:
6861:
6761:
6339:
6052:
5993:
5584:
5338:
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5051:
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4819:
4695:
4571:
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4279:
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3817:
3703:
3420:
2877:
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2397:
1981:
1920:
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1824:
1567:
1226:
in Detroit. They hatched 15 weeks after being laid in an aquarium containing only two female sharks.
825:
individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the
706:
172:
49:(center), which reproduces via parthenogenesis, is shown flanked by two sexual species having males,
3353:
7659:
5908:
5280:
3869:
3739:
Lampert, K.P. (2008). "Facultative parthenogenesis in vertebrates: Reproductive error or chance?".
3497:
2933:
2491:
1975:
1860:
1828:
1714:, it is possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be
1455:
1442:
has a broader niche than either of its bisexual ancestors and its expansion throughout the Central
1403:
1318:
1223:
1122:
640:
571:
57:
7409:
Hore, T; Rapkins, R; Graves, J (2007). "Construction and evolution of imprinted loci in mammals".
6854:
4558:
Miranda, Nelson A. F.; Perissinotto, Renzo; Appleton, Christopher C.; Lalueza-Fox, Carles (2011).
3970:
Vorburger, Christoph (2003). "Environmentally related patterns of reproductive modes in the aphid
3140:
Zakharov, I. A. (April 2005). "Intratetrad mating and its genetic and evolutionary consequences".
3028:
1662:
Reports of human parthenogenesis have famously existed since ancient times, featuring prominently
513:
This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother.
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6835:
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1345:
1159:
1116:
1036:
858:
482:
7255:
Mantovani, Barbara; Scali, Valerio (1992). "Hybridogenesis and androgenesis in the stick-insect
6689:"Stem cell fraudster made 'virgin birth' breakthrough: Silver lining for Korean science scandal"
4346:
Read, V. M. St. J. (July 1988). "The Onychophora of Trinidad, Tobago, and the Lesser Antilles".
1927:
533:, parthenogenetic offspring will have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the
6688:
6161:
Tarkhnishvili, D.; Gavashelishvili, A.; Avaliani, A.; Murtskhvaladze, M.; Mumladze, L. (2010).
5937:
4738:"Evolution of asexuality via different mechanisms in grass thrips (Thysanoptera: Aptinothrips)"
2362:
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2101:
2002:
1880:
1667:
1501:
999:
566:
506:
465:
377:
7758:
7526:
5392:"Charlotte the stingray due to give birth within weeks despite no male ray company for years"
2128:
7874:
7543:
7522:
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7372:
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7272:
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2928:
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2685:
2675:
2623:
2615:
2561:
2544:
Ramachandran, R.; Nascimento dos Santos, M.; Parker, H.M.; McDaniel, C.D. (September 2018).
2516:
2500:
2421:
2405:
2237:
2198:
2008:
1794:
1690:
1199:
1195:
846:
698:
688:
631:
627:
548:
In polyploid obligate parthenogens, like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female.
75:
39:
4755:"Profiling sex-biased gene expression during parthenogenetic reproduction in Daphnia pulex"
3918:
Booth, W.; Smith, C.F.; Eskridge, P.H.; Hoss, S.K.; Mendelson, J.R.; Schuett, G.W. (2012).
7613:
7534:
Simon, J; Rispe, Claude; Sunnucks, Paul (2002). "Ecology and evolution of sex in aphids".
6294:
4203:
3694:
3199:, edited by Ayten Karaca, 24:69–86. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011.
3063:"Asexual but Not Clonal: Evolutionary Processes in Automictic Populations | Genetics"
2986:
Bernstein, H; Hopf, FA; Michod, RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
2606:
2386:"Molecular evidence for the first records of facultative parthenogenesis in elapid snakes"
2133:
2025:
1963:
Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e.
1534:. Using gene targeting, they were able to manipulate two imprinted loci H19/IGF2 and DLK1/
1463:
1443:
1229:
In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated in a captive
1064:
866:
818:
645:
592:
588:
542:
460:
is a term that covers several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic.
5980:
Lutes, Aracely A.; Baumann, Diana P.; Neaves, William B.; Baumann, Peter (14 June 2011).
2566:
2545:
2078:
1095:
alternates between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction. Among the better-known large
7598:
7451:
7164:
7055:
7036:
6955:
6765:
6056:
5997:
5777:
Dubach, J.; Sajewicz, A.; Pawley, R. (1997). "Parthenogenesis in the Arafura filesnake (
5588:
5518:
5477:
5448:
5342:
5221:
5191:
5055:
4937:
4880:
4823:
4699:
4575:
4403:
4283:
3989:
3821:
3707:
3471:
Booth, Warren; Larry Million; R. Graham Reynolds; Gordon M. Burghardt; Edward L. Vargo;
3424:
3408:
2881:
2862:
2671:
2458:
2401:
1120:) can reproduce both sexually and by parthenogenesis. The Louisiana red swamp crayfish (
791:, females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (obligate parthenogenesis), while in
384:
double-strand breaks and other DNA damages that may be induced by stressful conditions.
316:
sex-determination system have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the
7377:
7352:
7183:
7144:
6460:
6433:
6225:
6198:
6016:
5981:
5367:
5326:
5074:
5033:
5009:
4980:
4956:
4919:
4781:
4754:
4594:
4559:
4422:
4387:
4359:
4225:
4198:
4167:
3944:
3919:
3891:
3864:
3840:
3803:
3637:
3298:
3126:
3087:
3062:
2963:
2690:
2655:
2628:
2601:
2521:
2486:
2426:
2385:
2110: – Production of seedless fruit without fertilisation – plants with seedless fruit
2072:
1727:
1531:
1242:
1211:
1180:
1022:
713:
702:
648:
habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into the Southern Hemisphere.
451:
247:
7547:
6163:"Unisexual rock lizard might be outcompeting its bisexual progenitors in the Caucasus"
6075:
6040:
2995:
1820:
of these gametes with gametes from the first species (AA, sexual host, usually male).
7863:
7753:
7723:
7606:
7577:
6982:
6935:
6912:
6179:
6162:
5817:
5420:"After saying Charlotte, a lone stingray, was pregnant, aquarium now says she's sick"
5199:
5157:
5098:
4528:
4332:
4180:
3997:
3686:
2913:
2742:
Poinar, George O Jr; Trevor A Jackson; Nigel L Bell; Mohd B-asri Wahid (July 2002). "
2715:
2219:
2107:
1817:
1802:
1722:
1671:
1380:
1353:
1334:
1322:
1294:
1091:
1048:
960:
943:
694:
607:
339:
184:
7241:
7122:
7072:
6839:
6789:
6147:
4904:
4849:
4544:
4466:
4072:
4013:
3662:
3621:
3448:
3409:"Conditional Use of Sex and Parthenogenesis for Worker and Queen Production in Ants"
3273:
3253:
3177:
2583:
2267:
1438:, which have six parthenogenetic forms of hybrid origin hybrid parthenogenetic form
1290:
1062:
Other examples of insect parthenogenesis can be found in gall-forming aphids (e.g.,
552:
diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically.
407:
Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called
7788:
7704:
7475:
6368:
5612:
4723:
3770:
3477:"Consecutive Virgin Births in the New World Boid Snake, the Colombian Rainbow Boa,
3386:
2787:
2095:
2061:
1839:
1776:
1500:
In 2021, the San Diego Zoo reported that they had two unfertilized eggs from their
1475:
1384:
1133:
1074:
990:
986:
982:
909:
890:
830:
741:
717:
215:
31:
6451:
6317:
6041:"Behavioral facilitation of reproduction in sexual and unisexual whiptail lizards"
2047:
415:
can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are
395:(e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as
7173:
5064:
4946:
4584:
4412:
3830:
2224:"Evolution of life cycles and reproductive traits: Insights from the brown algae"
1321:, but parthenogenesis has been observed to occur naturally in certain species of
7803:
7783:
7768:
5253:
4291:
4258:. R.M. Dawley and J.P. Bogart (eds.) Bulletin 466, New York State Museum, Albany
3289:
3200:
3078:
1948:
1745:
1563:
1471:
1388:
1230:
1184:
1150:
1111:
1103:
1099:
936:
916:
886:
811:
773:
683:
679:
470:
412:
396:
367:
243:
192:
7594:
National Geographic News: Virgin Birth Expected at Christmas – By Komodo Dragon
6501:
6484:
6279:
Sarvella, P. (1974). "Testes structure in normal and parthenogenetic turkeys".
630:. Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an
362:), or by a lack of males or by conditions that favour rapid population growth (
17:
7844:
7820:
7798:
7587:
7422:
7106:
6773:
6586:
de Carli, Gabriel Jose, and Tiago Campos Pereira. "On human parthenogenesis".
6131:
5875:
4888:
4753:
Eads, Brian D; Colbourne, John K; Bohuski, Elizabeth; Andrews, Justen (2007).
4056:
3716:
3550:
3531:
3472:
3153:
2816:
2763:
2043:
1940:
1845:
1765:
1702:
1376:
1269:
1191:
1176:
1087:
1041:
894:
842:
792:
785:
525:
When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring will depend on the type of
494:
359:
351:
282:
259:
251:
227:
223:
7114:
7064:
6973:
6781:
5722:
5509:
5358:
4863:
Martin, Peer; Kohlmann, Klaus; Scholtz, Gerhard (2007). "The parthenogenetic
4497:
3370:
3272:
Lokki, Juhani; Esko Suomalainen; Anssi Saura; Pekka Lankinen (1 March 1975).
3237:
3161:
3047:
2954:
2946:
2897:
2824:
2801:
White, Michael J.D. (1984). "Chromosomal mechanisms in animal reproduction".
2771:
2512:
2504:
2417:
2251:
829:
does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is
7368:
7208:"Mitochondrial gene introgression between spined loaches via hybridogenesis"
6400:
6383:
6065:
6006:
5932:
5034:"Evolutionary origin and phylogeography of the diploid obligate parthenogen
4771:
3882:
3507:
3476:
3432:
3229:
2750:
Faust, with a phylogenetic synopsis of the Sphaerularioidea Lubbock, 1861".
2680:
1932:
1770:
1711:
1539:
1467:
1434:
1421:
1412:
1359:
1330:
1273:
1272:, where researchers identified the first documented case of a self-pregnant
1175:
Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in at least three species, the
1145:
1027:
995:
970:
966:
955:
920:
882:
822:
772:
were shown to reproduce parthenogenetically. This species is the only known
611:
392:
219:
7467:
7430:
7386:
7292:
7233:
7192:
7013:
6991:
6674:
6639:
6554:
6510:
6469:
6409:
6360:
6139:
6025:
5707:
5604:
5527:
5493:
5376:
5207:
5083:
5018:
4965:
4896:
4841:
4790:
4715:
4603:
4536:
4431:
4299:
4234:
4216:
4117:(Teiidae), with comments on the evolution of parthenogenesis in reptiles".
4064:
4005:
3953:
3935:
3900:
3849:
3762:
3725:
3559:
3516:
3440:
3378:
3362:
3169:
3096:
2972:
2905:
2779:
2699:
2637:
2619:
2575:
2530:
2435:
2259:
959:
have been noted to induce automictic thelytoky in many insect species with
7618:
6964:
6666:
6631:
6483:
Versieren, K; Heindryckx, B; Lierman, S; Gerris, J; De Sutter, P. (2010).
6302:
6084:
5119:
3307:
3245:
3013:
426:
is more complicated. In some cases, the offspring are haploid (e.g., male
7679:
7601:
6710:
6434:"Characterization of conserved and nonconserved imprinted genes in swine"
6234:
6216:
5982:"Laboratory synthesis of an independently reproducing vertebrate species"
5965:
5657:
5564:. Vol. 2. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 79–120.
5453:
5226:
5042:
4924:
4661:
4640:
2086:
1837:
This form of reproduction is seen in some live-bearing fish of the genus
1683:
1559:
1306:
1107:
1096:
1017:
928:
924:
788:
769:
746:
675:
562:
363:
231:
200:
7459:
5880:
5501:
4707:
2409:
1446:
caused decline of the ranges of both its maternal and paternal species.
391:
The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as
334:
7815:
7743:
7738:
7684:
7628:
7284:
7224:
7207:
6831:
5763:
5000:
4458:
4140:
3654:
1990:
1486:
1482:
1459:
1215:& Marine Science Center contained no genetic material from a male.
1012:
932:
806:
750:
725:
721:
671:
666:
657:
423:
372:
294:
286:
278:
274:
263:
7037:"Evolutionary genetics and ecology of sperm-dependent parthenogenesis"
6545:
6528:
5699:
5350:
3754:
2889:
2863:"Mixed-sex offspring produced via cryptic parthenogenesis in a lizard"
2451:
A guide to the recognition of parthenogenesis in incubated turkey eggs
2242:
2223:
1718:
with a significant number of individuals within the human population.
191:, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized
7773:
5596:
5327:"Switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction in a zebra shark"
3613:
2656:"Viable offspring derived from single unfertilized mammalian oocytes"
2029:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1550:
1520:
1494:
1493:, however male turkeys produced from parthenogenesis exhibit smaller
1372:
1310:
1069:
815:
603:
599:
580:
538:
290:
188:
176:
7276:
7088:"A genetic mechanism of species replacement in European waterfrogs?"
6352:
5755:
4832:
4805:
4641:"Genetic Characteristics of Bisexual and Female-Only Populations of
4132:
3583:, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 1–635 (see p. 295).
2600:
Booth, W.; Johnson, D.H.; Moore, S.; Schal, C.; Vargo, E.L. (2010).
1650:
thus permitting the MII-arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis.
1553:
often results in abnormal development. This is because mammals have
6823:
5478:"Discovery of facultative parthenogenesis in a new world crocodile"
4629:(Vincent H. Resh and R. T. Carde, Eds.) Academic Press. pp. 851–856
3974:
and the predominance of two 'superclones' in Victoria, Australia".
3687:"Parthenogenesis: Birth of a new lineage or reproductive accident?"
1086:
Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The
350:
Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the
6934:
Vrijenhoek, J.M.; Avise, J.C.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1 January 1992).
4113:
Price, A.H. (1992). "Comparative behavior in lizards of the genus
3581:
The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality
1926:
1760:
1675:
1636:
1546:
1481:
Parthenogenesis in turkeys appears to result from a conversion of
1326:
1314:
1289:
965:
826:
661:
635:
445:
355:
333:
235:
211:
204:
196:
38:
7513:
Schlupp, Ingo (2005). "The Evolutionary Ecology of Gynogenesis".
4681:"Clonal reproduction by males and females in the little fire ant"
3113:
Mogie, Michael (1986). "Automixis: its distribution and status".
2602:"Evidence for viable, non-clonal but fatherless boa constrictors"
678:, and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants. Among
4625:
Kirkendall, L. R. & Normark, B. (2003) "Parthenogenesis" in
4386:
Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).
3808:
3802:
Stelzer, C.-P.; Schmidt, J.; Wiedlroither, A.; Riss, S. (2010).
2090:
2033:
1535:
1025:
are known to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by
427:
267:
255:
7632:
7143:
Inácio, A; Pinho, J; Pereira, PM; Comai, L; Coelho, MM (2012).
5627:"Self-impregnated snake in Missouri has another 'virgin birth'"
4372:"Bdelloids: No sex for over 40 million years". TheFreeLibrary.
2214:
2212:
1674:, a geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the
5427:
4388:"Loss of Sexual Reproduction and Dwarfing in a Small Metazoan"
3804:"Loss of sexual reproduction and dwarfing in a small metazoan"
1578:
942:
In addition to these forms is hermaphroditism, where both the
845:
have been studied, especially with respect to their status as
381:
302:
239:
180:
5097:
Korenko, Stanislav; Šmerda, Jakub & Pekár, Stano (2009).
6582:
6580:
5169:
5167:
4867:(marbled crayfish) produces genetically uniform offspring".
4480:
Wallace, C. (1992). "arthenogenesis, sex and chromosomes in
3920:"Facultative parthenogenesis discovered in wild vertebrates"
2363:"Scientists discover unknown lizard species at lunch buffet"
126:
87:
84:
6257:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4150:
2855:
2853:
2283:"Self-love is important, but we mammals are stuck with sex"
469:
cycle. This may also happen by the fusion of the first two
166:
152:
135:
105:
96:
6891:
Simon, J.-C.; Delmotte, F.; Rispe, C.; Crease, T. (2003).
5986:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
3865:"Phenotypic of an allele causing obligate parthenogenesis"
2104: – Conceptions and births by miraculous circumstances
1726:
those extracted stem cells, similar to those found in the
102:
7558:(Experientia Supplementum, Vol. 55). Boston: Birkhauser.
3643:
Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Mikroskopische Anatomie
3475:; Athanasia C. Tzika; Gordon W. Schuett (December 2011).
2480:
2478:
2476:
2384:
Allen, L.; Sanders, K.L.; Thomson, V.A. (February 2018).
1454:
Parthenogenesis in birds is known mainly from studies of
1198:, was found to have produced a pup, born live in 2001 at
1132:
is a species or series of populations of parthenogenetic
308:
Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the
129:
117:
111:
90:
4981:"Discovery of four natural clones in a crayfish species
4979:
Yue GH, Wang GL, Zhu BQ, Wang CM, Zhu ZY, Lo LC (2008).
2990:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–370.
7393:
Futuyma, Douglas J. & Slatkin, Montgomery. (1983).
5736:
Magnusson, W.E. (1979). "Production of an embryo by an
2083:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1599:
660:
species. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in
7578:
Reproductive behavior in whiptails at Crews Laboratory
6102:. Berlin, DE: Springer Publications. pp. 99–131.
5099:"Life-history of the parthenogenetic oönopid spider,
4030:
Caron, V.; Norgate, M.; Ede, F.J.; Nyman, T. (2013).
2317:"Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find"
1558:
abnormalities. It has been suggested that defects in
885:, e.g., aphids and some hymenopterans) or only male (
450:
The effects of central fusion and terminal fusion on
132:
120:
114:
108:
93:
78:
7515:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
5658:"Observations of parthenogenesis in monitor lizards"
1519:
reported successfully inducing parthenogenesis in a
1402:
Parthenogenesis has been studied extensively in the
81:
7833:
7722:
7666:
7599:"'Virgin births' for giant lizards (Komodo dragon)"
6944:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
3638:"Der Chromosomenzyklus von Tetraneura ulmi de Geer"
3602:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
2929:"Facultative Parthenogenesis in California Condors"
2487:"Facultative parthenogenesis in California condors"
1594:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
158:
144:
99:
7607:Reuther: Komodo dragon proud mum (and dad) of five
7086:Vorburger, Christoph; Reyer, Heinz-Ulrich (2003).
6322:. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company – via
3636:
2861:
2714:
1562:folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine
1474:, although the dividing cells exhibited irregular
1301:, rarely reproduces offspring via parthenogenesis.
529:and the type of apomixis. In species that use the
7497:Michod, Richard E. & Levin, Bruce R. (1988).
7335:Dawley, Robert M. & Bogart, James P. (1989).
3407:Pearcy, M.; Aron, S; Doums, C; Keller, L (2004).
210:Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants,
6427:
6425:
6423:
6421:
6419:
5555:
5553:
4246:
4244:
2649:
2647:
1805:exclude one of parental genomes (A) and produce
1750:Parthenogenesis in amphibians § Gynogenesis
305:takes place during meiosis, creating variation.
6045:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5449:"Crocodile found to have made herself pregnant"
4674:
4672:
1102:, some crayfish reproduce by parthenogenesis. "
7337:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates
6743:
6741:
6739:
6737:
6735:
6733:
6731:
6729:
4256:Evolution and Ecology of Unisexual Vertebrates
4192:
4190:
3797:
3795:
3211:
3209:
1144:At least two species of spiders in the family
7644:
6936:"An Ancient clonal lineage in the fish genus
6801:
6799:
6039:Crews, D.; Grassman, M.; Lindzey, J. (1986).
3680:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3396:
3201:https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-14636-7_5
1268:In June 2023, discovery was made at a zoo in
8:
6860:. In Knobil, Ernst; Neill, Jimmy D. (eds.).
6192:
6190:
5308:"First virgin birth of zebra shark in Dubai"
4989:International Journal of Biological Sciences
4025:
4023:
3965:
3963:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3191:
3189:
3187:
2336:Halliday, Tim R. (1986). Kraig Adler (ed.).
1793:Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of
1530:used parthenogenesis successfully to create
712:Parthenogenesis is distinct from artificial
199:, parthenogenesis is a component process of
61:(right), which naturally hybridized to form
5539:
5537:
5139:
5137:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
561:exhibiting facultative parthenogenesis are
419:of their mother. Examples include aphids.
171:, 'creation') is a natural form of
7837:
7728:
7672:
7651:
7637:
7629:
7035:Beukeboom, L.W.; Vrijenhoek, R.C. (1998).
3685:van der Kooi, C.J.; Schwander, T. (2015).
2331:
2329:
2193:. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press – via
27:Asexual reproduction without fertilization
7556:The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences
7486:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7376:
7223:
7182:
7172:
7054:
6981:
6963:
6911:
6900:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6544:
6500:
6459:
6399:
6224:
6178:
6167:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6074:
6064:
6015:
6005:
5871:"Virgin births discovered in wild snakes"
5806:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
5517:
5366:
5118:
5073:
5063:
5008:
4955:
4945:
4831:
4806:"Parthenogenesis in an outsider crayfish"
4780:
4770:
4736:CJ van der Kooi & T Schwander (2014)
4660:
4593:
4583:
4421:
4411:
4348:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
4224:
3943:
3890:
3839:
3829:
3786:Cytology and Evolution in Parthenogenesis
3715:
3549:
3506:
3496:
3352:
3297:
3115:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
3086:
3027:Gavrilov, I.A.; Kuznetsova, V.G. (2007).
2962:
2689:
2679:
2627:
2565:
2520:
2453:(Report). Department of Animal Sciences.
2425:
2241:
1797:. Hybridogenetic hybrids (for example AB
1622:Learn how and when to remove this message
1606:, without removing the technical details.
1462:, although it has also been noted in the
1011:, where workers are capable of producing
43:The asexual, all-female whiptail species
7588:Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs
7527:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152629
7501:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
7397:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
6866:. Vol. 3. Academic Press. pp.
6522:
6520:
3108:
3106:
2654:Wei Y, Yang CR, Zhao ZA (7 March 2022).
2595:
2593:
1897:(Italian edible frog) – unknown origin:
273:Normal egg cells form in the process of
6533:Journal of Reproduction and Development
3575:
3573:
3571:
3569:
2449:Savage, Thomas F. (11 February 2008) .
2281:Preston, Elizabeth (13 February 2024).
2120:
2089:and a pioneer of parthenogenesis among
1827:, unrecombined, intact (B), other half
430:). In other cases, collectively called
7206:Saitoh, K; Kim, I-S; Lee, E-H (2004).
6810:(Poeciliidae) and other vertebrates".
3863:Scheuerl, Thomas; et al. (2011).
1849:spp. ("green frogs" or "waterfrogs"):
1779:is known to reproduce by gynogenesis.
1642:Induction of parthenogenesis in swine.
485:in their mechanism and consequences.
380:, a process associated with repair of
175:in which growth and development of an
7619:Female sharks capable of virgin birth
6295:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a108530
5902:Highfield, Roger (21 December 2006).
5276:"Shark gives virgin birth in Detroit"
3784:Suomalainen, E.; et al. (1987).
2295:from the original on 13 February 2024
1979:× hypothetical ancestor related with
1604:make it understandable to non-experts
1337:, and snakes. Some of these like the
977:Among species with the haplo-diploid
7:
7811:Males, Females & Hermaphrodites:
7308:Virgin Mother Goddesses of Antiquity
6855:"Parthenogenesis and Natural Clones"
6384:"Longevity in mice without a father"
5390:Hewson, Georgie (14 February 2024).
4199:"Virgin birth in a hammerhead shark"
2840:Sessio Conjunta DEntomologia ICHNSCL
2567:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.05.027
2181:Liddell; Scott; Jones, eds. (1940).
2158:. English definition. Archived from
768:have been found, and specimens from
7056:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1998.11060755.x
6601:"The boy whose blood has no father"
5879:. 12 September 2012. Archived from
5721:Shepherd, Kyle (18 December 2014).
5397:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
5250:"'Virgin birth' for aquarium shark"
2081: – Polish apiarist (1811–1906)
841:Several species of parthenogenetic
6706:"No sex for all-girl fish species"
5222:"Captive shark had 'virgin birth'"
4360:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1988.tb01362.x
4044:Bulletin of Entomological Research
3127:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1986.tb01761.x
2361:Walker, Brian (11 November 2010).
804:At least two species in the genus
776:to reproduce via parthenogenesis.
656:Parthenogenesis does not apply to
25:
7536:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
7339:. Albany: New York State Museum.
6570:, 28 November 1955; Editorial in
5961:"Snake has unique 'virgin birth'"
5936:. 25 January 2007. Archived from
2988:Molecular Genetics of Development
893:). Both true parthenogenesis and
739:Apomixis can apparently occur in
7310:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
6913:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2003.00175.x
6180:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01498.x
5959:Walker, Matt (3 November 2010).
5818:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01954.x
5284:. September 2002. Archived from
5200:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03110.x
5158:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02018.x
4529:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00791.x
4333:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2009.02059.x
4181:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00755.x
3998:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01998.x
2046:
1583:
644:, which is sexual in its native
541:). ZW offspring are produced by
74:
7870:Asexual reproduction in animals
7306:Rigoglioso, Marguerite (2010).
7042:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
7006:"Hybridogenesis in water frogs"
6382:Kawahara, M.; Kono, T. (2009).
4517:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2229:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2201:, Medford & Somerville, MA.
1528:Tokyo University of Agriculture
1399:offspring with WW chromosomes.
1204:
903:sperm-dependent parthenogenesis
638:species and the willow sawfly,
6940:(Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae)"
6853:Vrijenhoek, Robert C. (1998).
5904:"No sex please, we're lizards"
5834:Herpetological Natural History
5783:Herpetological Natural History
5418:Chappell, Bill (4 June 2024).
5107:European Journal of Entomology
2340:. Torstar Books. p. 101.
2134:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1970:Tropidophoxinellus alburnoides
1047:In Central and South American
330:Origin and function of meiosis
1:
7796:Females & Hermaphrodites:
7583:Types of asexual reproduction
7548:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02331-X
7482:Maynard Smith, John. (1978).
6452:10.1095/biolreprod.109.078139
2996:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
1789:Hybridogenesis in water frogs
1526:In April 2004, scientists at
1259:Parthenogenesis in amphibians
7754:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7590:from Oregon State University
7554:Stearns, Stephan C. (1988).
7174:10.1371/journal.pone.0041158
6863:Encyclopedia of Reproduction
6250:"Parthenogenesis in turkeys"
5562:Advances in Zoology Research
5065:10.1371/journal.pone.0011932
4947:10.1371/journal.pone.0020281
4585:10.1371/journal.pone.0024337
4486:Journal of Molluscan Studies
4413:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854
4086:Smith, John Maynard (1978).
3831:10.1371/journal.pone.0012854
3788:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
2717:Concise encyclopedia biology
2020:Parthenogenesis in mythology
1478:and the eggs did not hatch.
1470:was demonstrated in captive
1110:that were discovered in the
1072:. In the grass thrips genus
985:(ants, bees, and wasps) and
167:
153:
7781:Males & Hermaphrodites:
6204:Journal of Medical Genetics
5740:isolated for seven years".
5684:Epicrates cenchria cenchria
4292:10.1126/science.76.1983.628
4092:. CUP Archive. p. 42.
3142:Russian Journal of Genetics
3079:10.1534/genetics.116.196873
1801:), usually females, during
1545:Induced parthenogenesis in
1286:Parthenogenesis in squamata
1220:white-spotted bamboo sharks
1210:In the same year, a female
849:. Such species include the
535:ZW sex-determination system
531:XY sex-determination system
318:ZW sex-determination system
7891:
7749:Sequential hermaphroditism
7012:. Note 579. Archived from
6502:10.1016/j.rbmo.2010.07.001
5635:United Press International
5038:(Branchiopoda: Anostraca)"
4376:. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
3635:Schwartz, Hermann (1932).
3061:Engelstädter, Jan (2017).
2390:Royal Society Open Science
2032:was born from the head of
1843:as well as in some of the
1786:
1743:
1283:
1256:
1205:automictic parthenogenesis
1187:, and reported in others.
686:was described in the fish
432:automictic parthenogenesis
422:Parthenogenesis involving
327:
218:animal species (including
159:
145:
29:
7840:
7731:
7675:
7423:10.1016/j.tig.2007.07.003
7357:Journal of Medical Ethics
7263:(Insecta, Phasmatodea)".
6774:10.1007/s10530-009-9427-2
6252:. The Tremendous Turkey.
5928:"Virgin birth of dragons"
4889:10.1007/s00114-007-0260-0
4645:(Hymenoptera: Figitidae)"
4057:10.1017/S0007485312000429
3717:10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.055
3551:10.1017/S0016672302005657
3290:10.1093/genetics/79.3.513
3154:10.1007/s11177-005-0103-z
2817:10.1080/11250008409439455
2744:Elaeolenchus parthenonema
2338:Reptiles & Amphibians
2014:Bacillus grandii benazzii
1357:, Caucasian rock lizards
409:apomictic parthenogenesis
46:Aspidoscelis neomexicanus
6316:Pincus, Gregory (2018).
5036:Artemia parthenogenetica
4627:Encyclopaedia of Insects
3337:Python molars bivittatus
3036:Comparative Cytogenetics
1931:Example crosses between
1346:Indo-Pacific house gecko
1129:Artemia parthenogenetica
979:sex-determination system
953:Parasitic bacteria like
855:Potamopyrgus antipodarum
569:and the tropical lizard
527:sex determination system
30:Not to be confused with
7369:10.1136/jme.2004.010199
7107:10.1023/A:1023346824722
6812:The American Naturalist
6439:Biology of Reproduction
6282:The Journal of Heredity
6254:oardc.ohio-state.edu/4h
6132:10.1023/A:1018392603062
6066:10.1073/pnas.83.24.9547
6007:10.1073/pnas.1102811108
5180:Journal of Fish Biology
5146:Journal of Fish Biology
4772:10.1186/1471-2164-8-464
3433:10.1126/science.1105453
3230:10.1002/jmor.1051330203
2764:10.1023/A:1015741820235
2752:Systematic Parasitology
2748:Elaeidobius kamerunicus
2681:10.1073/pnas.2115248119
2455:Oregon State University
2191:A Greek-English Lexicon
2068:Telescoping generations
1668:various other religions
1497:and reduced fertility.
1351:, the hybrid whiptails
1342:Lepidodactylus lugubris
1212:Atlantic blacktip shark
1008:Apis mellifera capensis
179:occur directly from an
7710:Vegetative propagation
7159:(7: e41158): 359–368.
6655:Cloning and Stem Cells
6620:Cloning and Stem Cells
5723:"A virgin snake birth"
5656:Wiechmann, R. (2012).
5494:10.1098/rsbl.2023.0129
4643:Odontosema anastrephae
4513:Melanoides tuberculata
4498:10.1093/mollus/58.2.93
4217:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0189
3936:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0666
3363:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800210
2947:10.1093/jhered/esab052
2713:Scott, Thomas (1996).
2620:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0793
2505:10.1093/jhered/esab052
2155:OxfordDictionaries.com
1960:
1878:(Graf's hybrid frog):
1646:
1517:Gregory Goodwin Pincus
1428:reproductive success.
1302:
1106:" are parthenogenetic
1053:Wasmannia auropunctata
974:
863:Melanoides tuberculata
585:non-random segregation
454:
347:
66:
7095:Conservation Genetics
6965:10.1073/pnas.89.1.348
6750:Pelophylax esculentus
6667:10.1089/clo.2007.0063
6632:10.1089/clo.2007.0033
6401:10.1093/humrep/dep400
6262:Ohio State University
6248:Nestor, Karl (2009).
6197:Mittwoch, U. (1978).
5738:Acrochordus javanicus
5120:10.14411/eje.2009.028
5103:(Araneae: Oonopidae)"
3883:10.1093/jhered/esr036
3508:10.1093/jhered/esr080
3218:Journal of Morphology
3197:Biology of Earthworms
2804:Bolletino di Zoologia
2721:. Walter de Gruyter.
2323:, 23 May 2007; p. A02
1947:) and their hybrid –
1930:
1640:
1369:Indotyphlops braminus
1349:Hemidactylus garnotii
1305:Most reptiles of the
1293:
969:
851:New Zealand mud snail
765:Epiperipatus imthurni
475:restitutional meiosis
449:
337:
328:Further information:
157:, 'virgin' +
42:
7766:Males & Females:
7660:Reproductive systems
7499:The Evolution of Sex
7484:The Evolution of Sex
7351:Fangerau, H (2005).
7147:Squalius alburnoides
6754:Biological Invasions
6340:Nature Biotechnology
6217:10.1136/jmg.15.3.165
5883:on 13 September 2012
5802:Thamnophis marcianus
5779:Acrochordus arafurae
5547:. Nauka: Leningrad .
5288:on 29 September 2002
5176:Stegostoma fasciatum
4662:10.1653/024.093.0318
4649:Florida Entomologist
4315:Phytophthora capsici
4089:The Evolution of Sex
2162:on 12 September 2012
1982:Anaecypris hispanica
1680:Lebistes reticulatus
1664:in Christianity
1568:embryonic stem cells
1456:domesticated turkeys
814:sub-division of the
707:asexual reproduction
517:Sex of the offspring
403:Types and mechanisms
281:, with half as many
173:asexual reproduction
63:A. neomexicanus
7460:10.1038/nature02402
7452:2004Natur.428..860K
7165:2012PLoSO...741158I
6956:1992PNAS...89..348Q
6766:2010BiInv..12....1H
6319:The Eggs of Mammals
6057:1986PNAS...83.9547C
5998:2011PNAS..108.9910L
5916:on 11 October 2007.
5909:The Daily Telegraph
5637:. 21 September 2015
5589:2006Natur.444.1021W
5583:(7122): 1021–1022.
5343:2017NatSR...740537D
5314:. 12 December 2011.
5281:National Geographic
5192:2011JFBio..79.1376R
5056:2010PLoSO...511932M
4983:Procambarus clarkii
4938:2011PLoSO...620281B
4881:2007NW.....94..843M
4869:Naturwissenschaften
4824:2003Natur.421..806S
4708:10.1038/nature03705
4700:2005Natur.435.1230F
4694:(7046): 1230–1234.
4576:2011PLoSO...624337M
4404:2010PLoSO...512854S
4284:1932Sci....76..628H
4163:Taeniopygia guttata
4034:Nematus oligospilus
3990:2003MolEc..12.3493V
3870:Journal of Heredity
3822:2010PLoSO...512854S
3708:2015CBio...25.R659V
3485:Journal of Heredity
3425:2004Sci...306.1780P
3419:(5702): 1780–1783.
2934:Journal of Heredity
2882:2020MolEc..29.4118K
2672:2022PNAS..11915248W
2666:(12): e2115248119.
2492:Journal of Heredity
2410:10.1098/rsos.171901
2402:2018RSOS....571901A
2321:The Washington Post
1976:Squalius pyrenaicus
1937:Pelophylax lessonae
1404:New Mexico whiptail
1365:brahminy blindsnake
1299:Varanus komodoensis
1224:Belle Isle Aquarium
1123:Procambarus clarkii
810:, flatworms in the
641:Nematus oligospilus
591:'X' and 'O' during
572:Lepidophyma smithii
344:Varanus komodoensis
238:, some mites, some
183:, without need for
7612:9 May 2021 at the
7411:Trends in Genetics
7225:10.2108/zsj.21.795
7212:Zoological Science
6590:106 (2017): 57–60.
6588:Medical Hypotheses
6388:Human Reproduction
5331:Scientific Reports
5101:Triaeris stenaspis
5001:10.7150/ijbs.4.279
4459:10.1007/BF00331894
3742:Sexual Development
3655:10.1007/BF00585855
2548:Coturnix chinensis
2288:The New York Times
2153:Oxford Dictionary
2137:. Merriam-Webster.
2054:Crustaceans portal
1961:
1831:, recombined (A).
1647:
1571:control regions".
1532:a fatherless mouse
1491:selective breeding
1319:reproduce sexually
1303:
1246:(Urobatis halleri)
1194:, a type of small
1160:Triaeris stenaspis
1148:(goblin spiders),
1117:Orconectes limosus
1037:Cataglyphis cursor
975:
859:red-rimmed melania
652:Natural occurrence
567:California condors
483:self-fertilization
455:
438:of their mother.
378:sister chromosomes
348:
324:Life history types
67:
7857:
7856:
7853:
7852:
7829:
7828:
7718:
7717:
7446:(6985): 860–864.
7317:978-0-230-61886-2
6877:978-0-12-227020-8
6687:Williams, Chris.
6546:10.1262/jrd.20064
6199:"Parthenogenesis"
6051:(24): 9547–9550.
5992:(24): 9910–9915.
5940:on 1 October 2007
5700:10.1002/zoo.21050
5351:10.1038/srep40537
5256:. 10 October 2008
4278:(1983): 628–630.
4099:978-0-521-21887-0
3984:(12): 3493–3504.
3977:Molecular Ecology
3755:10.1159/000195678
3702:(15): R659–R661.
3589:978-0-520-04583-5
3579:Bell, G. (1982).
3537:Genetics Research
3005:978-0-12-017624-3
2890:10.1111/mec.15617
2876:(21): 4118–4127.
2869:Molecular Ecology
2728:978-3-11-010661-9
2347:978-0-920269-81-7
2243:10.1111/jeb.13880
2149:"parthenogenesis"
2129:"parthenogenesis"
2102:Miraculous births
1912:P. kl. esculentus
1894:P. kl. hispanicus
1855:P. kl. esculentus
1735:Similar phenomena
1691:white blood cells
1670:. More recently,
1632:
1631:
1624:
1502:California condor
1222:were born at the
1165:T. stenaspis
973:on a plum blossom
871:Tarebia granifera
507:sister chromatids
352:bdelloid rotifers
143:; from the Greek
52:A. inornatus
16:(Redirected from
7882:
7838:
7729:
7673:
7653:
7646:
7639:
7630:
7551:
7530:
7479:
7434:
7390:
7380:
7322:
7321:
7303:
7297:
7296:
7261:Grandii benazzii
7257:Bacillus rossius
7252:
7246:
7245:
7227:
7203:
7197:
7196:
7186:
7176:
7140:
7134:
7133:
7131:
7129:
7092:
7083:
7077:
7076:
7058:
7032:
7026:
7025:
7023:
7021:
7002:
6996:
6995:
6985:
6967:
6931:
6925:
6924:
6922:
6920:
6915:
6897:
6888:
6882:
6881:
6859:
6850:
6844:
6843:
6818:(934): 605–619.
6803:
6794:
6793:
6745:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6702:
6696:
6695:, 3 August 2007.
6685:
6679:
6678:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6614:
6608:
6597:
6591:
6584:
6575:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6548:
6524:
6515:
6514:
6504:
6480:
6474:
6473:
6463:
6429:
6414:
6413:
6403:
6379:
6373:
6372:
6347:(9): 1045–1050.
6334:
6328:
6327:
6324:Internet Archive
6313:
6307:
6306:
6276:
6270:
6269:
6268:on 14 July 2010.
6264:. Archived from
6245:
6239:
6238:
6228:
6194:
6185:
6184:
6182:
6158:
6152:
6151:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6078:
6068:
6036:
6030:
6029:
6019:
6009:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5912:. Archived from
5899:
5893:
5892:
5890:
5888:
5867:
5861:
5860:
5848:
5842:
5841:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5797:
5791:
5790:
5774:
5768:
5767:
5733:
5727:
5726:
5725:(Press release).
5718:
5712:
5711:
5679:
5673:
5672:
5662:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5644:
5642:
5623:
5617:
5616:
5597:10.1038/4441021a
5572:
5566:
5565:
5557:
5548:
5541:
5532:
5531:
5521:
5473:
5467:
5466:
5464:
5462:
5445:
5439:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5404:
5387:
5381:
5380:
5370:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5261:
5246:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5235:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5186:(5): 1376–1382.
5171:
5162:
5161:
5152:(6): 1473–1477.
5141:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5122:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5077:
5067:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5012:
4976:
4970:
4969:
4959:
4949:
4915:
4909:
4908:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4835:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4784:
4774:
4750:
4744:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4685:
4676:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4636:
4630:
4623:
4608:
4607:
4597:
4587:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4425:
4415:
4383:
4377:
4370:
4364:
4363:
4343:
4337:
4336:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4265:
4259:
4248:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4194:
4185:
4184:
4158:
4145:
4144:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4040:
4027:
4018:
4017:
3967:
3958:
3957:
3947:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3894:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3843:
3833:
3799:
3790:
3789:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3719:
3691:
3682:
3667:
3666:
3640:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3614:10.1899/10-015.1
3608:(4): 1258–1266.
3597:
3591:
3577:
3564:
3563:
3553:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3510:
3500:
3479:Epicrates maurus
3468:
3453:
3452:
3404:
3391:
3390:
3356:
3332:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3301:
3269:
3258:
3257:
3213:
3204:
3193:
3182:
3181:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3110:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3033:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2966:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2865:
2857:
2848:
2847:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2720:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2683:
2651:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2597:
2588:
2587:
2569:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2482:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2457:. Archived from
2446:
2440:
2439:
2429:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2333:
2324:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2300:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2245:
2216:
2207:
2202:
2186:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2125:
2084:
2056:
2051:
2050:
1627:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1607:
1587:
1586:
1579:
1200:Henry Doorly Zoo
1196:hammerhead shark
847:invasive species
689:Poecilia formosa
632:invasive species
589:sex chromosomess
170:
164:
163:
162:
156:
150:
149:
148:
142:
141:
138:
137:
134:
131:
128:
123:
122:
119:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
86:
83:
80:
21:
7890:
7889:
7885:
7884:
7883:
7881:
7880:
7879:
7860:
7859:
7858:
7849:
7825:
7736:Hermaphrodites:
7714:
7700:Parthenogenesis
7662:
7657:
7614:Wayback Machine
7574:
7569:
7533:
7512:
7437:
7408:
7363:(12): 733–735.
7350:
7331:
7329:Further reading
7326:
7325:
7318:
7305:
7304:
7300:
7277:10.2307/2409646
7254:
7253:
7249:
7205:
7204:
7200:
7142:
7141:
7137:
7127:
7125:
7090:
7085:
7084:
7080:
7034:
7033:
7029:
7019:
7017:
7016:on 14 July 2014
7004:
7003:
6999:
6933:
6932:
6928:
6918:
6916:
6895:
6890:
6889:
6885:
6878:
6857:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6805:
6804:
6797:
6747:
6746:
6727:
6717:
6715:
6714:. 23 April 2008
6704:
6703:
6699:
6686:
6682:
6652:
6651:
6647:
6616:
6615:
6611:
6598:
6594:
6585:
6578:
6574:, 2: 967 (1955)
6566:
6562:
6526:
6525:
6518:
6482:
6481:
6477:
6431:
6430:
6417:
6381:
6380:
6376:
6353:10.1038/nbt1331
6336:
6335:
6331:
6315:
6314:
6310:
6278:
6277:
6273:
6247:
6246:
6242:
6196:
6195:
6188:
6160:
6159:
6155:
6112:
6111:
6107:
6097:
6096:
6092:
6038:
6037:
6033:
5979:
5978:
5974:
5958:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5926:
5925:
5921:
5901:
5900:
5896:
5886:
5884:
5869:
5868:
5864:
5850:
5849:
5845:
5830:
5829:
5825:
5799:
5798:
5794:
5776:
5775:
5771:
5756:10.2307/1443886
5735:
5734:
5730:
5720:
5719:
5715:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5660:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5640:
5638:
5625:
5624:
5620:
5574:
5573:
5569:
5559:
5558:
5551:
5542:
5535:
5482:Biology Letters
5475:
5474:
5470:
5460:
5458:
5447:
5446:
5442:
5432:
5430:
5417:
5416:
5412:
5402:
5400:
5389:
5388:
5384:
5324:
5323:
5319:
5306:
5305:
5301:
5291:
5289:
5274:
5273:
5269:
5259:
5257:
5248:
5247:
5243:
5233:
5231:
5220:
5219:
5215:
5173:
5172:
5165:
5143:
5142:
5135:
5125:
5123:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5031:
5030:
5026:
4978:
4977:
4973:
4917:
4916:
4912:
4875:(10): 843–846.
4862:
4861:
4857:
4833:10.1038/421806a
4803:
4802:
4798:
4752:
4751:
4747:
4735:
4731:
4683:
4678:
4677:
4670:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4624:
4611:
4557:
4556:
4552:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4479:
4478:
4474:
4444:
4443:
4439:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4371:
4367:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4320:Plant Pathology
4312:
4311:
4307:
4267:
4266:
4262:
4249:
4242:
4204:Biology Letters
4196:
4195:
4188:
4160:
4159:
4148:
4133:10.2307/1446193
4112:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4085:
4084:
4080:
4038:
4029:
4028:
4021:
3969:
3968:
3961:
3924:Biology Letters
3917:
3916:
3912:
3907:23 October 2012
3906:
3862:
3861:
3857:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3695:Current Biology
3689:
3684:
3683:
3670:
3634:
3633:
3629:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3578:
3567:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3470:
3469:
3456:
3406:
3405:
3394:
3354:10.1.1.578.4368
3334:
3333:
3322:
3312:
3310:
3271:
3270:
3261:
3215:
3214:
3207:
3194:
3185:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3112:
3111:
3104:
3073:(2): 993–1009.
3060:
3059:
3055:
3031:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3006:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2846:(1999): 87–107.
2837:
2836:
2832:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2653:
2652:
2645:
2607:Biology Letters
2599:
2598:
2591:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2484:
2483:
2474:
2464:
2462:
2461:on 16 July 2012
2448:
2447:
2443:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2335:
2334:
2327:
2315:
2311:
2298:
2296:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2236:(7): 992–1009.
2218:
2217:
2210:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2127:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2082:
2052:
2045:
2042:
2028:; for example,
2022:
1988:spined loaches
1967:Iberian minnow
1918:and perhaps in
1858:(edible frog):
1791:
1785:
1752:
1742:
1737:
1660:
1628:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1600:help improve it
1597:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1510:
1464:domestic pigeon
1452:
1444:Lesser Caucasus
1288:
1282:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1239:
1173:
1142:
1084:
1065:Pemphigus betae
1023:parasitic wasps
950:scale insects.
879:
867:Quilted melania
839:
819:Platyhelminthes
802:
782:
760:
737:
703:blacktip sharks
654:
620:
593:spermatogenesis
558:
543:endoreplication
519:
503:terminal fusion
444:
405:
332:
326:
248:parasitic wasps
160:
146:
125:
77:
73:
70:Parthenogenesis
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Parthenogenetic
15:
12:
11:
5:
7888:
7886:
7878:
7877:
7872:
7862:
7861:
7855:
7854:
7851:
7850:
7848:
7847:
7841:
7835:
7831:
7830:
7827:
7826:
7824:
7823:
7818:
7813:
7807:
7806:
7801:
7792:
7791:
7786:
7777:
7776:
7771:
7762:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7732:
7726:
7720:
7719:
7716:
7715:
7713:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7676:
7670:
7664:
7663:
7658:
7656:
7655:
7648:
7641:
7633:
7627:
7626:
7621:
7616:
7604:
7596:
7591:
7585:
7580:
7573:
7572:External links
7570:
7568:
7567:
7552:
7531:
7510:
7495:
7480:
7435:
7417:(9): 440–448.
7406:
7391:
7348:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7324:
7323:
7316:
7298:
7271:(3): 783–796.
7247:
7218:(7): 795–798.
7198:
7135:
7101:(2): 141–155.
7078:
7049:(6): 755–782.
7027:
6997:
6950:(1): 348–352.
6926:
6883:
6876:
6845:
6824:10.1086/282629
6795:
6725:
6697:
6680:
6645:
6626:(3): 432–449.
6609:
6599:Philip Cohen,
6592:
6576:
6560:
6539:(5): 364–369.
6516:
6495:(6): 769–775.
6475:
6446:(5): 906–920.
6415:
6394:(2): 457–461.
6374:
6329:
6308:
6289:(5): 287–290.
6271:
6240:
6211:(3): 165–181.
6186:
6173:(2): 447–460.
6153:
6126:(2): 125–130.
6105:
6090:
6031:
5972:
5951:
5919:
5894:
5862:
5843:
5823:
5812:(3): 566–572.
5792:
5769:
5750:(4): 744–745.
5728:
5713:
5694:(2): 172–176.
5674:
5648:
5618:
5567:
5549:
5545:Archaeolacerta
5533:
5468:
5440:
5410:
5382:
5317:
5299:
5267:
5241:
5213:
5163:
5133:
5113:(2): 217–223.
5089:
5024:
4995:(5): 279–282.
4971:
4910:
4855:
4796:
4745:
4729:
4668:
4655:(3): 437–443.
4631:
4609:
4550:
4523:(1): 138–146.
4503:
4472:
4437:
4378:
4365:
4354:(3): 225–257.
4338:
4327:(4): 715–722.
4305:
4260:
4240:
4211:(4): 425–427.
4186:
4175:(1): 197–199.
4146:
4127:(2): 323–331.
4105:
4098:
4078:
4019:
3972:Myzus persicae
3959:
3930:(6): 983–985.
3910:
3877:(4): 409–415.
3855:
3791:
3776:
3749:(6): 290–301.
3731:
3668:
3649:(4): 645–687.
3627:
3592:
3565:
3544:(3): 203–209.
3522:
3498:10.1.1.414.384
3491:(6): 759–763.
3454:
3392:
3347:(2): 130–135.
3320:
3284:(3): 513–525.
3259:
3224:(2): 139–165.
3205:
3183:
3148:(4): 402–411.
3132:
3121:(3): 321–329.
3102:
3053:
3042:(2): 169–174.
3019:
3004:
2978:
2941:(7): 569–574.
2919:
2849:
2830:
2793:
2758:(3): 219–225.
2734:
2727:
2705:
2643:
2614:(2): 253–256.
2589:
2554:Theriogenology
2536:
2499:(7): 569–574.
2472:
2441:
2376:
2353:
2346:
2325:
2309:
2273:
2220:Heesch, Svenja
2208:
2173:
2140:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2076:
2073:Charles Bonnet
2070:
2065:
2058:
2057:
2041:
2038:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2006:stick insects
1999:
1997:C. longicorpus
1986:
1916:
1915:
1890:
1871:
1784:
1783:Hybridogenesis
1781:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1659:
1656:
1630:
1629:
1591:
1589:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1509:
1506:
1451:
1448:
1339:mourning gecko
1335:Komodo dragons
1284:Main article:
1281:
1278:
1265:
1262:
1257:Main article:
1254:
1251:
1243:round stingray
1238:
1235:
1181:blacktip shark
1172:
1169:
1141:
1138:
1083:
1080:
987:thysanopterans
878:
875:
838:
835:
801:
798:
781:
778:
759:
756:
736:
733:
714:animal cloning
653:
650:
619:
616:
608:Komodo dragons
557:
554:
518:
515:
490:central fusion
452:heterozygosity
443:
440:
404:
401:
325:
322:
254:(such as some
58:A. tigris
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7887:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7846:
7843:
7842:
7839:
7836:
7832:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7812:
7809:
7808:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7794:
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7785:
7782:
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7775:
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7757:
7755:
7752:
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7747:
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7742:
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7737:
7734:
7733:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7721:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7695:Fragmentation
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7677:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7665:
7661:
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7642:
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7631:
7625:
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7617:
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7611:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7576:
7575:
7571:
7565:
7564:0-8176-1807-4
7561:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7516:
7511:
7508:
7507:0-87893-459-6
7504:
7500:
7496:
7493:
7492:0-521-29302-2
7489:
7485:
7481:
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7473:
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7465:
7461:
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7453:
7449:
7445:
7441:
7436:
7432:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7407:
7404:
7403:0-87893-228-3
7400:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7349:
7346:
7345:1-55557-179-4
7342:
7338:
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7328:
7319:
7313:
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7112:
7108:
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7100:
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7079:
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7066:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7048:
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7031:
7028:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7001:
6998:
6993:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6975:
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6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
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6939:
6930:
6927:
6914:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6894:
6887:
6884:
6879:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6864:
6856:
6849:
6846:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6802:
6800:
6796:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6751:
6744:
6742:
6740:
6738:
6736:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6726:
6713:
6712:
6707:
6701:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6684:
6681:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6646:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6613:
6610:
6606:
6605:New Scientist
6602:
6596:
6593:
6589:
6583:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6564:
6561:
6556:
6552:
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6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6523:
6521:
6517:
6512:
6508:
6503:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6489:Reprod Biomed
6486:
6479:
6476:
6471:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6440:
6435:
6428:
6426:
6424:
6422:
6420:
6416:
6411:
6407:
6402:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6375:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6341:
6333:
6330:
6325:
6321:
6320:
6312:
6309:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6275:
6272:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6244:
6241:
6236:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6205:
6200:
6193:
6191:
6187:
6181:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6157:
6154:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6116:Lacerta dahli
6109:
6106:
6101:
6094:
6091:
6086:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6035:
6032:
6027:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5976:
5973:
5968:
5967:
5962:
5955:
5952:
5939:
5935:
5934:
5929:
5923:
5920:
5915:
5911:
5910:
5905:
5898:
5895:
5882:
5878:
5877:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5858:
5854:
5847:
5844:
5839:
5835:
5827:
5824:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5796:
5793:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5773:
5770:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5744:
5739:
5732:
5729:
5724:
5717:
5714:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5678:
5675:
5670:
5666:
5659:
5652:
5649:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5622:
5619:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5571:
5568:
5563:
5556:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5540:
5538:
5534:
5529:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5472:
5469:
5457:. 7 June 2023
5456:
5455:
5450:
5444:
5441:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5414:
5411:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5386:
5383:
5378:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5321:
5318:
5313:
5312:Sharkyear.com
5309:
5303:
5300:
5287:
5283:
5282:
5277:
5271:
5268:
5255:
5251:
5245:
5242:
5230:. 23 May 2007
5229:
5228:
5223:
5217:
5214:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5140:
5138:
5134:
5121:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5102:
5093:
5090:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5050:(8): e11932.
5049:
5045:
5044:
5039:
5037:
5028:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4984:
4975:
4972:
4967:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4932:(5): e20281.
4931:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4914:
4911:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4856:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4818:(6925): 806.
4817:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4749:
4746:
4742:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4682:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4644:
4635:
4632:
4628:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4605:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4570:(8): e24337.
4569:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4507:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4492:(2): 93–107.
4491:
4487:
4483:
4476:
4473:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4441:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4398:(9): e12854.
4397:
4393:
4389:
4382:
4379:
4375:
4369:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4342:
4339:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4309:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4272:
4264:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4205:
4200:
4193:
4191:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4157:
4155:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4115:Cnemidophorus
4109:
4106:
4101:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4082:
4079:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4037:
4035:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3966:
3964:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3914:
3911:
3902:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3859:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3816:(9): e12854.
3815:
3811:
3810:
3805:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3780:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3743:
3735:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3688:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3631:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3526:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3480:
3474:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3030:
3023:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:(1–2): 1–23.
2810:
2806:
2805:
2797:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2719:
2718:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2697:
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2687:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2669:
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2661:
2657:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2549:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
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2481:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2460:
2456:
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2445:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2396:(2): 171901.
2395:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2364:
2357:
2354:
2349:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2177:
2174:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2121:
2114:
2109:
2108:Parthenocarpy
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1945:P. ridibundus
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1907:
1906:P. ridibundus
1902:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1887:P. ridibundus
1883:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:P. ridibundus
1863:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1842:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1818:fertilization
1815:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:gametogenesis
1800:
1796:
1790:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1773:
1772:
1768:of the genus
1767:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1723:Hwang Woo-Suk
1719:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1672:Helen Spurway
1669:
1665:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1626:
1623:
1615:
1612:December 2021
1605:
1601:
1595:
1592:This article
1590:
1581:
1580:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1472:zebra finches
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1409:
1406:in the genus
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1356:
1355:
1354:Cnemidophorus
1350:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1295:Komodo dragon
1292:
1287:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1260:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1218:In 2002, two
1216:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1134:brine shrimps
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1093:
1092:Daphnia pulex
1089:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1066:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1049:electric ants
1045:
1043:
1042:formicine ant
1040:, a European
1039:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1003:
1001:
997:
992:
991:haploid males
988:
984:
983:hymenopterans
980:
972:
968:
964:
962:
958:
957:
951:
949:
945:
940:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
913:
911:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
891:hymenopterans
889:, e.g., most
888:
884:
876:
874:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
836:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
817:
813:
809:
808:
799:
797:
794:
790:
787:
779:
777:
775:
771:
767:
766:
757:
755:
752:
748:
744:
743:
734:
732:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
695:Komodo dragon
691:
690:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
668:
663:
659:
651:
649:
647:
643:
642:
637:
633:
629:
624:
617:
615:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
577:
574:
573:
568:
564:
555:
553:
549:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
523:
516:
514:
511:
508:
504:
499:
496:
491:
486:
484:
478:
476:
472:
468:
467:
461:
459:
453:
448:
441:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
402:
400:
398:
394:
389:
385:
383:
379:
375:
374:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
345:
341:
340:Komodo dragon
336:
331:
323:
321:
319:
315:
311:
306:
304:
300:
299:crossing over
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
271:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:), and a few
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
185:fertilization
182:
178:
174:
169:
155:
140:
71:
64:
60:
59:
54:
53:
48:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7810:
7795:
7789:Andromonoecy
7780:
7765:
7735:
7705:Sporogenesis
7699:
7555:
7539:
7535:
7518:
7514:
7498:
7483:
7443:
7439:
7414:
7410:
7394:
7360:
7356:
7336:
7307:
7301:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7250:
7215:
7211:
7201:
7156:
7152:
7146:
7138:
7126:. Retrieved
7098:
7094:
7081:
7046:
7040:
7030:
7018:. Retrieved
7014:the original
7009:
7000:
6947:
6943:
6938:Poeciliopsis
6937:
6929:
6917:. Retrieved
6903:
6899:
6886:
6862:
6848:
6815:
6811:
6808:Poeciliopsis
6807:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6716:. Retrieved
6709:
6700:
6693:The Register
6692:
6683:
6661:(1): 11–24.
6658:
6654:
6648:
6623:
6619:
6612:
6604:
6595:
6587:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6536:
6532:
6492:
6488:
6478:
6443:
6437:
6391:
6387:
6377:
6344:
6338:
6332:
6318:
6311:
6286:
6280:
6274:
6266:the original
6253:
6243:
6208:
6202:
6170:
6166:
6156:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6108:
6099:
6093:
6048:
6044:
6034:
5989:
5985:
5975:
5964:
5954:
5942:. Retrieved
5938:the original
5931:
5922:
5914:the original
5907:
5897:
5887:12 September
5885:. Retrieved
5881:the original
5874:
5865:
5856:
5852:
5846:
5837:
5833:
5826:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5795:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5772:
5747:
5741:
5737:
5731:
5716:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5677:
5668:
5664:
5651:
5639:. Retrieved
5630:
5621:
5580:
5576:
5570:
5561:
5544:
5502:10919/117182
5485:
5481:
5471:
5459:. Retrieved
5452:
5443:
5431:. Retrieved
5423:
5413:
5401:. Retrieved
5395:
5385:
5334:
5330:
5320:
5311:
5302:
5290:. Retrieved
5286:the original
5279:
5270:
5258:. Retrieved
5244:
5232:. Retrieved
5225:
5216:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5149:
5145:
5124:. Retrieved
5110:
5106:
5100:
5092:
5047:
5041:
5035:
5027:
4992:
4988:
4982:
4974:
4929:
4923:
4913:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4815:
4809:
4799:
4762:
4759:BMC Genomics
4758:
4748:
4743:86:1883–1893
4740:
4732:
4691:
4687:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4634:
4626:
4567:
4563:
4553:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4506:
4489:
4485:
4482:Potamopyrgus
4481:
4475:
4450:
4446:
4440:
4395:
4391:
4381:
4373:
4368:
4351:
4347:
4341:
4324:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4275:
4269:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4208:
4202:
4172:
4166:
4162:
4124:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4088:
4081:
4051:(1): 74–88.
4048:
4042:
4033:
3981:
3975:
3971:
3927:
3923:
3913:
3874:
3868:
3858:
3813:
3807:
3785:
3779:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3699:
3693:
3646:
3642:
3630:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3580:
3541:
3535:
3525:
3488:
3484:
3478:
3416:
3412:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3311:. Retrieved
3281:
3277:
3221:
3217:
3196:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3118:
3114:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3039:
3035:
3022:
2987:
2981:
2938:
2932:
2922:
2873:
2867:
2843:
2839:
2833:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2716:
2708:
2663:
2659:
2611:
2605:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2539:
2496:
2490:
2463:. Retrieved
2459:the original
2444:
2393:
2389:
2379:
2367:. Retrieved
2356:
2337:
2320:
2312:
2304:
2297:. Retrieved
2286:
2276:
2233:
2227:
2203:
2194:
2190:
2176:
2164:. Retrieved
2160:the original
2152:
2143:
2132:
2123:
2096:Jacques Loeb
2079:Jan Dzierżon
2062:Androgenesis
2023:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1952:
1944:
1936:
1921:P. demarchii
1919:
1917:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1885:
1879:
1875:P. kl. grafi
1873:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1844:
1840:Poeciliopsis
1838:
1836:
1833:
1822:
1811:unrecombined
1792:
1777:amazon molly
1769:
1756:
1753:
1720:
1699:
1688:
1679:
1661:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1633:
1618:
1609:
1593:
1544:
1525:
1514:
1511:
1499:
1480:
1453:
1439:
1433:
1430:
1425:
1418:
1408:Aspidoscelis
1407:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:rattlesnakes
1385:gartersnakes
1368:
1358:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1331:rock lizards
1304:
1298:
1267:
1245:
1240:
1228:
1217:
1209:
1189:
1174:
1164:
1158:
1149:
1143:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1090:
1085:
1075:Aptinothrips
1073:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1046:
1035:
1033:
1026:
1016:
1006:
1004:
976:
961:haplodiploid
954:
952:
947:
941:
914:
910:Strepsiptera
907:
902:
898:
880:
870:
862:
854:
840:
831:pseudogamous
805:
803:
783:
763:
762:No males of
761:
758:Velvet worms
742:Phytophthora
740:
738:
730:
711:
687:
665:
655:
639:
625:
621:
597:
578:
570:
559:
550:
547:
524:
520:
512:
502:
500:
489:
487:
479:
474:
464:
462:
457:
456:
435:
431:
421:
416:
408:
406:
390:
386:
371:
349:
343:
307:
272:
216:invertebrate
209:
69:
68:
62:
56:
50:
44:
36:
32:Pathogenesis
7804:Gynomonoecy
7784:Androdioecy
7769:Gonochorism
7521:: 399–417.
7395:Coevolution
6906:: 151–163.
6760:(1): 1–13.
6752:complex)".
6607:, 7.10.1995
6260:/ Poultry.
5859:(3): 20–25.
5789:(1): 11–18.
5688:Zoo Biology
5671:(1): 11–21.
5403:17 February
5254:Metro.co.uk
5234:23 December
4865:Marmorkrebs
4808:. Ecology.
4374:ScienceNews
3313:20 December
2369:11 November
2299:16 February
1993:hankugensis
1949:edible frog
1861:P. lessonae
1766:salamanders
1746:Gynogenesis
1740:Gynogenesis
1716:MHC-matched
1411:leading to
1231:zebra shark
1185:zebra shark
1151:Heteroonops
1104:Marmorkrebs
1100:crustaceans
1082:Crustaceans
937:Hymenoptera
935:, and some
917:Phasmatodea
899:gynogenesis
887:arrhenotoky
865:), and the
812:Turbellaria
774:velvet worm
684:vertebrates
680:vertebrates
556:Facultative
471:blastomeres
466:endomitotic
442:Automictic
436:half clones
417:full clones
413:gametophyte
397:arrhenotoky
368:cladocerans
283:chromosomes
252:vertebrates
244:Phasmatodea
228:water fleas
224:tardigrades
55:(left) and
7864:Categories
7845:Heterogamy
7821:Trimonoecy
7799:Gynodioecy
7010:tolweb.org
6572:The Lancet
5944:3 February
5876:BBC Nature
5840:(1): 1–10.
5260:10 October
4447:Chromosoma
3473:Coby Schal
2560:: 96–102.
2166:20 January
2115:References
2026:Greek myth
2009:B. rossius
1957:esculentus
1941:marsh frog
1900:P. bergeri
1846:Pelophylax
1787:See also:
1744:See also:
1703:homozygous
1564:parthenote
1440:D. "dahli"
1381:filesnakes
1363:, and the
1270:Costa Rica
1264:Crocodiles
1253:Amphibians
1192:bonnethead
1183:, and the
1177:bonnethead
1154:spinimanus
1088:water flea
996:honey bees
989:(thrips),
981:, such as
925:Aleurodids
895:pseudogamy
843:gastropods
821:, include
793:monogonont
699:hammerhead
628:introduced
495:anaphase I
360:gall wasps
260:amphibians
7542:: 34–39.
7265:Evolution
7115:1566-0621
7065:1420-9101
6974:0027-8424
6782:1387-3547
5933:The Hindu
5641:3 October
5510:1744-957X
5359:2045-2322
5337:: 40537.
4741:Evolution
3493:CiteSeerX
3371:0018-067X
3349:CiteSeerX
3238:1097-4687
3162:1022-7954
3048:1993-078X
2955:0022-1503
2914:221474843
2898:0962-1083
2825:0373-4137
2772:0165-5752
2513:1465-7333
2418:2054-5703
2252:1010-061X
2085:– Polish
1933:pool frog
1881:P. perezi
1771:Ambystoma
1712:haplotype
1560:placental
1555:imprinted
1540:longevity
1515:In 1936,
1485:cells to
1468:passerine
1435:Darevskia
1422:fecundity
1413:polyploid
1360:Darevskia
1323:whiptails
1307:squamatan
1274:crocodile
1241:A female
1146:Oonopidae
1112:pet trade
1028:Wolbachia
971:Honey bee
956:Wolbachia
921:Hemiptera
883:thelytoky
823:polyploid
800:Flatworms
735:Oomycetes
676:nematodes
658:isogamous
646:Holarctic
612:automixis
458:Automixis
393:thelytoky
232:scorpions
220:nematodes
154:parthénos
7680:Apomixis
7610:Archived
7602:BBC News
7468:15103378
7431:17683825
7387:16319240
7293:28568678
7242:40846660
7234:15277723
7193:22815952
7153:PLOS ONE
7123:20453910
7073:85833296
7020:13 March
6992:11607248
6840:84812427
6790:23535815
6711:BBC News
6675:18092905
6640:17594198
6555:18635923
6511:21051286
6470:19571260
6410:19952375
6361:17704765
6148:11145792
6140:16220367
6120:Genetica
6100:Lost Sex
6026:21543715
5966:BBC News
5708:23086743
5605:17183308
5528:37282490
5519:10244963
5454:BBC News
5377:28091617
5292:17 April
5227:BBC News
5208:22026614
5126:30 April
5084:20694140
5043:PLoS One
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