Participatory action research

151:, for instance, is not necessarily committed to participatory principles and may be initiated and controlled mostly by experts, with the implication that 'human subjects' are not invited to play a key role in science building and the framing of the research questions. As in mainstream science, this process "regards people as sources of information, as having bits of isolated knowledge, but they are neither expected nor apparently assumed able to analyze a given social reality". PAR also differs from participatory inquiry or collaborative research, contributions to knowledge that may not involve direct engagement with transformative action and social history. PAR, in contrast, has evolved from the work of activists more concerned with empowering marginalized peoples than with generating academic knowledge for its own sake. Lastly, given its commitment to the research process, PAR overlaps but is not synonymous with 584:, PAR runs the risk of substituting small-scale participation for genuine democracy and fails to develop strategies for social transformation on all levels. Given its political implications, community-based action research and its consensus ethos have been known to fall prey to powerful stakeholders and serve as Trojan horses to bring global and environmental restructuring processes directly to local settings, bypassing legitimate institutional buffers and obscuring diverging interests and the exercise of power during the process. Cooptation can lead to highly manipulated outcomes. Against this criticism, others argue that, given the right circumstances, it is possible to build institutional arrangements for joint learning and action across regional and national borders that can have impacts on citizen action, national policies and global discourses. 118:"Do not monopolise your knowledge nor impose arrogantly your techniques, but respect and combine your skills with the knowledge of the researched or grassroots communities, taking them as full partners and co-researchers. Do not trust elitist versions of history and science which respond to dominant interests, but be receptive to counter-narratives and try to recapture them. Do not depend solely on your culture to interpret facts, but recover local values, traits, beliefs, and arts for action by and with the research organisations. Do not impose your own ponderous scientific style for communicating results, but diffuse and share what you have learned together with the people, in a manner that is wholly understandable and even literary and pleasant, for science should not be necessarily a mystery nor a monopoly of experts and intellectuals." 509:

people themselves in research and advocacy conducted by academics or other experts. Because system-impacted people hold experiential knowledge of the conditions and practices of the justice system, they may be able to more effectively expose and articulate problems with that system. Many people who have been incarcerated are also able to share with researchers facets of the justice system that are invisible to the outside world or are difficult to understand without first-hand experience. Proponents of PAR in criminal justice believe that including those most impacted by the justice system in research is crucial because the presence of these individuals precludes the possibility of misunderstanding or compounding harms of the justice system in that research.

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process that may take place outside the walls of academic or corporate science. As Canada's Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans suggests, PAR requires that the terms and conditions of the collaborative process be set out in a research agreement or protocol based on mutual understanding of the project goals and objectives between the parties, subject to preliminary discussions and negotiations. Unlike individual consent forms, these terms of reference (ToR) may acknowledge collective rights, interests and mutual obligations. While they are legalistic in their genesis, they are usually based on interpersonal relationships and a history of trust rather than the language of legal forms and contracts.

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encourages researchers to consider participants as standing on equal epistemological footing, with equal say in research decisions. Within this ethical framework, PAR doesn't just affect change in the world but also directly improves the lives of the research participants. An "ethic of empowerment" may require a systemic shift in the way researchers view and talk about oppressed communities — often as degenerate or helpless. If not practiced in a way that actively considers the knowledge of participants, PAR can become manipulative. Participatory settings in which participants are tokenized or serve only as sources of information without joint power in decision-making processes can exploit rather than empower.

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phases of the action inquiry process, from defining relevant research questions and topics to designing and implementing the investigation, sharing the available resources, acknowledging community-based expertise, and making the results accessible and understandable to community members and the broader public. Service learning or education is a closely related endeavour designed to encourage students to actively apply knowledge and skills to local situations, in response to local needs and with the active involvement of community members. Many online or printed guides now show how students and faculty can engage in community-based participatory research and meet academic standards at the same time.

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employees have a fundamental role in designing workplace interventions. Success through participatory programs may be due to a number of factors. Such factors include a better identification of potential barriers and facilitators, a greater willingness to accept interventions than those imposed strictly from upper management, and enhanced buy-in to intervention design, resulting in greater sustainability though promotion and acceptance. When designing an intervention, employees are able to consider lifestyle and other behavioral influences into solution activities that go beyond the immediate workplace.

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remained androcentric. In 1987, Patricia Maguire critiqued this male-centered participatory research, arguing that "rarely have feminist and participatory action researchers acknowledged each other with mutually important contributions to the journey." Given that PAR aims to give equitable opportunity for diverse and marginalized voices to be heard, engaging gender minorities is an integral pillar in PAR's tenants. In addition to gender minorities, PAR must consider points of intersecting oppressions individuals may experience. After Maguire published

421:(CRT). Today, applying an intersectional feminist lens to PAR is crucial to recognize the social categories, such as race, class, ability, gender, and sexuality, that construct individuals' power relations and lived experiences. PAR seeks to recognize the deeply complex condition of human living. Therefore, framing PAR's qualitative study methodologies through an intersectional feminist lens mobilizes all experiences – regardless of various social categories and oppressions – as legitimate sources of knowledge. 178:'s emphasis on learning from experience). Lewin's seminal contribution involves a flexible, scientific approach to planned change that proceeds through a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of 'a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action', towards an organizational 'climate' of democratic leadership and responsible participation that promotes critical self-inquiry and collaborative work. These steps inform Lewin's work with basic skill training groups, 531:

advancement of knowledge, especially those that are serious and probable. Since privacy is a factor that contributes to people's welfare, confidentiality obtained through the collection and use of data that are anonymous (e.g. survey data) or anonymized tends to be the norm. Finally, the principle of justice—equal treatment and concern for fairness and equity—calls for measures of appropriate inclusion and mechanisms to address conflicts of interests.

282:), are now promoted and implemented by many international development agencies, researchers, consultants, civil society and local community organizations around the world. This has resulted in countless experiments in diagnostic assessment, scenario planning and project evaluation in areas ranging from fisheries and mining to forestry, plant breeding, agriculture, farming systems research and extension, watershed management, resource mapping, 323:, with a focus on dialogical reflection and action as means to overcome relations of domination and subordination between oppressors and the oppressed, colonizers and the colonized. The approach implies that "the silenced are not just incidental to the curiosity of the researcher but are the masters of inquiry into the underlying causes of the events in their world". Although a researcher and a sociologist, 560:

theoretical commitments (Lewinian, Habermasian, Freirean, psychoanalytic, feminist, etc.) and methodological inclinations (quantitative, qualitative, mixed) are numerous and profound. This is not necessarily a problem, given the pluralistic value system built into PAR. Ways to better answer questions pertaining to PAR's relationship with science and social history are nonetheless key to its future.

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their commitment to social justice and transformative action, some PAR projects may be critical of existing social structures and struggle against the policies and interests of individuals, groups and institutions accountable for their actions, creating circumstances of danger. Public-facing action can also be dangerous for some marginalized populations, such as survivors of domestic violence.

109:, and key initiatives such as the Participatory Research Network created in 1978 and based in New Delhi. "It has benefited from an interdisciplinary development drawing its theoretical strength from adult education, sociology, political economy, community psychology, community development, feminist studies, critical psychology, organizational development and more". The Colombian sociologist 597:. Others equate research with any involvement in reflexive practice aimed at assessing problems and evaluating project or program results against group expectations. As a result, inquiry methods tend to be soft and theory remains absent or underdeveloped. Practical and theoretical efforts to overcome this ambivalence towards scholarly activity are nonetheless emerging. 259:

and Dejours's psychodynamics of work, with its emphasis on work-induced suffering and defence mechanisms. Lapassade and Lourau's 'socianalytic' interventions focus rather on institutions viewed as systems that dismantle and recompose norms and rules of social interaction over time, a perspective that builds on the principles of institutional analysis and psychotherapy.

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research". Photovoice is one of the strategies used in PAR and is especially useful in the public health domain. Keeping in mind the purpose of PAR, which is to benefit communities, Photovoice allows the same to happen through the media of photography. Photovoice considers helping community issues and problems reach policy makers as its primary goal.

234:. Most formulations of psychosociology share with OD a commitment to the relative autonomy and active participation of individuals and groups coping with problems of self-realization and goal effectiveness within larger organizations and institutions. In addition to this humanistic and democratic agenda, psychosociology uses concepts of 72:

collective processes of self-investigation. The way each component is actually understood and the relative emphasis it receives varies nonetheless from one PAR theory and practice to another. This means that PAR is not a monolithic body of ideas and methods but rather a pluralistic orientation to knowledge making and social change.

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a central role. While more clinically oriented, psychosociology in France also emphasizes the distinctive role of formal research and academic work, beyond problem solving in specific contexts. Many PAR practitioners critical of mainstream science and its overemphasis on quantitative data also point out that research based on

221:. Rigorous data gathering or fact-finding methods may be used to support the inquiry process and group thinking and planning. On the whole, however, science tends to be a means, not an end. Workplace and organizational learning interventions are first and foremost problem-based, action-oriented and client-centred. 264:

behaviour and views and also the social aspects of group behaviour and affect. Another issue is the extent to which the intervention is critical of broader institutional and social systems. The use of psychoanalytic concepts and the relative weight of effort dedicated to research, training and action also vary.

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within academia where general assumptions (e.g. neurodivergence is inferior to neurotypicality), promote neurodivergent individuals as active collaborators, thus involving them in knowledge generation and ensure the theories of human cognition include strengths and weaknesses, together with lived experiences.

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The role of science and scholarship in PAR is another source of difference. In the Lewinian tradition, "there is nothing so practical as a good theory". Accordingly, the scientific logic of developing theory, forming and testing hypotheses, gathering measurable data and interpreting the results plays

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and Martin's work on group psychoanalysis and theory of the collective 'skin-ego' is generally considered as the most faithful to the Freudian tradition. Key differences between these schools and the methods they use stem from the weight they assign to the analyst's expertise in making sense of group

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are turning points in the formative years of psychosociology. Commonly cited authors in France include Amado, Barus-Michel, Dubost, Enriquez, Lévy, Gaujelac, and Giust-Desprairies. Different schools of thought and practice include Mendel's action research framed in a 'sociopsychoanalytic' perspective

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Fundamentally, PAR pushes against the notion that experiential distance is required for objectivity in scientific and sociological research. Instead, PAR values embodied knowledge beyond "gated communities" of scholarship, bridging academia and social movements such that research and advocacy — often

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calls for public discussion, transparency and pluralism in political decision-making, lawmaking and institutional life. Fact-finding and the outputs of science are made accessible to participants and may be subject to extensive media coverage, scientific peer review, deliberative opinion polling and

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Tavistock broke new ground in other ways, by meshing general medicine and psychiatry with Freudian and Jungian psychology and the social sciences to help the British army face various human resource problems. This gave rise to a field of scholarly research and professional intervention loosely known

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and approach to worklife in capital-dominated economies. Its principal goal is to enhance an organization's performance and the worklife experience, with the assistance of a consultant, a change agent or catalyst that helps the sponsoring organization define and solve its own problems, introduce new

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in PAR theory and practice. Labels used to define each approach (PAR, critical PAR, action research, psychosociology, sociotechnical analysis, etc.) reflect these tensions and point to major differences that may outweigh the similarities. While a common denominator, the combination of participation,

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ICTs, open politics and deliberative democracy usher in new strategies to engage governments, scientists, civil society organizations and interested citizens in policy-related discussions of science and technology. These trends represent an invitation to explore novel ways of doing PAR on a broader

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is a promising effort to "use knowledge and community-university partnership strategies for democratic social and environmental change and justice, particularly among the most vulnerable people and places of the world." It calls for the active involvement of community members and researchers in all

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PAR emerged in the postwar years as an important contribution to intervention and self-transformation within groups, organizations and communities. It has left a singular mark on the field of rural and community development, especially in the Global South. Tools and concepts for doing research with

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One critical question concerns the problem-solving orientation of engaged inquiry—the rational means-ends focus of most PAR experiments as they affect organizational performance or material livelihoods, for instance. In the clinical perspective of French psychosociology, a pragmatic orientation to

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and responsiveness to social context and needs, PAR cannot limit discussions and decisions about ethics to the design and proposal phase. Norms of ethical conduct and their implications may have to be revisited as the project unfolds. This has implications, both in resources and practice, for the

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Another implication of PAR ethics is that partners must protect themselves and each other against potential risks, by mitigating the negative consequences of their collaborative work and pursuing the welfare of all parties concerned. This does not preclude battles against dominant interests. Given

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of those participating in research (or those representing them in the case of persons lacking the capacity to decide). Another mainstream principle is the welfare of participants who should not be exposed to any unfavourable balance of benefits and risks with participation in research aimed at the

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These principles and the ongoing evolution of PAR have had a lasting legacy in fields ranging from problem solving in the workplace to community development and sustainable livelihoods, education, public health, feminist research, civic engagement and criminal justice. It is important to note that

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PAR practitioners make a concerted effort to integrate three basic aspects of their work: participation (life in society and democracy), action (engagement with experience and history), and research (soundness in thought and the growth of knowledge). "Action unites, organically, with research" and

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emphasizing participation and action by members of communities affected by that research. It seeks to understand the world by trying to change it, collaboratively and following reflection. PAR emphasizes collective inquiry and experimentation grounded in experience and social history. Within a PAR

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and other social movements in South Asia and Latin America (see above), PAR is seen as a threat to their authority by some established elites. An international alliance university-based participatory researchers, ICPHR, omit the word "Action", preferring the less controversial term "participatory

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perspective on workplace dynamics, guided by the idea that greater productivity or efficiency does not hinge on improved technology alone. Improvements in organizational life call instead for the interaction and 'joint optimization' of the social and technical components of workplace activity. In

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Gourdon-Kanhukamwe, Amélie; Kalandadze, Tamara; Yeung, Siu Kit; Azevedo, Flavio; Iley, Bethan; Phan, Jenny Mai; Ramji, Anusha V.; Shaw, John J.; Zaneva, Mirela; Dokovova, Marie; Hartmann, Helena; Kapp, Steven K.; Warrington, Kayleigh L.; Training (FORRT), Framework of Open Reproducible Research;

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PAR offers a long history of experimentation with evidence-based and people-based inquiry, a groundbreaking alternative to mainstream positive science. As with positivism, the approach creates many challenges as well as debates on what counts as participation, action and research. Differences in

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While the choice of appropriate norms of ethical conduct is rarely an either/or question, PAR implies a different understanding of what consent, welfare and justice entail. For one thing the people involved are not mere 'subjects' or 'participants'. They act instead as key partners in an inquiry

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and others organized the first explicitly PAR conference in Cartagena, Colombia in 1977. Based on his research with peasant groups in rural Boyaca and with other underserved groups, Fals Borda called for the 'community action' component to be incorporated into the research plans of traditionally

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In some fields of PAR it is believed that an ethics of participation should go beyond avoidance of harm. For participatory settings that engage with marginalized or oppressed populations, including criminal justice, PAR can be mobilized to actively support individuals. An "ethic of empowerment"

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Compared to other fields, PAR frameworks in criminal justice are relatively new. But growing support for community-based alternatives to the criminal justice system has sparked interest in PAR in criminological settings. Participatory action research in criminal justice includes system-impacted

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populations within research, by asking neurodivergent adults to get involved in discussing the various stages of the scientific methodology, which allows them to provide a better understanding of the research priorities within these communities. This research can challenge the ableist structure

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by promoting the grounding of knowledge in human agency and social history (as in much of political economy). Inquiry based on PAR principles makes sense of the world through collective efforts to transform it, as opposed to simply observing and studying human behaviour and people's views about

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may be theoretically-informed and rigorous in its own way. In other traditions, however, PAR keeps great distance from both academic and corporate science. Given their emphasis on pluralism and living knowledge, many practitioners of grassroots inquiry are critical of grand theory and advanced

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also contributed to rethinking the role of scholarship in challenging existing regimes of power, using qualitative and interpretive methods that emphasize subjectivity and self-inquiry rather than the quantitative approach of mainstream science. As did most research in the 1970s and 1980s, PAR

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Participatory programs within the workplace involve employees within all levels of a workplace organization, from management to front-line staff, in the design and implementation of health and safety interventions. Some research has shown that interventions are most successful when front-line

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where community leaders and group facilitators use feedback, problem solving, role play and cognitive aids (lectures, handouts, film) to gain insights into themselves, others and groups with a view to 'unfreezing' and changing their mindsets, attitudes and behaviours. Lewin's understanding of

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Participants in PAR may also hold knowledge or education in more traditional academic fields, like law, policy or government that can inform criminological research. But PAR in criminology bridges the epistemological gap between knowledge gained through academia and through lived experience,

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NTL played a central role in the evolution of experiential learning and the application of behavioral science to improving organizations. Process consultation, team building, conflict management, and workplace group democracy and autonomy have become recurrent themes in the prolific body of

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PAR can be thought of as a guiding paradigm to influence and democratize the creation of knowledge making, and ground it in real community needs and learning. Knowledge production controlled by elites can sometimes further oppress marginalized populations. PAR can be a way of overcoming the

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is another recent move to expand the scope of PAR, to include broader 'communities of interest' and citizens committed to enhancing knowledge in particular fields. In this approach to collaborative inquiry, research is actively assisted by volunteers who form an active public or network of

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Elsherif, Mahmoud Medhat; Middleton, Sara Lil; Phan, Jenny Mai; Azevedo, Flavio; Iley, Bethan Joan; Grose-Hodge, Magdalena; Tyler, Samantha Lily; Kapp, Steven K.; Gourdon-Kanhukamwe, Amélie; Grafton-Clarke, Desiree; Yeung, Siu Kit; Shaw, John J.; Hartmann, Helena; Dokovova, Marie.

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Collaborative research in education is community-based research where pre-university teachers are the community and scientific knowledge is built on top of teachers' own interpretation of their experience and reality, with or without immediate engagement in transformative action.

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Blangy, S. (2010) "Co-construire le tourisme autochtone par la recherche action participative et les Technologies de l'Information et de la Communication: Une nouvelle approche de la gestion des ressources et des territoires". PhD thesis, Université Paul Valéry - Montpellier

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On the whole, PAR applications in these fields are committed to problem solving and adaptation to nature at the household or community level, using friendly methods of scientific thinking and experimentation adapted to support rural participation and sustainable livelihoods.

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and natural resource management, land rights, appropriate technology, local economic development, communication, tourism, leadership for sustainability, biodiversity and climate change. This prolific literature includes the many insights and methodological creativity of

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on issues ranging from violence to criminality, racial or sexual discrimination, educational justice, healthcare and the environment. When youth are included as research partners in the PAR process, it is referred to as Youth Participatory Action Research, or YPAR.

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In the UK and North America the work of Kurt Lewin and the Tavistock Institute in the 1940s has been influential. However alternative traditions of PAR, begin with processes that include more bottom-up organising and popular education than were envisaged by Lewin.

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forms of leadership and change organizational culture and learning. Diagnostic and capacity-building activities are informed, to varying degrees, by psychology, the behavioural sciences, organizational studies, or theories of leadership and social innovation.

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to democratic institutions, allowing citizens to actively engage in wiki-based processes of virtual journalism, public debate and policy development. Although few and far between, experiments in open politics can thus make use of ICT and the mechanics of

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on a global scale. How can PAR develop a macro-orientation to democratic dialogue and meet challenges of the 21st Century, by joining movements to support justice and solidarity on both local and global scales? By keeping things closely tied to local

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trained researchers. His recommendations to researchers committed to the struggle for justice and greater democracy in all spheres, including the business of science, are useful for all researchers and echo the teaching from many schools of research:

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thought to be mutually exclusive — become intertwined. Rather than be confined by academia, participatory settings are believed to have "social value," confronting epistemological gaps that may deepen ruts of inequality and injustice.

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Senge, P.M. and Scharmer, C.O. (2001) "Community Action Research: Learning as a Community of Practitioners, Consultants and Researchers", in P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds) "Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and

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Given the often delicate power balances between researchers and participants in PAR, there have been calls for a code of ethics to guide the relationship between researchers and participants in a variety of PAR fields. Norms in

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is interesting in this regard. It involves people selected at random from a local or national population who are provided opportunities to question 'witnesses' and collectively form a 'judgment' on the issue at hand.

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inspiration to address interpersonal relations and the interplay between self and group. It acknowledges the role of the unconscious in social behaviour and collective representations and the inevitable expression of

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as psychosociology, particularly influential in France (CIRFIP). Several schools of thought and 'social clinical' practise belong to this tradition, all of which are critical of the experimental and expert mindset of

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also has a profound distrust of conventional academia and great confidence in popular knowledge, sentiments that have had a lasting impact on the history of PAR, particularly in the fields of development, literacy,

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backed up by evidential reasoning, fact-finding and learning. All formulations of PAR have in common the idea that research and action must be done 'with' people and not 'on' or 'for' people. It counters

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applications support virtual community interactivity and the development of user-driven content and social media, without restricted access or controlled implementation. They extend principles of

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Wakeford, T., Singh, J., Murtuja, B., Bryant, P. and Pimbert, M. (2007) "The Jury is Out: How Far Can Participatory Projects Go Towards Reclaiming Democracy?", in P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds)

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action and research reflects the fragile unity of traditions whose diverse ideological and organizational contexts kept them separate and largely ignorant of one another for several decades.

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Desgagné, S., Bednarz, N., Couture, C., Poirier, L. and Lebuis, P. (2001) "L'approche collaborative de recherche en éducation: un nouveau rapport à établir entre recherche et formation".

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The following review focuses on traditions that incorporate the three pillars of PAR. Closely related approaches that overlap but do not bring the three components together are left out.

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ineffectiveness and elitism of conventional schooling and science, and the negative effects of market forces and industry on the workplace, community life and sustainable livelihoods.

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PAR draws on a wide range of influences, both among those with professional training and those who draw on their life experience and those of their ancestors. Many draw on the work of

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process, "communities of inquiry and action evolve and address questions and issues that are significant for those who participate as co-researchers". PAR contrasts with mainstream

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involving humans include respect for the autonomy of individuals and groups to deliberate about a decision and act on it. This principle is usually expressed through the free,

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and others thus propose a 'sociology of intervention' involving the creation of artificial spaces for movement activists and non-activists to debate issues of public concern.

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Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Adams, Jon; Brook, Kabie; Charman, Tony; Crane, Laura; Cusack, James; Leekam, Susan; Milton, Damian; Parr, Jeremy R; Pellicano, Elizabeth (May 2019).

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Ospina S, Dodge J, Foldy EG, Hofmann A (2008). "Taking the Action Turn: Lessons From Bringing Participation to Qualitative Research". In Reason P, Bradbury H (eds.).

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Smith, L., Ronsenzweig, L. and Schmidt, M. (2010) "Best Practices in the Reporting of Participatory Action Research: Embracing Both the Forest and the Trees",

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Eisenberg, E.M., Baglia, J. and Pynes, J.E. (2006) "Transforming Emergency Medicine Through Narrative: Qualitative Action Research at a Community Hospital".

163:—recognized forms of problem solving and capacity building that may be carried out with no immediate concern for research and the advancement of knowledge. 3031:

Kasl, E. and Yorks, L. (2002) "An Extended Epistemology for Transformative Learning Theory and Its Application Through Collaborative Inquiry", Lyle Yorks,

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Hills, M., Mullett, J., and Carroll, S. (2007) "Community-Based Participatory Research: Transforming Multi-disciplinary Practice in Primary Health Care".

2283: 3735:"The Intervention Design and Analysis Scorecard: a planning tool for participatory design of integrated health and safety interventions in the workplace" 4966:

Brown, L.D., and Gaventa, J. (2010) "Constructing Transnational Action Research Networks: Reflections on the Citizenship Development Research Centre",

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Phillips, L.J. and Kristiansen, M. (2012) "Characteristics and Challenges of Collaborative Research: Further Perspective on Reflexive Strategies", in

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Dupont I (30 July 2008). "Beyond Doing No Harm: A Call for Participatory Action Research with Marginalized Populations in Criminological Research".

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Brown, D. (2004) "Participation in Poverty Reduction Strategies: Democracy Strengthened or Democracy Undermined?", in S. Hickey and G. Mohan (eds)

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Johannessen, K.S. (1996) "Action Research and Epistemology: Some Remarks Concerning the Activity-Relatedness and Contextuality of Human Language",

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this perspective, the best match between the social and technical factors of organized work lies in principles of 'responsible group autonomy' and

187:(created in 1947)) in the UK and National Training Laboratories (NTL) in the US. An important offshoot of Tavistock thinking and practise is the 5236: 2362: 340: 3324:

Transforming Social Inquiry, Transforming Social Action: New Paradigms for Crossing the Theory/Practice Divide in Universities and Communities

2955: 2770: 2689: 2231: 1699: 1577: 1510: 1335: 934: 743: 700: 654: 247:—language and behaviour that redirect unspoken feelings and anxieties to other people or physical objects taking part in the action inquiry. 5191: 3976:"The Impact of Mandatory Reporting Laws on Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: Intersectionality, Help-Seeking and the Need for Change" 2703:

Food Sovereignty and Uncultivated Biodiversity in South Asia: Essays on the poverty of food policy and the wealth of the social landscape

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Freire, P. (1982) "Creating alternative research methods. Learning to do it by doing it", in Hall, B., Gillette, A. and R. Tandon (eds.)

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Gonsalves, J., Becker, T., Braun, A., Campilan, D., Chavez, H. de, Fajber, E., Kapiriri, M., Rivaca-Caminade, J. and Vernooy, R. (2005)

3949: 5027: 4954: 4899: 4865: 4831: 4810: 4763: 4699: 4678: 4535: 4514: 4493: 4384: 4363: 3911:

Williams, J. and Lykes, M.B. (2003) "Bridging Theory and Practice: Using Reflexive Cycles in Feminist Participatory Action Research",

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Fine M (November 2013). "Echoes of Bedford: a 20-year social psychology memoir on participatory action research hatched behind bars".

1033: 912: 891: 867: 831: 808: 784: 3222: 2637: 2569: 2522: 2437: 2346: 2323: 1359: 1011: 958: 208:(OD). As with 'action science', OD is a response to calls for planned change and 'rational social management' involving a normative 2300:

The Community's Toolbox: The Idea, Methods and Tools for Participatory Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation in Community Forestry

2625: 2510: 5339: 5184: 4308:"The positive aspects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a qualitative investigation of successful adults with ADHD" 5243: 2146: 369: 2336: 2313: 1103:

Brown, L.D., and Tandon, R. (1983) "Ideology and Political Economy in Inquiry: Action Research and Participatory Research",

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ability to subject the research to true ethical oversight in the way that traditional research has come to be regulated.

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Mohrman SA, Lawler EE, eds. (2011). "Organization Development Scholar Practitioners: Between Scholarship and Practice".

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and rational. PAR must pay equal attention the interconnections of self-awareness, the unconscious and life in society.

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By definition, PAR is always a step into the unknown, raising new questions and creating new risks over time. Given its

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Shotter, J. (2012) "Situated Dialogic Action Research Disclosing 'Beginnings' for Innovative Change in Organizations".

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Brown, L.D. (1993) "Social Change through Collective Reflection with Asian Nongovernmental Development Organizations",

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Fine, M. and Torre, M.E. (2008) "Theorizing Audience, Products and Provocation", in P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds)

205: 4597:"TCPS 2 (2014)— the latest edition of Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans" 4563:"Leading with Conviction: The Transformative Role of Formerly Incarcerated Leaders in Reducing Mass Incarceration" 4430:

Gaventa, J. and Barrett, G. (2010) "So What Difference Does it Make? Mapping the Outcomes of Citizen Engagement",

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methods for collaborative inquiry, to the point of abandoning the word "research" altogether, as in participatory

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Rahman MA (2008). "Some Trends in the Praxis of Participatory Action Research". In Reason P, Bradbury H (eds.).

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to facilitate communications on a large scale, towards achieving decisions that best serve the public interest.

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Doing youth participatory action research : transforming inquiry with researchers, educators, and students

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and Bamforth, K.W. (1951) "Some Social and Psychological Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal-Getting",

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Participatory Action Research for Educational Leadership: Using Data-Driven Decision Making to Improve Schools

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adversarial presentations of competing arguments and predictive claims. The methodology of

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PAR has multiple progenitors and resists definition. It is a broad tradition of collective

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people, including "barefoot scientists" and grassroots "organic intellectuals" (see

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action-research coincides with key ideas and practices developed at the influential

5283: 4155: 2268: 320: 260: 255: 240: 98: 4043:"Feminist Approaches to Social Science: Epistemological and Methodological Tenets" 3950:"Feminisms, Intersectionality, and Participatory Research | Participatory Methods" 3892:

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2405:

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The Growth of Educational Knowledge: Creating Your Own Living Educational Theory

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inquiry neglects forms of understanding and consciousness that are not strictly

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PAR has made important inroads in the field of public health, in areas such as

4324: 4307: 4058: 3682:

Photovoice: a participatory action research strategy applied to women's health

1426: 1199: 572: 175: 106: 4333: 4239: 4189: 4121: 4113: 4066: 4001: 3597: 2965: 1570:

Knowledge for Action: A Guide to Overcoming Barriers to Organizational Change

1207: 30: 5110: 4285: 3681: 3067:"Community-Based Participatory Research in Practice-Based Research Networks" 90: 4643: 4562: 4507:

The Deliberative Practitioner: Encouraging Participatory Planning Processes

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Community-Based Participatory Research for Health: From Process to Outcomes

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Creating Better Futures: Scenario Planning as a Tool for a Better Tomorrow

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are firmly committed to the politics of emancipatory action formulated by

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Community-Based Forest Resource Conflict Management: A Training Package

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Action Research in Workplace Innovation and Regional Development

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4413:

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Systemic Action Research: A Strategy for Whole System Change

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Because of its link to radical democratic struggles of the

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Participatory Impact Assessment: A Guide for Practitioners

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Leadership for Sustainability: An Action Research Approach

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Interventions socianalytiques: les analyseurs de l'Église

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Values in Action: Applying the Ideas of Argyris and Schon

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In education, PAR practitioners inspired by the ideas of

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Participatory Research in Health: Issues and Experiences

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James, E.A., Milenkiewicz, M.T. and Bucknam, A. (2007)

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Teacher Action Research: Building Knowledge Democracies

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in the works of science owe a lot to the revolution in

449:

help scale up the engaged inquiry process beyond small

1993:

Penser l'événement: pour une psychosociologie critique

1888:

Le sujet social: étude de psychologie sociale clinique

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Cooperative Inquiry: Research into the Human Condition

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Catley, A., Burns, J., Abebe, D. and Suji, O. (2009)

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Participatory Learning and Action: A Trainer's Guide

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La recherche-action et les transformations sociales

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Sage, CA, pp. 567–605. 2971: 2487:. Bergin & Garvey, Wesport, Conn. 1860:Experiences in Groups and Other Papers 1350:Crézé, F. and Liu, M. (coord.) (2006) 803:. Practical Action, Warwickshire, UK. 779:. Rowman & Littlefield, Maryland. 341:Community-based participatory research 20: 5097:Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 4690:Greenwood, D.J. and Levin, M. (2006) 4673:. Oxford University Press, New York. 4154:Elsherif, Mahmoud M. (1 March 2023). 3931:Participatory Research & Practice 3526:Pan American Journal of Public Health 3322:Sherman, F.T. and Torbert, W. (2000) 3150:Herr, K.G. and Anderson, G.L. (2005) 3007:Systemic Practice and Action Research 2589:. Highlander Center, Knoxville, Tenn. 2101:Plaisir et souffrance dans le travail 1716:En quête d'une intelligence de l'agir 1655:Cameron, K.S. and Quinn, R.E. (2011) 1105:Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 7: 5163:Systems Practice and Action Research 4549:The SAGE Handbook of Action Research 4475:. 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PUF, Paris. 5011: 4998: 4985: 4972: 4959: 4955:978-1848134720 4938: 4921: 4904: 4900:978-1856497947 4883: 4870: 4866:978-1842774618 4849: 4836: 4832:978-9027295620 4815: 4811:978-1861347374 4794: 4781: 4768: 4764:978-9042302891 4747: 4734: 4721: 4704: 4700:978-1412925976 4683: 4679:978-0195305388 4662: 4649: 4614: 4588: 4553: 4540: 4536:978-0199604432 4519: 4515:978-0262561228 4498: 4494:978-1433115974 4477: 4464: 4451: 4436: 4423: 4406: 4389: 4385:978-2020132022 4368: 4364:978-2020054409 4347: 4318:(3): 241–253. 4298: 4263: 4226:(4): 381–396. 4203: 4145: 4108:(4): 943–953. 4088: 4053:(6): 773–791. 4033: 4007: 3986:(3): 255–267. 3966: 3936: 3917: 3904: 3900:978-1403997678 3883: 3879:978-0814782590 3862: 3858:978-1412953665 3841: 3837:978-0932288790 3820: 3803: 3799:978-0465090990 3782: 3722: 3692: 3673: 3622: 3571: 3554: 3550:978-0470260432 3530: 3517: 3504: 3500:978-1856493529 3483: 3468: 3464:978-1412908559 3447: 3434: 3421: 3417:978-0465068784 3400: 3387: 3370: 3366:978-0130974259 3349: 3336: 3332:978-0792377870 3315: 3302: 3285: 3281:978-1847871756 3261: 3257:978-1412908054 3240: 3227: 3206: 3202:978-1412991643 3185: 3181:978-1412937771 3164: 3160:978-0761929918 3143: 3139:978-1848602168 3122: 3109: 3096: 3092:978-1607522881 3075: 3058: 3054:978-1412964753 3037: 3024: 3011: 2998: 2985: 2956: 2936: 2932:978-1412947084 2915: 2902: 2898:978-1850000907 2881: 2877:Adult Learning 2868: 2864:978-0945257578 2847: 2843:978-1853392511 2826: 2822:978-1899825004 2805: 2778: 2771: 2750: 2747:978-3642223150 2730: 2726:978-1843698098 2707: 2694: 2673: 2663: 2659:978-1848130098 2642: 2612: 2608:978-9978951309 2591: 2578: 2561: 2548: 2544:978-9382264538 2527: 2497: 2493:978-0897893343 2476: 2455: 2442: 2419: 2415:978-1853393891 2398: 2394:978-9251043110 2375: 2351: 2328: 2305: 2290: 2275: 2260: 2256:978-0195146110 2239: 2232: 2214: 2210:978-2708978225 2193: 2189:978-2904979002 2172: 2168:978-2717830866 2151: 2130: 2113: 2109:978-2950260918 2092: 2088:978-2707138262 2071: 2066:978-2228338202 2047: 2043:978-2747586306 2026: 2022:978-2220038063 2005: 2001:978-2841901951 1984: 1980:978-2747202602 1963: 1959:978-2130540540 1953:. PUF, Paris. 1942: 1938:978-2130399513 1932:. PUF, Paris. 1921: 1917:978-2749206851 1900: 1896:978-2040164805 1879: 1864: 1851: 1847:978-0415264426 1830: 1781: 1779:, pp. 287-291. 1777:978-2130399513 1771:. PUF, Paris. 1760: 1756:978-0743222983 1736: 1732:978-2296962279 1724:978-2296962262 1707: 1700: 1682: 1669: 1665:978-0470650264 1648: 1644:978-1576752647 1627: 1623:978-2130399513 1617:. PUF, Paris. 1606: 1602:978-1875260041 1585: 1578: 1557: 1538:(5): 612–623. 1518: 1511: 1490: 1486:978-0787977733 1469: 1456: 1452:978-0415264709 1435: 1419: 1415:978-2738457806 1398: 1394:978-9023227465 1377: 1364: 1343: 1336: 1318: 1314:978-0285647190 1297: 1282: 1278:978-8190129732 1258: 1245: 1241:978-0816491322 1221: 1194:(3): 197–207. 1165: 1146:(8): 687–698. 1125: 1109: 1093: 1067: 1054: 1041: 1035:978-9840749188 1034: 1016: 995: 979: 963: 942: 935: 917: 913:978-0803988323 896: 892:978-0415599764 872: 868:978-0803976849 851: 832:978-1552504185 813: 809:978-1853396472 789: 785:978-0742527102 768: 751: 744: 726: 708: 701: 662: 655: 631: 629: 626: 625: 624: 619: 614: 609: 602: 599: 582:group dynamics 556: 553: 518: 515: 505: 502: 493:Citizens' jury 451:group dynamics 442: 439: 434:neurodivergent 430:Neurodiversity 426: 425:Neurodiversity 423: 394: 391: 385: 382: 361: 358: 308: 305: 274: 271: 269: 266: 236:psychoanalytic 226: 223: 168: 165: 120: 119: 77: 74: 36: 35: 29: 17: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5352: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5222:Conversazione 5220: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5211: 5202: 5197: 5195: 5190: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5179: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5114: 5113: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5098: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5083: 5079: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5068: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5040: 5036: 5030:, pp. 90-101. 5029: 5025: 5021: 5015: 5012: 5008: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4986: 4982: 4976: 4973: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4860:Zed, London. 4859: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4819: 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FAO, Rome. 2387: 2386: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2355: 2352: 2348: 2347:1-55250-181-7 2344: 2340: 2339: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2324:1-55250-197-3 2321: 2317: 2316: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2301: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2286: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2271: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2240: 2235: 2229: 2225: 2218: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2075: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2009: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1925: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1875: 1868: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1834: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1764: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1703: 1697: 1693: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1610: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1586: 1581: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1561: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1378: 1374: 1368: 1365: 1361: 1360:2-296-00745-7 1357: 1353: 1347: 1344: 1339: 1333: 1329: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1293: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1182: 1180: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1082: 1078: 1071: 1068: 1064: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1045: 1042: 1037: 1031: 1027: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1012:0-87722-775-6 1009: 1005: 999: 996: 992: 986: 984: 980: 976: 970: 968: 964: 960: 959:0-8039-3743-1 956: 952: 946: 943: 938: 932: 928: 921: 918: 914: 910: 906: 900: 897: 893: 889: 885: 879: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 855: 852: 848: 844: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 824: 817: 814: 810: 806: 802: 796: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 772: 769: 764: 763: 755: 752: 747: 741: 737: 730: 727: 722: 715: 713: 709: 704: 698: 694: 687: 685: 683: 681: 679: 677: 675: 673: 671: 669: 667: 663: 658: 652: 648: 641: 639: 637: 633: 627: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 604: 600: 598: 596: 591: 585: 583: 578: 574: 569: 567: 561: 554: 552: 549: 544: 540: 536: 532: 529: 525: 516: 514: 510: 503: 501: 497: 494: 489: 484: 482: 477: 473: 469: 465: 460: 456: 452: 448: 447:public sphere 440: 438: 435: 431: 424: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 403: 399: 392: 390: 383: 381: 378: 373: 371: 367: 360:Public health 359: 357: 353: 350: 346: 342: 338: 335: 331: 326: 322: 318: 314: 306: 304: 300: 298: 294: 290: 285: 281: 272: 267: 265: 262: 257: 253: 248: 246: 242: 237: 233: 224: 222: 220: 216: 211: 207: 201: 199: 195: 190: 186: 181: 177: 173: 166: 164: 162: 158: 154: 150: 145: 142: 138: 134: 128: 124: 117: 116: 115: 112: 108: 104: 100: 95: 92: 87: 82: 75: 73: 69: 68:of findings. 67: 63: 59: 55: 50: 46: 42: 33:, 2013, p. 10 32: 27: 22: 16: 5284:Science fair 5274:Science Café 5231: 5165:, Springer, 5148: 5133: 5118: 5111: 5096: 5081: 5066: 5058: 5043: 5019: 5014: 5006: 5001: 4993: 4988: 4980: 4975: 4967: 4962: 4946: 4941: 4933: 4924: 4916: 4907: 4891: 4886: 4878: 4873: 4857: 4852: 4844: 4839: 4823: 4818: 4802: 4797: 4789: 4784: 4776: 4771: 4755: 4750: 4742: 4737: 4729: 4724: 4716: 4707: 4694:. Sage, CA. 4691: 4686: 4670: 4665: 4657: 4652: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4605:. Retrieved 4601:the original 4591: 4566: 4556: 4548: 4543: 4527: 4522: 4506: 4501: 4485: 4480: 4472: 4467: 4459: 4454: 4445: 4439: 4431: 4426: 4418: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4376: 4371: 4355: 4350: 4315: 4311: 4301: 4289:. Retrieved 4277: 4266: 4223: 4219: 4166:(8): 23–27. 4163: 4159: 4148: 4105: 4101: 4091: 4050: 4046: 4036: 4024:. Retrieved 4019: 4010: 3983: 3979: 3969: 3957:. Retrieved 3953: 3930: 3920: 3912: 3907: 3891: 3886: 3870: 3865: 3852:. Sage, CA. 3849: 3844: 3828: 3823: 3815: 3806: 3790: 3785: 3742: 3738: 3715:21 September 3713:. Retrieved 3709: 3685: 3676: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3588: 3584: 3574: 3566: 3557: 3541: 3525: 3520: 3512: 3507: 3491: 3486: 3477: 3471: 3455: 3450: 3442: 3437: 3429: 3424: 3408: 3403: 3395: 3390: 3382: 3373: 3357: 3352: 3344: 3339: 3323: 3318: 3310: 3305: 3297: 3288: 3272: 3248: 3243: 3235: 3230: 3214: 3209: 3196:. Sage, CA. 3193: 3188: 3175:. Sage, CA. 3172: 3167: 3154:, Sage, CA. 3151: 3146: 3130: 3125: 3117: 3112: 3104: 3099: 3083: 3078: 3070: 3061: 3048:. Sage, CA. 3045: 3040: 3032: 3027: 3019: 3014: 3006: 3001: 2993: 2988: 2946: 2939: 2923: 2918: 2910: 2905: 2889: 2884: 2876: 2871: 2855: 2850: 2834: 2829: 2813: 2808: 2791: 2787: 2781: 2762: 2738: 2733: 2716: 2710: 2702: 2697: 2681: 2676: 2666: 2650: 2645: 2621: 2615: 2599: 2594: 2586: 2581: 2573: 2564: 2556: 2551: 2535: 2530: 2506: 2500: 2484: 2479: 2474:. FAO, Rome. 2463: 2458: 2450: 2445: 2428: 2422: 2406: 2401: 2384: 2378: 2370: 2354: 2337: 2331: 2314: 2308: 2303:. 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