192:… nd conversely, court mathematical appointments were often held concurrently with university posts or filled on university nomination.” Further, Jardine argues that at “least in the court context, the model of stable, salary-based patron-client relationships is inappropriate… ather, power and dependence arose out of mechanism of mutual recognition of status and honour, regulated by exchange of gifts, tokens, and services.” He notes that in “such an ‘economy of honour’, princes often competed to secure the service of notable astronomers; and they, in turn, played patrons off against each other as they shifted and multiplied their allegiances... patrons and clients collected and displayed each other. Jardine observes how recent authors have noted ways in which the new cosmologies of the sixteenth century embodied courtly ideals. For example, “in his De rebus coelestibus of 1512 Giovanni Gioviano Pontano, secretary and ambrassador of the Aragonese rulers of Naples, projected into the heavens a court society, in which the planets dance to the tunes of their master, the Sun; much like how that at the
285:, one of his two most special patrons”. In a review of Biagioli's work, Larry Wolff noted Biagioli as demonstrating Galileo's legitimacy as a direct consequence of “his ‘career strategies’” and not just “his ‘cognitive attitudes’” and that Galileo is shown to be a master of attaining power and a seventeenth-century career in science The book acknowledges that “gifts within the logic of patronage the role of spectacular scientific production in Galileo’s career… needed to produce or discover things that could be used as gifts for his patrons” Jardine adds, as Biagioli has shown, Galileo's gift to Cosimo II of his discovery of the satellites of Jupiter, transformed into emblems of Medici dynastic power, was a spectacularly successful instance. Through exchange of gifts, highly ritualized and often highly competitive, princes and nobles achieved social distinction, maintaining their honour and mutual recognition.
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redefined the object of the dispute in Tycho’s favour… he claim to priority in the construction of a world system was not the starting point of this courtly duel, but its end-product… so to speak, the final challenge.” Upon recognition of these events, and looking through this interpretation, it seems “the very setting of the world system- a complete physically grounded model of the cosmos—as the goal of astronomy was a product of the competitive practices of courtly exchange of gifts and novelties.” In conclusion, Jardine points that early modern astronomy was formed by its cultural settings, settings in which patronage played a significant part. Further, he suggests that the “courtly patronage of astronomy generated a new agenda for astronomy—specifically, the quest for the true and complete
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likely to lead us into a fruitful social history of the
Scientific Revolution, a movement to which the present generation of scholars has devoted itself extensively. In our investigations, it appears to me, we have allowed ourselves to be dominated excessively by concepts derived in the nineteenth century which are more applicable to that century and our own than to ... Efforts to impose them on the 17th century have appeared forced and largely barren, and I want to propose, not as a new dogmatism, but as a topic for discussion, the possibility that we need to come at the problem from a different angle, using seventeenth-century categories instead of nineteenth-century ones. Patronage was certainly a seventeenth-century category.
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be explained as a system of social connections and relationships amongst social elite and practitioners of what we now umbrella under the term science, it was actually a “set of dyadic relations between patrons and clients, each of them unique… no institutions and little if any formal structure. Patronage embodied no guarantees, and the “relation between patron and client was voluntary on both sides and subject always to disintegration” where past “performance counted only to the extent that it promised more in the future.” Westfall notes a “client's only claim on a patron was his capacity to illuminate further the magnificence of the man who recognized his value and encouraged him.”
329:, would write him words that Westfall considers “ne would be hard pressed to find a better example of the language of patronage.” Westfall writes, “Sagredo, who was clearly tiring of the exercise, wanted to be sure that Galileo understood he had fulfilled his duty as a patron ‘Since I have already satisfied abundantly enough the friendship I hold for you, the obligations to you which I acknowledge, and the favor and help that true gentlemen try to extend to the qualified who deserve it,’ he thought he might now honorably desist.” Westfall also provides fantastic evidence directly from the mouth of Galileo as to the importance of Patronage to himself and his scientific endeavors:
17:
188:.” By the later decades of the sixteenth century, in these places, as a consequence of astronomers utilizing the patronage system, a fair number of astronomers found themselves dining at princely tables “rather than seated below the salt at university feasts.” Jardine divides the main sites of astronomy into university, court and city, and notes aspects of University such as appointments and curricula as “very often under direct or indirect court control: Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel, for example, closely supervised appointments and the curriculum at his father’s new university of
262:
114:
343:"Having labored now twenty years, the best ones of my life, in dispensing at retail, as the saying goes, at the demand of everyone, that little talent in my profession that God and my own efforts have given me, my desires would truly be to obtain enough leisure and quiet as would enable me before I die to complete three great works that I have in hand in order to be able to publish them, perhaps with some praise for me and for whoever has helped me in the business. ... It is not possible to receive a salary from a
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comprised a whole series of practices widely diffused through the various social sites and strata.” The focus of
University teachings on astronomy was “predominantly practical and utilitarian, directed towards the calendrical, navigational, agricultural, and above all, medical applications of the subject… lanetary models were on the whole considered as fictions devised for predictive purposes.” But, during the course of the sixteenth century “there arose an entirely new kind of princely and
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221:, “which in accordance with the most exact observations exactly represented the motions not only of the planets, but of the entire firmament”. The Emperor Rudolf heard of the globe and requested that it and its maker be sent to him. “It is wonderful to relate”, declare Treutler, “what pleasure this gave our Prince.” In return, the Emperor sent a personal thank-you letter, received just before the Landgraf’s death.
315:
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204:, but the very quest for a true world system was”, Jardine believes, “a product of courtly ethos.” He recalls that many recent historians “have emphasized the constitutive roles of gift exchange in the sixteenth-century court… ifts were displayed as symbolic representations of power and as object of erudite, often playful conversation- that is, in a somewhat later idiom, as ‘
347:, however splendid and generous, without serving the public, because to get something from the public one must satisfy it and not just one particular person; and while I remain able to teach and to serve, no one can exempt me from the burden while leaving me the income; and in sum I cannot hope for such a benefit from anyone but an absolute prince."
368:; due to ensuing competition and even some minimizing the importance of only discovering the moons without knowledge of their period, Galileo's “acknowledged position as the messenger from the heavens was threatened”. Westfall also contends that evidence of Galileo's patterns of observing the sky suggest that “at the time Galileo began his
208:’.” Often it was through the presentation of instruments, gift-books, and “discoveries in the case of astronomy- that positions of service at court were solicited and secured.” Patronage relationships often helped both parties achieve social distinction, maintaining honor and mutual distinction, even after death; for example:
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These relations allowed for the likes of
Galileo to hold positions under such powerful people as the Medici family, granting him not only increased social status due to his relations with such high social ranks, but entry into these positions also allowed for the time and monies to work on scientific
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involvement in astronomy, an involvement in which astronomical observations, instruments, models, and ultimately world systems themselves became objects of courtly production, exchange, and competition.” Some notable places of this “new courtly culture of astronomy were the court of
Landgraf Wilhelm
351:
Westfall describes that
Galileo, upon discovering Jupiter’s moons, made sure to tantalize the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the position now held by Cosimo of the Medici family, with the honour of being attributed the award of such a discovery by means of them being named after him. As Westfall describes,
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in a courtly, or rather curial, humanist language of clerical reform- promoting his new ordering of the planets as a restoration of lost order and harmony, and as a basis for the repair of the derelict calendar.” Westman's “reading is strongly confirmed by the dedication to Paul III of another new
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where Ursus was accused of stealing a diagram of Tycho’s planetary ordering while at Hven. Tycho eventually brought in the help of Kepler, who wrote a detailed defence of Tycho’s claims to priority
Jardine contends that “in the course of these challenges and counter challenges Tycho and Kepler had
212:
in 1592 Hieronymus
Treutler, Professor of Law at the University of Marburg, delivered a funeral oration for Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel. At the end of the oration Treutler turn to the Landgraf’s astronomical activities… prais him as a skilled practitioner and celebrat him as a patron who ha emulated
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The courts where these patronage relationships played out would also contribute to the “cognitive legitimation of the new science by providing venues for the social legitimation of its practitioners, and this, in turn, boosted the epistemological status of their discipline.” Although
Patronage can
324:
Westfall notes that, in the early modern period, the “word 'friend' carries special connotations within a context of patronage; authorities on patronage distinguish what they call instrumental friendship from emotional friendship… Galileo's "friends" in Venice appear to have understood that the
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Only now are scholars beginning to chart its course in the science of the age, and we have every reason to expect that it will prove to be very important there as well. I would like to suggest, that patronage, together with other practices that the age itself reveals to us, may be the avenue most
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looks to shed light on the ways in which a society characterized by patronage relationships affected one of astronomy's, and modern science's, greatest heroes: Galileo
Galilei. Biagioli looks to uncover aspects of Galileo's life by “vividly the pioneer physicist to us through the active social
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looks to examine how the system of patronage and the codes of courtly conduct shaped a new agenda for astronomy: the quest for the true world system. Jardine begins his article by noting that astronomy “did not then make up a specialty or discipline in anything like the modern sense… rather, it
78:
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.” As crucial as the many developments and findings of science's heroes are to the historiography of science, many historians, like
Nicholas Jardine, Mario Biagioli, Richard Westfall and others, have sought to bring to light the issues of patronage
53:, the patronage system and the realities that existed within such a system played an important role in the lives of many of science's icons and heroes. The history of astronomy in particular is filled with examples demonstrating the relationship between patron and client, including that of
122:
endeavors. As important as these relationships were for patrons such as Galileo, for reasons of gaining monies and higher social status, clients also found importance in patronage from the reciprocal nature of the relationship. Gifts to be bestowed upon clients, such as the
66:, begins with the assertion that “the history of space astronomy is usually written from the perspective of the remarkable scientific findings garnered by space astronomers and the ways these findings have enriched and guided new views of the universe.” But, as Barker and
91:, as some figures in the movement “were not sustained by patronage, and it is not yet clear how many were so supported.” Despite this, patronage “was perhaps the most pervasive institution of preindustrial society.” Richard Westfall concludes:
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family. Many historians have begun to examine the importance of examining scientific history through this relatively forgotten lens. Dr. Robert Smith, in an article examining patronage in the early history of
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The system of patronage in 16th- and early 17th-century astronomy was different from the modern definition of patronage. The system of patronage, in the context of Astronomers such as Galileo, Kepler, and
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was visible in the predawn sky. For a Copernican, Venus was in a critical part of its orbit, past maximum elongation, approaching superior conjunction, and thus exhibiting a shape incompatible with the
233:
Jardine notes that this “honourable exchange of tokens figures in the oration as the culmination of the Landgraf’s life. Jardine also highlights a dispute between Tycho Brahe and
416:, and instead views Galileo as being more concerned with finding discoveries that could help further his patronage relationship, and that Galileo was prepared to try to
325:"friendship" entailed the use of their connections and influence on his behalf. In all of Galileo's attempts to rise up the ladder of Patronage, one of his connections,
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408:. As we have seen, however, Jupiter had offered something quite different, an incomparable present to the grand duke, and Galileo had not paused to look further.
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37:
from a cultural standpoint. Rather than simply focusing on the findings and discoveries of individual astronomers, this approach emphasizes the importance of
356:.” Westfall describes that “n a word, Galileo had raised himself with one inspired blow from the level of an obscure professor of mathematics at the
74:, historians of astronomy and historians of science in general have come to appreciate the importance of patronage in understanding the development of
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those great examples Julius Ceaser, patron of Sosigene’s reform of the calendar, and Alfonso the Wise. He how the Landgraf’s clockmaker,
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circles to become an Academian, and a person of influence, and how all of this turned to dust for Galileo, when he lost the patronage of
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after the family upon his discovery of them) gave increased social splendor and honor to the recipients of such extravagance and rarity.
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within this discourse, and their works have looked to enrich the understandings of many of science's heroes, including Galileo Galilei,
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e saw the telescope more as an instrument of patronage than as an instrument of astronomy. When Galileo, having seized what the
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Wolff, Larry. "Galileo Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. -book reviews"
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to the “home court” of the Medicis... used contacts with Prince Cesi and other well-placed persons in
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amongst others. Patronage cannot provide the lone solution to understanding the social history of the
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McCarthy, Martin F. "Galileo Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism."
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Barker, Peter, and Bernard R. Goldstein. "Patronage and the Production of De Revolutionibus."
364:.” Following the discovery of the Jupiter's moons, Galileo would then look to discover their
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24:
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Smith, Robert. "Early history space astronomy: Issues of patronage, management and control."
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relations he experienced with persons in the different courts with which he was connected.”
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danced before their ruler on ceremonial occasions.” Not merely the “forms of the new
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http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6404/is_n3_v55/ai_n28643111/?tag=content;col1
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375:, he had not formulated a program of systematic observations designed to settle the
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The book reveals how Galileo “used patronage to obtain his teaching position in
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Galileo Courtier: the Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism,
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Galileo Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism,
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Westfall, Richard. "Science and Patronage: Galileo and the Telescope"
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Jardine, Nicholas. "The Places of Astronomy in Early-Modern Culture."
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http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_n2_v28/ai_16351127/
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ensure, “following the groundbreaking work of Robert Westman and
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352:“Galileo was sure he had found what he wanted, a ticket to
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Journal for the History of Astronomy (ISSN 0021-8286),
141:, which Galileo named the Medici Stars upon discovery
395:on the next brightest object in the evening sky,
876:Vol. 34, Part 4, No. 117, p. 345-368 (2003)
293:Westman has observed “how in the preface to his
161:The Places of Astronomy in Early-Modern Culture,
126:given to the Medici family by Galileo (he named
33:is an approach which one can use to examine the
117:Jupiter's moons shown from an amateur telescope
360:to the status of the most desirable client in
8:
412:Westfall questions Galileo's commitment to
337:Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
914:Vol. 26, No. 1-3, p. 149-161 (2009)
912:Experimental Astronomy (ISSN 1572-9508),
196:, as at many other European courts, the
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49:An often overlooked dimension in the
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921:Vol. 76, No. 1, p. 11-30 (1985)
895:Journal for the History of Astronomy
391:could quickly offer, had turned his
45:Importance to the history of science
883:University of Chicago Press, 1993.
302:ordering of the planetary motions,
41:in shaping the field of astronomy.
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420:the telescope in order to do so.
273:… maneuvered his transfer from
379:.” Rather, Westfall asserts:
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897:Vol. 29, p. 49-62 (1998)
752:Wolff, 1994; Biagioli, pg. 48
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217:, made a wonderful gilded
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229:The Tychonian system
139:the Moons of Jupiter
137:Modern day photo of
57:and his ties to the
35:history of astronomy
860:Westfall, pg. 23-25
833:Westfall, pg. 20-21
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518:Westfall, pg. 29-30
509:Westfall, pg. 29-30
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358:University of Padua
310:Richard S. Westfall
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101:What is patronage?
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514:
505:
496:
487:
478:
411:
382:
373:observations
350:
342:
323:
292:
268:
251:
249:
240:world system
232:
211:
174:Hesse-Kassel
169:aristocratic
160:
158:
144:
124:Medici Stars
120:
104:
94:
48:
30:
29:
21:Frontispiece
743:Wolff, 1994
460:Tycho Brahe
202:cosmologies
186:papal court
85:Tycho Brahe
939:Categories
867:References
418:monopolize
283:Urban VIII
215:Jost Bürgi
108:Copernicus
393:telescope
370:celestial
198:courtiers
68:Goldstein
39:patronage
424:See also
354:Florence
345:Republic
397:Jupiter
366:periods
327:Sagredo
190:Marburg
76:science
23:of the
887:
172:IV of
83:, and
59:Medici
919:Isis,
471:Notes
401:Venus
389:stars
362:Italy
279:Roman
275:Padua
235:Ursus
219:globe
885:ISBN
387:and
385:moon
271:Pisa
242:.”
64:NASA
941::
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