31:
1181:. However, records also exist of two possibly anomalous females that were pregnant much earlier in the year and would have given birth in August or September, before their southward migration. In the southwestern Atlantic, birthing occurs in summer around January, again in warmer water towards the equator. As opposed to other regions, in the Mediterranean females give birth in summer before moving to warmer waters. The litter size ranges from 4 to 13 (average six), and does not increase with the size of the female. Newborns measure 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in) across. Rays in captivity, with ample food, grow at an average annual rate of 8.1 cm (3.2 in) (disc width), while rays in the wild grow at an average annual rate of only 1.6 cm (0.63 in). The food intake and growth rate of adults are highest in January–February and July–August, and lowest in March–April and October–November. Males reach
224:
893:
1025:
871:, with a weakly fringed rear margin. The mouth is small and gently arched, with deep furrows at the corners and a tiny projection at the center of the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw. There are anywhere from 0 to 15 forked papillae (nipple-like structures) in a row across the floor of the mouth. There are 25–34 upper tooth rows and 25–31 lower tooth rows; the teeth of both sexes have single, pointed cusps, but those of adult males are longer and sharper than those of adult females. The margins of the
1195:
788:
879:
to the spine origin, there is a low ventral fin fold that does not reach to the spine tip. Young rays are completely smooth-skinned; with age small prickles appear over the center of the back, as well as a row of small thorns along the midline from between the eyes to the origin of the spine. This species is a plain dark purple to blue-green above, extending onto the tail fold, and a slightly lighter shade below. When captured and handled, it exudes a thick black
75:
50:
847:
878:
The whip-like tail measures up to twice as long as the disc; it is thick at the base and tapers significantly to the extremely long, serrated spine placed approximately one-third to halfway along its length. Two spines may be present if a replacement grows in before the original drops off. Posterior
1218:
Caught as bycatch in drifting longliners for tunas, billfishes and pelagic sharks, it is usually discarded due to its low commercial value. Rays incidentally caught on longlines suffer high mortality, as fishers are wary of being stung and remove the rays from the hooks by smashing them against the
883:
that covers its body. The pelagic stingray typically grows to 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long and 59 cm (23 in) across. The largest individuals on record are from a captive rearing experiment conducted from 1995 to 2000, in which a male reached 68 cm (27 in) across and 12 kg
315:
disc, which is much wider than long, as well as by the pointed teeth in both sexes, whip-like tail with extremely long tail spine, and uniform violet to blue-green coloration. It generally reaches 59 cm (23 in) in width. The pelagic stingray has a worldwide distribution in waters warmer
900:
In adopting a midwater lifestyle, the pelagic stingray exhibits several characteristics different from those of its bottom-dwelling relatives. While most stingrays propel themselves by undulating their disc margins, this species swims by oscillating (flapping) its pectoral fins in a manner
1176:
In the
Pacific, females give birth in winter from November to March in a nursery area near Central America, prior to their northward migration. Similarly, in the northwestern Atlantic, birthing seems to occur in winter when the females are in warm southerly waters, possibly off the
1185:
at 37–50 cm (15–20 in) across and two years of age, and females at 39–50 cm (15–20 in) and three years of age. This species may live up to 10–12 years. One of the most prolific rays, its intrinsic population growth rate is up to 31% a year.
1032:
The pelagic stingray is an active predator that captures prey by wrapping its pectoral fins around it, before manipulating it to the mouth. It is the only stingray in which both sexes have pointed teeth, for grasping and cutting into slippery prey. A wide variety of
858:
disc one-third wider than long, with broadly curved leading margins, rather angular outer corners, and nearly straight trailing margins. The snout is short with a rounded tip. The eyes are minute and, unlike in other stingrays, do not protrude above the body; the
834:, and the other from the central Pacific to as far as Japan and British Columbia. Off southeastern Brazil, pelagic stingrays are displaced towards the coast by upwellings of cold water in late spring and summer; in some years they may even be pushed into
905:. Oscillatory fin motions generate lift, thus improving cruising efficiency in open water at a cost to maneuverability. The pelagic stingray is adept at swimming backwards, which may compensate for the lower fine control offered by its swimming mode.
1202:
The pelagic stingray is not aggressive and rarely encountered because of its habitat preferences, but its very long tail spine demands extreme caution be exercised in handling it. It has been responsible for two known fatalities: a worker on a tuna
383:
throughout its range; it is of little economic value and usually discarded, often with high mortality. However, there is evidence that its numbers are increasing, perhaps owing to the heavy fishing of its natural predators and competitors (e.g.,
1326:
1219:
side of the boat, causing severe damage to the mouth and jaws. The extent of this bycatch has yet to be quantified. Surveys in the
Pacific suggest that pelagic stingray numbers have increased since the 1950s, possibly due to
1112:) towards the coast in January and February, with both predators seeking small schooling fishes. Juvenile rays consume 6–7% of their body weight in food per day, which declines to just above 1% in adults.
1156:
and uterus, on the left, and may produce two litters per year. Mating occurs from March to June in the northwestern
Atlantic, and in late spring in the southwestern Atlantic. Females are capable of storing
807:, indicating that it at least occasionally approaches the bottom. This species prefers water temperatures above 19 °C (66 °F), and will die if the temperature drops to 15 °C (59 °F).
822:
from July to
September. A similar migration seems to occur in the Mediterranean, though the specifics are unknown. In the Pacific, this species apparently spends the winter in oceanic waters near the
803:, the pelagic stingray is generally found from the surface to a depth of 100 m (330 ft) over deep water. It has also been caught at a depth of 330–381 m (1,083–1,250 ft) over the
2386:
Dulvy, N.K.; J.K. Baum; S. Clarke; L.J.V. Compagno; E. Cortes; A. Domingo; S. Fordham; S. Fowler; M.P. Francis; C. Gibson; J. Martinez; J.A. Musick; A. Soldo; J.D. Stevens & S. Valenti (2008).
938:
Pelagic stingrays may segregate by sex, vertically in that males are found in deeper water than females, and perhaps horizontally as well. Captive individuals often act highly aggressively towards
915:
on its underside. The ampullae also cover a smaller area, though not as small as in eagle rays, and are more evenly distributed between the ventral and dorsal surfaces. This ray can detect an
908:
Vision seems to be more important to the pelagic ray in finding food than in other stingrays. Compared to other members of its family, this species has less than one-third the density of
935:, remains similar to other stingrays in covering a greater area on the ventral than the dorsal surface. However, this species is less responsive to mechanical than to visual stimuli.
30:
1275:
Kyne, P.M.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Francis, M.P.; Fordham, S.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Marshall, A.; Pacoureau, N.; Romanov, E.; Sherley, R.B.; Winker, H. (2019).
1321:
351:. It is an active hunter, using its pectoral fins to trap and move food to its mouth, and has been known to take advantage of seasonal feeding opportunities such as spawning
2360:
Hemida, F.; R. Seridji; S. Ennajar; M.N. Bradai; E. Collier; O. Guelorget & C. Capape (2003). "New observations on the reproductive biology of the pelagic stingray,
1169:
eggs are contained in a single membraneous capsule tapered at both ends. Shortly after, the capsule ruptures to release the eggs, and is expelled from the uterus. The
2918:
2754:
2575:
1228:
389:
2590:
332:, this species is typically found in surface waters down to a depth of 100 m (330 ft). As a consequence of its midwater habits, its swimming style has
2806:
2898:
1104:. Off California, pelagic stingrays hunt large mating aggregations of squid that form from November to April. Off Brazil, this species follows groups of
2728:
1240:
1236:
1505:
2767:
2142:
1832:
2842:
2452:
1720:
1652:
923:/cm at a distance of up to 30 cm (12 in), and may be able to pick up the minute electric fields produced by moving sea water. The
1473:
2702:
2387:
1173:
may be the shortest of any shark or ray, lasting only 2–4 months, during which time the embryos increase a hundredfold in mass.
1933:
1557:
1246:
Recent research has been conducted into reducing pelagic stingray bycatch on longlines by switching to larger and/or C-shaped hooks.
2514:
1810:
1750:
1608:
1379:
850:
The pelagic stingray is characterized by a wedge-shaped disc much wider than long, non-protruding eyes, and dark purple coloration.
1427:
Rosenberger, L.J.; Schaefer, S. A. (August 6, 2001). Schaefer, S. A. (ed.). "Phylogenetic
Relationships within the Stingray Genus
2868:
2042:
1984:
371:
of 2–4 months, females may bear two litters of 4–13 pups per year. Birthing generally occurs in warm water near the
2913:
469:
to the rank of full genus, though some taxonomists dispute whether this species is distinct enough to warrant separation from
1789:
Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and behaviour, and the status of fisheries.
2772:
74:
1985:"Functional consequences of structural differences in stingray sensory systems. Part I: mechanosensory lateral line canals"
2500:
Duffy, Clinton A. J.; Francis, Malcolm; Dunn, M. R.; Finucci, Brit; Ford, Richard; Hitchmough, Rod; Rolfe, Jeremy (2018).
826:
and move into higher latitudes and towards the coast in spring. Two
Pacific populations are known: one migrates from near
2654:
2501:
2538:
Piovano, S.; S. Clò & C. Giacoma (2010). "Reducing longline bycatch: The larger the hook, the fewer the stingrays".
2676:
2663:
2587:
1771:
717:
2251:
Euzet, L. (1959). Recherches sur les cestodes tetraphyllides des selacaens des cotes de France. Thesis, Montpellier.
896:
As an adaptation for living in the open ocean, the pelagic stingray swims more by flapping than undulating its disc.
379:
workers, the pelagic stingray can inflict a severe, even fatal wound with its tail spine. This species is caught as
336:
to feature more of a flapping motion of the pectoral fins, as opposed to the disc margin undulations used by other,
2908:
2811:
1801:
Last, P.R. & L.J.V. Compagno (1999). "Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae". In
Carpenter, K.E. & V.H. Niem (eds.).
375:, with the exception of the Mediterranean, with the timing varying between regions. Rarely encountered except by
1444:
2104:
VĂ©ras, D.P.; T. Vaske (Jr.); F.H.V. Hazin; R.P. Lessa; P.E. Travassos; M.T. Tolotti & T.M. Barbosa (2009).
2043:"Functional consequences of structural differences in stingray sensory systems. Part II: electrosensory system"
864:
408:
213:
1227:. The lack of population declines, coupled with its wide distribution and high reproductive rate, has led the
1152:
called "trophonemata", which feed into the enlarged spiracles of the embryo. Females have only one functional
2194:
Wilson, P.C. & J.S. Beckett (December 12, 1970). "Atlantic Ocean
Distribution of the Pelagic Stingray,
804:
2616:
1161:
internally for more than a year, allowing them to wait for favorable environmental conditions in which to
947:
860:
2681:
1803:
FAO identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the
Western Central Pacific
2388:"You can swim but you can't hide: the global status and conservation of oceanic pelagic sharks and rays"
1532:
1121:
912:
356:
196:
892:
223:
2161:
2154:
International
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas Collective Volume of Scientific Papers
2873:
2821:
2547:
2467:
2439:
2402:
1859:
1787:(Elasmobranchii, Dasyatididae) from the North Pacific." in Pratt, H.L., S.H. Gruber and T. Taniuchi.
1569:
769:
653:
388:). Along with the pelagic stingray's global distribution and prolific life history, this has led the
2903:
2483:
1239:
classified the pelagic stingray as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the
39:
2798:
1299:
2668:
2305:
2215:
1961:
1448:
1404:
1220:
1105:
565:
435:
236:
69:
1969:
1585:
2759:
2855:
2689:
2520:
2510:
2453:"Shifts in open-ocean fish communities coinciding with the commencement of commercial fishing"
2067:
2009:
1953:
1911:
1806:
1746:
1716:
1648:
1644:
1604:
1375:
955:
946:), biting and harassing them, particularly if they are hungry. This species is preyed upon by
819:
446:
321:
173:
156:
1558:"Occurrence of pelagic stingray Pteroplatytrygon violacea (Bonaparte, 1832) in the North Sea"
1148:); the mother delivers the histotroph through numerous thread-like extensions of the uterine
2860:
2785:
2555:
2475:
2410:
2340:
2297:
2207:
2121:
2057:
1999:
1945:
1903:
1851:
1688:
1636:
1577:
1524:
1440:
1294:
1204:
1194:
1170:
1024:
909:
757:
519:
368:
301:
166:
1774:. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on November 14, 2008.
787:
2829:
2594:
1330:
1212:
1182:
1101:
928:
867:
openings) follow immediate behind. There is a short but broad curtain of skin between the
827:
729:
297:
146:
1198:
A pelagic stingray at Aquamarine Fukushima, Japan; this species adapts well to captivity.
2551:
2471:
2406:
1573:
1333:. Catalog of Fishes electronic version (February 19, 2010). Retrieved on March 28, 2010.
978:
on its tail spine is also quite potent, causing it to be avoided by other fishes. Known
884:(26 lb), and a female 94 cm (37 in) across and 49 kg (108 lb).
2418:
916:
811:
749:
725:
721:
495:
317:
126:
116:
2147:
caught off southern Brazil by longliners settled in Sao Paulo state (2006–2007)"
2075:
2017:
1884:
814:
following warm water masses. In the northwestern Atlantic, it is found in or near the
2892:
2780:
2503:
Conservation status of New Zealand chondrichthyans (chimaeras, sharks and rays), 2016
1581:
1469:
1285:
1232:
1166:
963:
939:
932:
773:
393:
59:
54:
2309:
2126:
2105:
1965:
1693:
1672:
1637:
1452:
1276:
2694:
1093:
924:
855:
777:
756:. In the Pacific, it is known from Japan to Australia and New Zealand in the west,
753:
709:
681:
649:
344:
312:
1934:"Comparative Morphology of Stingray Lateral Line Canal and Electrosensory Systems"
2559:
2288:
Monticelli from skin of sting-rays with a note on the taxonomy of the parasite".
791:
The pelagic stingray is the only stingray found almost exclusively in open water.
2793:
2741:
2648:
1178:
846:
815:
690:
670:
657:
2639:
1207:
who was impaled by a captured ray, and another fishery worker who succumbed to
2524:
2301:
1149:
1038:
872:
831:
796:
745:
413:
Iconografia della fauna italica per le quattro classi degli animali vertebrati
405:
329:
304:
231:
Confirmed (dark blue) and possible (light blue) range of the pelagic stingray
2707:
2604:
2233:
Baer, J.G. (1948). "Contributions a l'etude das cestodes de selachians IIV".
1162:
1097:
1085:
1073:
1010:
967:
902:
800:
781:
737:
706:
693:
for the pelagic stingray include the blue stingray and the violet stingray.
685:
588:
443:
426:("purple"), and designated two specimens collected off Italy as the species
348:
333:
86:
2071:
2013:
1957:
1915:
2834:
2364:
Bonaparte, 1832 (Chondrichthyes: Dasyatidae) from the Mediterranean Sea".
2345:
2324:
1907:
2715:
2633:
1482:
1089:
1081:
1069:
1042:
1034:
983:
979:
875:
are nearly straight in front and become rounded at the tips and in back.
818:
from December to April, and moves north of the Stream to gather near the
716:
of 52°N and 50°S. In the western Atlantic, it has been reported from the
713:
702:
676:
582:
325:
136:
106:
2733:
2720:
2219:
2062:
2004:
1949:
1408:
1208:
1137:
1077:
1065:
1057:
971:
868:
835:
823:
741:
733:
427:
380:
376:
372:
337:
293:
2746:
1223:
depleting the dominant predators in the ecosystem, such as sharks and
780:, but it is known to be common in the southwestern portion and around
2582:
2206:(4). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 696–707.
1635:(Bonaparte, 1832)". In Camhi, M.; E.K. Pikitch; E.A. Babcock (eds.).
1631:
Neer, J.A. (2008). "The Biology and Ecology of the Pelagic Stingray,
1133:
1125:
1028:
Small fish are one of the prey types pursued by the pelagic stingray.
765:
701:
The distribution of the pelagic stingray extends nearly worldwide in
360:
96:
2610:
2479:
2414:
2211:
1855:
1528:
2509:. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. p. 11.
2284:
Llewellyn, J. & L. Euzet (1964). "Spermatophores in monogenean
736:. In the eastern Atlantic, this species has been recorded from the
2440:
http://www.ciesm.org/Guide/skatesandrays/pteroplatytrygon-violacea
1510:(Bonaparte, 1832), off California, Central America, and worldwide"
1193:
1158:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1061:
1050:
1046:
1023:
975:
891:
880:
854:
The pelagic stingray has a very thick, distinctively wedge-shaped
845:
786:
761:
665:
661:
420:
385:
352:
308:
2598:
2847:
2325:"Distribution and population structure of the pelagic stingray,
1224:
1129:
1053:
920:
642:
Phylogenetic tree of Dasyatidae. Taxon names have been updated.
364:
2614:
1743:
Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico: Myxiniformes to Gasterosteiformes
1715:(second ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 457–458.
1395:
Fowler, H.W. (April–September 1910). "Notes on Batoid Fishes".
1397:
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
776:. There have been no reports of this species from much of the
2261:
Euzet, L. & C. Combes (1965). "Contribution a l'etude de
1666:
1664:
1639:
Sharks of the Open Ocean: Biology, Fisheries and Conservation
2323:
Forselledo, R.; M. Pons; P. Miller & A. Domingo (2008).
1805:. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
2267:
Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel
2235:
Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel
1445:
10.1643/0045-8511(2001)001[0615:PRWTSG]2.0.CO;2
1165:
their young. When first passed into the uterus, a batch of
343:
The diet of the pelagic stingray consists of free-swimming
2110:) (Elasmobranchii: Dasyatidae) from the tropical Atlantic"
449:
placed the pelagic stingray in the newly created subgenus
1831:
Mollet, H.F.; J.M. Ezcurra & J.B. O'Sullivan (2002).
1783:
Nishida, K. and K. Nakaya (1990). "Taxonomy of the genus
1736:
1734:
1732:
328:. The only stingray that almost exclusively inhabits the
2599:
Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department
404:
The pelagic stingray was originally described by French
764:
in the east, and around many oceanic islands including
367:
and later by histotroph ("uterine milk"). With a short
2395:
Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
1885:"Pectoral fin locomotion in batoid fishes: undulation
1211:
days after being stung. This species has been kept in
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2041:
Jordan, L.K.; S.M. Kajiura & M.S. Gordon (2009).
1983:
Jordan, L.K.; S.M. Kajiura & M.S. Gordon (2009).
656:, found that the pelagic stingray is one of the more
311:. It is characterized by the wedge-like shape of its
1374:. University of California Press. pp. 219–221.
2623:
2438:). Oct. 2022. Mendez L., Bacquet A. and F. Briand.
1706:
1704:
1791:NOAA Technical Report, NMFS 90. pp. 327–346.
1671:de Siqueira, A.E. & V.B. de Sant'Anna (2007).
970:. Its all-around dark coloration likely serves to
2141:Ribeiro-Prado, C.C. & A.F. de Amorim (2008).
744:, including the Mediterranean, as well as around
1677:(Bonaparte, 1832) (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae)"
901:approaching the "underwater flying" employed by
1826:
1824:
1822:
1766:
1764:
1762:
838:waters less than 45 m (148 ft) deep.
2381:
2379:
2099:
2097:
2095:
1229:International Union for Conservation of Nature
1120:Like other stingrays, the pelagic stingray is
390:International Union for Conservation of Nature
1422:
1420:
1418:
1300:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T161731A896169.en
927:of the pelagic stingray, a complex system of
320:seasonally to spend the summer closer to the
8:
2329:(Dasyatidae), in the south-western Atlantic"
1741:McEachran, J.D. & J.D. Fechhelm (1998).
1132:, which is later supplanted by histotroph ("
2106:"Stomach contents of the pelagic stingray (
1403:(2). Academy of Natural Sciences: 468–475.
795:Unique amongst stingrays in inhabiting the
2611:
1833:"Captive biology of the pelagic stingray,
1745:. University of Texas Press. p. 181.
1556:Journal of Fish Biology (September 2007).
1464:
1462:
222:
48:
29:
20:
2344:
2125:
2061:
2003:
1927:
1925:
1770:Bester, C., H.F. Mollett and J. Bourdon.
1692:
1372:Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California
1298:
2434:Guide of Mediterranean Skates and Rays (
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1241:New Zealand Threat Classification System
974:it against its featureless habitat. The
660:members of its family, being the sister
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1506:"Distribution of the pelagic stingray,
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1254:
810:The pelagic stingray performs seasonal
2919:Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte
1711:Last, P.R. & J.D. Stevens (2009).
2588:Biological Profiles: Pelagic Stingray
2143:"Fishery biology on pelagic stingray
1772:Biological Profiles: Pelagic Stingray
1601:Mediterranean and Atlantic Fish Guide
465:("stingray"). Later authors elevated
243:
7:
2822:66991982-1c2f-4fdb-974c-6413fb63f8b7
2899:IUCN Red List least concern species
1896:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1286:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
557:
535:
511:
487:
480:
2451:Ward, P. & R.A. Myers (2005).
1231:(IUCN) to list this species under
316:than 19 °C (66 °F), and
14:
2114:Brazilian Journal of Oceanography
1681:Brazilian Journal of Oceanography
1582:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01534.x
931:that detect nearby movement and
73:
2127:10.1590/S1679-87592009000400008
2050:Journal of Experimental Biology
1992:Journal of Experimental Biology
1694:10.1590/S1679-87592007000400008
1673:"Data on the pelagic stingray,
1431:(Chondrichthyes: Dasyatidae)".
1235:. In June 2018 the New Zealand
966:, and other large, ocean-going
1844:Marine and Freshwater Research
1643:. Blackwell Science. pp.
1517:Marine and Freshwater Research
355:. Like other stingrays, it is
1:
2265:(Shipley et Hornell, 1906)".
1037:are represented in its diet:
307:, and the sole member of its
16:Species of cartilaginous fish
2560:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.10.001
1713:Sharks and Rays of Australia
982:of this species include the
411:in the 1832 third volume of
249:Ishiyama & Okada, 1955
2160:: 1883–1891. Archived from
718:Grand Banks of Newfoundland
363:are sustained initially by
2935:
1883:Rosenberger, L.J. (2001).
1237:Department of Conservation
1128:are at first nourished by
392:(IUCN) to assess it as of
265:MĂĽller & Henle, 1841
2669:Pteroplatytrygon_violacea
2655:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2625:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2577:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2436:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2327:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2302:10.1017/S0031182000067962
2145:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
2108:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
1675:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
1633:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
1476:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
1279:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
579:
562:
555:
543:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
540:
533:
516:
509:
492:
485:
289:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
242:
235:
230:
221:
206:Pteroplatytrygon violacea
202:
195:
70:Scientific classification
68:
46:
37:
28:
23:
2333:Aquatic Living Resources
2263:Tetragonocephalum uarnak
1472:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
1007:Tetragonocephalum uarnak
987:Acanthobothrium benedeni
697:Distribution and habitat
648:Lisa Rosenberger's 2001
409:Charles Lucien Bonaparte
2540:Biological Conservation
1562:Journal of Fish Biology
1320:Eschmeyer, W. N. (ed.)
952:Carcharhinus longimanus
948:oceanic whitetip sharks
2914:Fish described in 1832
1215:for almost a century.
1199:
1029:
960:Carcharodon carcharias
897:
851:
792:
400:Taxonomy and phylogeny
2607:on Sealife Collection
1938:Journal of Morphology
1908:10.1242/jeb.204.2.379
1599:Debelius, H. (1997).
1504:Mollet, H.F. (2002).
1486:. March 2010 version.
1197:
1122:aplacental viviparous
1027:
913:ampullae of Lorenzini
895:
849:
790:
357:aplacental viviparous
1932:Jordan, L.K (2008).
1603:. IKAN. p. 19.
1370:Ebert, D.A. (2003).
1293:: e.T161731A896169.
1221:commercial fisheries
1106:Atlantic cutlassfish
712:waters, between the
442:. In 1910, American
2552:2010BCons.143..261P
2472:2005Ecol...86..835W
2407:2008ACMFE..18..459D
2346:10.1051/alr:2008052
1574:2007JFBio..71..933E
1110:Trichiurus lepturus
999:Rhinebothrium baeri
888:Biology and ecology
652:analysis, based on
359:, meaning that the
40:Conservation status
2593:2016-01-15 at the
2579:, Pelagic stingray
2286:Entobdella diadema
2063:10.1242/jeb.028738
2005:10.1242/jeb.028712
1950:10.1002/jmor.10660
1837:(Bonaparte, 1832)"
1329:2012-02-21 at the
1200:
1190:Human interactions
1136:milk", containing
1030:
1014:Entobdella diadema
956:great white sharks
898:
852:
805:Kyushu–Palau Ridge
793:
566:Pastinachus sephen
2909:Cosmopolitan fish
2884:
2883:
2856:Open Tree of Life
2617:Taxon identifiers
2362:Dasyatis violacea
2196:Dasyatis violacea
2056:(19): 3044–3050.
1998:(19): 3037–3043.
1944:(11): 1325–1339.
1835:Dasyatis violacea
1722:978-0-674-03411-2
1654:978-0-632-05995-9
1508:Dasyatis violacea
1124:: the developing
820:continental shelf
646:
645:
636:
635:
627:
626:
618:
617:
609:
608:
600:
599:
453:, from the Greek
447:Henry Weed Fowler
322:continental shelf
280:
279:
274:
273:Bonaparte, 1832
266:
258:
250:
177:
63:
24:Pelagic stingray
2926:
2877:
2876:
2864:
2863:
2851:
2850:
2838:
2837:
2825:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2802:
2801:
2789:
2788:
2776:
2775:
2763:
2762:
2750:
2749:
2737:
2736:
2724:
2723:
2711:
2710:
2698:
2697:
2685:
2684:
2672:
2671:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2612:
2605:Pelagic stingray
2564:
2563:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2508:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2482:. Archived from
2457:
2448:
2442:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2417:. Archived from
2392:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2191:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2166:
2151:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2101:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2080:
2074:. Archived from
2065:
2047:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2016:. Archived from
2007:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1968:. Archived from
1929:
1920:
1919:
1893:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1858:. Archived from
1841:
1828:
1817:
1816:
1798:
1792:
1781:
1775:
1768:
1757:
1756:
1738:
1727:
1726:
1708:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1642:
1628:
1615:
1614:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1584:. Archived from
1553:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1537:
1531:. Archived from
1514:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1466:
1457:
1456:
1424:
1413:
1412:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1367:
1334:
1323:violacea, Trygon
1318:
1312:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1302:
1272:
1213:public aquariums
1171:gestation period
1102:polychaete worms
929:mechanoreceptors
919:of well under 1
910:electroreceptive
799:rather than the
758:British Columbia
558:
536:
520:Neotrygon kuhlii
512:
488:
481:
476:
475:
467:Pteroplatytrygon
451:Pteroplatytrygon
369:gestation period
284:pelagic stingray
272:
264:
256:
254:Dasyatis guileri
248:
246:Dasyatis atratus
226:
208:
188:P. violacea
172:
168:Pteroplatytrygon
78:
77:
57:
52:
51:
33:
21:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2880:
2872:
2867:
2859:
2854:
2846:
2841:
2833:
2830:Observation.org
2828:
2820:
2818:
2810:
2805:
2797:
2792:
2784:
2779:
2771:
2766:
2758:
2753:
2745:
2740:
2732:
2727:
2719:
2714:
2706:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2680:
2675:
2667:
2662:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2619:
2595:Wayback Machine
2572:
2567:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2517:
2506:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2480:10.1890/03-0746
2455:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2433:
2429:
2421:
2415:10.1002/aqc.975
2390:
2385:
2384:
2377:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2212:10.2307/1442312
2193:
2192:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2149:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2103:
2102:
2093:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2026:
2024:
2020:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1931:
1930:
1923:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1856:10.1071/MF01074
1839:
1830:
1829:
1820:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1760:
1753:
1740:
1739:
1730:
1723:
1710:
1709:
1702:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1630:
1629:
1618:
1611:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1555:
1554:
1550:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1529:10.1071/MF02010
1512:
1503:
1502:
1491:
1468:
1467:
1460:
1426:
1425:
1416:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1369:
1368:
1337:
1331:Wayback Machine
1319:
1315:
1305:
1303:
1274:
1273:
1256:
1252:
1192:
1183:sexual maturity
1118:
1022:
890:
844:
828:Central America
730:Lesser Antilles
724:, the northern
699:
689:species. Other
637:
628:
619:
610:
601:
586:+ Indo-Pacific
461:("broad"), and
434:has since been
417:Trygon violacea
402:
338:bottom-dwelling
270:Trygon violacea
262:Trygon purpurea
217:
210:
204:
191:
171:
147:Myliobatiformes
72:
64:
53:
49:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2932:
2930:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2891:
2890:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2865:
2852:
2839:
2826:
2816:
2803:
2790:
2777:
2764:
2751:
2738:
2725:
2712:
2699:
2686:
2673:
2660:
2645:
2629:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2601:
2585:
2571:
2570:External links
2568:
2566:
2565:
2546:(1): 261–264.
2530:
2515:
2492:
2489:on 2007-09-28.
2466:(4): 835–847.
2443:
2427:
2424:on 2009-09-17.
2401:(5): 459–482.
2375:
2366:Acta Adriatica
2352:
2339:(4): 357–363.
2315:
2296:(2): 337–344.
2276:
2253:
2244:
2225:
2177:
2133:
2120:(4): 339–343.
2091:
2033:
1975:
1972:on 2013-01-05.
1921:
1902:(2): 379–394.
1875:
1850:(2): 531–541.
1818:
1811:
1793:
1776:
1758:
1751:
1728:
1721:
1700:
1687:(4): 323–325.
1660:
1653:
1616:
1609:
1591:
1588:on 2013-01-05.
1568:(3): 933–937.
1548:
1523:(2): 525–530.
1489:
1470:Froese, Rainer
1458:
1439:(3): 615–627.
1414:
1387:
1380:
1335:
1313:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1191:
1188:
1117:
1114:
1021:
1018:
991:A. crassicolle
964:toothed whales
933:ocean currents
917:electric field
889:
886:
843:
840:
750:Gulf of Guinea
726:Gulf of Mexico
722:North Carolina
698:
695:
668:that contains
644:
643:
639:
638:
634:
633:
630:
629:
625:
624:
621:
620:
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615:
612:
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539:
534:
532:
529:
528:
525:
524:
515:
510:
508:
505:
504:
501:
500:
496:Taeniura lymma
491:
486:
484:
479:
415:. He named it
401:
398:
324:and at higher
278:
277:
276:
275:
267:
259:
251:
240:
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233:
232:
228:
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178:
164:
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150:
149:
144:
140:
139:
134:
130:
129:
127:Elasmobranchii
124:
120:
119:
117:Chondrichthyes
114:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
66:
65:
47:
44:
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26:
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6:
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2:
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2696:
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2646:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2628:
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2622:
2618:
2613:
2606:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2516:9781988514628
2512:
2505:
2504:
2496:
2493:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2372:(2): 193–204.
2371:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2353:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2307:
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2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2272:
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2257:
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2248:
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2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2167:on 2012-02-25
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2146:
2137:
2134:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2109:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2081:on 2017-07-21
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2023:on 2017-07-21
2019:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1888:
1879:
1876:
1865:on 2017-08-11
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1836:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1812:92-5-104302-7
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1752:0-292-75206-7
1748:
1744:
1737:
1735:
1733:
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1718:
1714:
1707:
1705:
1701:
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1678:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1661:
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1650:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1634:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1610:3-931702-99-5
1606:
1602:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1549:
1538:on 2016-03-04
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1509:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
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1434:
1430:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1381:0-520-23484-7
1377:
1373:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
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1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1282:
1280:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1233:Least Concern
1230:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1026:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
940:ocean sunfish
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
906:
904:
894:
887:
885:
882:
876:
874:
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866:
862:
857:
848:
841:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
808:
806:
802:
798:
789:
785:
783:
779:
775:
774:Easter Island
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
732:, Brazil and
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
708:
704:
696:
694:
692:
688:
687:
683:
679:
678:
673:
672:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
641:
640:
632:
631:
623:
622:
614:
613:
605:
604:
596:
595:
592:
591:
590:
585:
584:
577:
576:
573:
572:
569:
568:
567:
560:
559:
553:
552:
549:
548:
545:
544:
538:
537:
531:
530:
527:
526:
523:
522:
521:
514:
513:
507:
506:
503:
502:
499:
498:
497:
490:
489:
483:
482:
478:
477:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
422:
418:
414:
410:
407:
399:
397:
395:
394:Least Concern
391:
387:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
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994:
990:
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959:
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937:
925:lateral line
907:
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856:pectoral fin
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778:Indian Ocean
754:South Africa
700:
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684:
682:Indo-Pacific
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313:pectoral fin
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253:
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133:Superorder:
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2794:NatureServe
2742:iNaturalist
2649:Wikispecies
1306:20 November
1179:West Indies
1074:bony fishes
1039:crustaceans
1003:R. palombii
873:pelvic fins
865:respiratory
842:Description
816:Gulf Stream
671:Pastinachus
436:synonymized
419:, from the
349:bony fishes
340:stingrays.
2904:Dasyatidae
2893:Categories
2603:Photos of
2525:1042901090
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2171:2010-04-08
2085:2010-04-08
2027:2010-04-08
1869:2010-04-08
1542:2010-04-08
1250:References
1167:fertilized
1150:epithelium
1086:sea horses
1076:including
1060:including
1041:including
1011:monogenean
1009:, and the
972:camouflage
968:carnivores
903:eagle rays
832:California
812:migrations
797:open ocean
746:Cape Verde
728:, and the
654:morphology
406:naturalist
330:open ocean
305:Dasyatidae
157:Dasyatidae
123:Subclass:
2241:: 63–122.
1205:longliner
1070:pteropods
1043:amphipods
1035:organisms
984:tapeworms
980:parasites
944:Mola mola
861:spiracles
801:sea floor
782:Indonesia
770:Galápagos
748:, in the
738:North Sea
714:latitudes
707:temperate
686:Himantura
589:Himantura
457:("fin"),
444:zoologist
326:latitudes
214:Bonaparte
182:Species:
93:Kingdom:
87:Eukaryota
2799:2.102268
2760:10144817
2716:FishBase
2640:Q1815013
2634:Wikidata
2591:Archived
2583:FishBase
2310:84808479
2072:19749096
2014:19749095
1966:33886896
1958:18655157
1916:11136623
1785:Dasyatis
1483:FishBase
1453:85657403
1429:Dasyatis
1327:Archived
1138:proteins
1090:filefish
1082:mackerel
1058:molluscs
869:nostrils
863:(paired
752:and off
705:to warm-
703:tropical
677:Dasyatis
583:Dasyatis
471:Dasyatis
440:Dasyatis
428:syntypes
318:migrates
298:stingray
237:Synonyms
153:Family:
137:Batoidea
107:Chordata
103:Phylum:
97:Animalia
83:Domain:
60:IUCN 3.1
2734:2419426
2548:Bibcode
2468:Bibcode
2460:Ecology
2403:Bibcode
2220:1442312
1570:Bibcode
1409:4063435
1209:tetanus
1163:gestate
1134:uterine
1126:embryos
1098:medusae
1078:herring
1066:octopus
1020:Feeding
836:inshore
824:equator
742:Madeira
734:Uruguay
710:pelagic
381:bycatch
377:fishery
373:equator
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334:evolved
300:in the
294:species
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2703:EUNIS
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1954:PMID
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