436:
698:"Risk compensation is the term given to a theory which tries to understand the behaviour of people in potentially hazardous activities. In the context of the road user, risk compensation refers to the tendency of road users to compensate for changes in the road system that are perceived as improving safety by adapting behaviour. (Elvik and Vaa, 2004). So measures, designed to improve traffic safety, may bring along negative consequences in a way that individuals increase the riskiness of their driving behaviour because they feel safer (Dulisse, 1997)"
366:, found that increasing posted speed limits and a reduction of speeding fines had significantly increased driving speed but resulted in no change in the accident frequency. It also showed that increased accident cost caused large and significant reductions in accident frequency but no change in speed choice. The results suggest that regulation of specific risky behaviors such as speed choice may have little influence on accident rates.
208:(ABS), while the remainder had conventional brake systems. In other respects, the two types of cars were identical. The crash rates, studied over three years, were a little higher for the cabs with ABS, Wilde concluded that drivers of ABS-equipped cabs took more risks, assuming that ABS would take care of them; non-ABS drivers were said to drive more carefully since they could not rely on ABS in a dangerous situation.
817:"An example of risk overestimation in the short run is offered by the experience in Sweden when that country changed from left- to right-hand driving in the fall of 1967. This intervention led to a marked surge in perceived risk that exceeded the target level and thus was followed by a very cautious behavior that caused a major decrease in road fatalities. ...the accident rate returned to 'normal' within 2 years."
302:
driver behaviors (speed, stopping at intersections when the control light was amber, turning left in front of oncoming traffic, and gaps in following distance) were measured at various sites before and after the law. Changes in these behaviors in
Newfoundland were similar to those in Nova Scotia, except that drivers in Newfoundland drove slower on expressways after the law, contrary to the risk compensation theory.
212:
petrol on flames, was the proposition in 1982 that road users did not just adapt to perceptions of changing risk through compensatory behaviors, but that the process was a homeostatic one, producing overall equilibrium in safety-related outcomes". Others claimed that road fatality statistics, which have fallen considerably since the introduction of safety measures, do not support the theory.
686:"A term, closely related to risk compensation, is 'behavioural adaptation'. Behavioural adaptation is a wider term referring to all behavioural changes triggered by a safety measure (OECD, 1997). Strictly spoken, this includes all positive and negative behavioural changes induced by road safety measures. Nevertheless, the emphasis is primarily put on the negative aspects of this phenomenon."
544:, the fatality rate has stayed roughly constant when adjusted for the increasing number of participants. This can largely be attributed to an increase in the popularity of high performance canopies, which fly much faster than traditional parachutes. A greater number of landing fatalities in recent years has been attributed to high speed maneuvers close to the ground.
805:, p. 28), 'Early Theories of Behavioural Adaptations' by Oliver Carsten: "What set the debate alight, rather like petrol on flames, was the proposition in 1982 that road users did not just adapt to perceptions of changing risk through compensatory behaviors, but that the process was a homeostatic one, producing overall equilibrium in safety-related outcomes"
334:
even when controlling for the presence of other state traffic safety policies and a variety of demographic factors". A comprehensive 2003 US study also did "not find any evidence that higher seat belt usage has a significant effect on driving behavior." Their results showed that "overall, mandatory seat belt laws unambiguously reduce traffic fatalities."
757:"Besides macroeconomic influences, there are other factors that influence the level of accepted risk; these are of a cultural, social, or psychological kind. In general, the amount of risk that people are willing (in fact, prefer) to take can be said to depend on four utility factors and will be greater to the extent that factors..."
2039:"On September 4 there were 125 reported traffic accidents as opposed to 130-196 from the previous Mondays. No traffic fatalities were linked to the switch. In fact, fatalities dropped for two years, possibly because drivers were more vigilant after the switch." Sweden finally began driving on the right side of the road in 1967.
120:
Nineteenth
Century. A reanalysis of his original data found numerous errors and his model failed to predict fatality rates before regulation. According to Peltzman, regulation was at best useless, at worst counterproductive. Peltzman found that the level of risk compensation in response to highway safety regulations was
2211:
A recognition of 'risk compensation effect' prompts a fresh understanding of the adverse effects of measures such as traffic signals, signs, pedestrian guard rails and barriers on safety, and of their tendency to discourage informal physical activity. It may seem perverse to argue that well being can
418:
have not been shown to reduce significant head injuries, and "there is evidence to suggest that some cyclists ride less cautiously when helmeted because they feel more protected". In one experimental study, adults accustomed to wearing helmets cycled more slowly without a helmet, but no difference in
301:
Several important driving behaviors were observed on the road before and after the belt use law was enforced in
Newfoundland, and in Nova Scotia during the same period without a law. Belt use increased from 16 percent to 77 percent in Newfoundland and remained virtually unchanged in Nova Scotia. Four
53:
in response to perceived levels of risk, becoming more careful where they sense greater risk and less careful if they feel more protected. Although usually small in comparison to the fundamental benefits of safety interventions, it may result in a lower net benefit than expected or even higher risks.
2084:
In high-income countries, an established set of interventions have contributed to significant reductions in the incidence and impact of road traffic injuries. These include the enforcement of legislation to control speed and alcohol consumption, mandating the use of seat-belts and crash helmets, and
313:
of
University College London, suggested that there was no convincing evidence of a correlation between the seat-belt legislation and reduction of injuries and fatalities based on a comparison between states with and without seat belt laws. He also suggested that some injuries were displaced from car
220:
To create preventive measures in order to make a certain activity safer, risk compensation and risk compensation behavior has to be mapped in order to evaluate whether the measures are effective. When measures create risk compensation this might nullify the made measures. Then the measures might not
188:
in 1967, this was followed by a marked reduction in the traffic fatality rate for 18 months after which the trend returned to its previous values. He suggested that drivers had responded to increased perceived danger by taking more care, only to revert to previous habits as they became accustomed to
426:
In 1988, Rodgers re-analysed data which supposedly showed helmets to be effective and found both data errors and methodological weaknesses. He concluded that in fact the data showed "bicycle-related fatalities are positively and significantly associated with increased helmet use" and mentioned risk
211:
The idea of risk homeostasis is disputed. One author claimed that it received "little support", another suggested that it "commands about as much credence as the flat earth hypothesis", a third noted that the proposal did create considerable media attention: "What set the debate alight, rather like
499:
Recent studies indicate that skiers wearing helmets go faster on average than non-helmeted skiers, and that overall risk index is higher in helmeted skiers than non-helmeted skiers. Moreover, while helmets may help prevent minor head injuries, increased usage of helmets has not reduced the overall
119:
in 1975 in which he controversially suggested that "offsets (due to risk compensation) are virtually complete, so that regulation has not decreased highway deaths". Peltzman claimed to originate this theory in the 1970s but it was used to oppose the requirement of safety equipment on trains in the
333:
concluded that between 1985 and 2002 there were "significant reductions in fatality rates for occupants and motorcyclists after the implementation of belt use laws", and that "seatbelt use rate is significantly related to lower fatality rates for the total, pedestrian, and all non-occupant models
422:
Motorists may also alter their behavior toward helmeted cyclists. One study by Walker in
England found that 2,500 vehicles passed a helmeted cyclist with measurably less clearance (8.5 cm) than that given to the same cyclist unhelmeted (out of an average total passing distance of 1.2 to 1.3
1429:
Over a period of 36 months they observed part of a taxi fleet in Munich, Germany. Half of the observed vehicles were equipped with an anti-lock braking system (ABS)... The overall accident rate showed a slight increase for ABS taxis, but no significant differences between cars with the superior
124:
in original study. But "Peltzman's theory does not predict the magnitude of risk compensatory behaviour." Substantial further empirical work has found that the effect exists in many contexts but generally offsets less than half of the direct effect. In the U.S., motor vehicle fatalities per
2730:
The main findings of this study indicate that the overall Risk Index is higher in helmeted skiers than non-helmeted skiers. The population that contributes the most to the overall Risk Index value is male helmet wearers, signifying that male helmet wearers take more risks while skiing than
2131:
Contrary to popular belief, local speed limits should only be used if 85 out of 100 vehicles are already travelling at the speed it is wished to impose. Experience shows the speeds of these 85 vehicles are likely to influence the speeds of the other 15. This makes the speed limit largely
314:
drivers to pedestrians and other road users. The "Isles Report" echoed these concerns. Adams subsequently argued that the reduction in fatalities that followed the introduction of legislation could not be attributed with confidence to seat-belt use due to the simultaneous introduction of
88:
which includes all behavior changes in response to safety measures, whether compensatory or not. However, since researchers are primarily interested in the compensatory or negative adaptive behavior the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The more recent version emerged from
419:
helmeted and unhelmeted cycling speed was found for cyclists who do not usually wear helmets. A Spanish study of traffic accidents between 1990 and 1999 found no strong evidence of risk compensation in helmet wearers but concluded that "this possibility cannot be ruled out".
245:
A number of studies show that drivers of vehicles with ABS tend to drive faster, follow closer and brake later, accounting for the failure of ABS to result in any measurable improvement in road safety. The studies were performed in Canada, Denmark, and
Germany. A study led by
2761:
This paper presents results that suggest that while helmets may be effective at preventing minor injuries, they have not been shown to reduce the overall incidence of fatality in skiing and snowboarding even though as many as 40% of the population at risk are currently using
523:
actually increases the chance of injury, and thus they recommend players occasionally practice without helmets. When hard shells were first introduced, the number of head injuries increased because players had a false sense of security and made more dangerous tackles.
540:, states, "the safer skydiving gear becomes, the more chances skydivers will take, in order to keep the fatality rate constant". Even though skydiving equipment has made huge leaps forward in terms of reliability, including the introduction of safety devices such as
125:
population declined by more than half from the beginning of regulation in the 1960s through 2012. Vehicle safety standards accounted for most of the reduction augmented by seat belt use laws, changes in the minimum drinking age, and reductions in teen driving.
745:"The level of risk at which the net benefit is expected to maximize is called the target level of risk in recognition of the realization that people do not try to minimize risk (which would be zero at zero mobility), but instead attempt to optimize it"
346:
there was a drop in crashes and fatalities, which was linked to the increased apparent risk. The number of motor insurance claims went down by 40 percent, returning to normal over the next six weeks. Fatality levels took two years to return to normal.
423:
metres). The significance of these differences has been re-analysed by
Olivier, who argued that the effect on safety was not significant since the passing distances were over 1 metre, and again by Walker, who disagreed with Olivier's conclusion.
769:"In the fall of 1967 Sweden changed over from left hand to right hand traffic. This was followed by a marked reduction in the traffic fatality rate. About a year and a half later, the accident rate returned to the trend before the changeover."
3164:
Holt, Martin; et al. (June 2018). "Community-level changes in condom use and uptake of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis by gay and bisexual men in
Melbourne and Sydney, Australia: results of repeated behavioural surveillance in 2013β17".
722:"This conclusion startled the road safety community and challenged the role of government in attempting to improve safety through regulation. In Peltzman's view, government regulation was useless and perhaps even counterproductive."
31:
589:
suggested that "condoms seem to foster disinhibition, in which people engage in risky sex either with condoms or with the intention of using condoms". Another report compared risk behaviour of men based on whether they were
610:
drugs appears to be extremely successful in suppressing the spread of HIV infection, there is some evidence that the reduction in HIV risk has led to some people taking more sexual risks; specifically, reduced use of
1398:
In general, safety regulation did decrease the probability of death for drivers, but this is offset by involving themselves in a riskier behavior, which reassigns the change of deaths from vehicle occupants to
2869:
his finding is in alignment with risk compensation theory because it predicts that, essentially, skydivers will compensate for any new safety mechanism and consequently perform more dangerous types of jumping
1640:
Aschenbrenner; Biehl (1994). "Improved safety through improved technical measures? empirical studies regarding risk compensation processes in relation to anti-lock braking systems". In
Trimpop; Wilde (eds.).
710:"The early risk compensation literature deals with road safety... Several recent studies examine risk compensation in response to both aggregate and specific consumer product and workplace safety regulations"
841:"Safety helmets clearly decrease the risk and severity of head injuries in skiing and snowboarding and do not seem to increase the risk of neck injury, cervical spine injury, or risk compensation behavior"
270:
of which half had been equipped with anti-lock brakes noted that crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and concluded this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more risks.
1595:
Grant and Smiley, "Driver response to antilock brakes: a demonstration of behavioural adaptation" from
Proceedings, Canadian Multidisciplinary Road Safety Conference VIII, June 14β16, Saskatchewan 1993.
359:
and other traffic calming methods plays an important role in the reduction of road traffic casualties; speed limit changes alone without accompanying enforcement or traffic calming measures will not.
1140:
Masson, Maxime; Lamoureux, Julie; de Guise, Elaine (October 2019). "Self-reported risk-taking and sensation-seeking behavior predict helmet wear amongst Canadian ski and snowboard instructors".
829:"Helmet use is not associated with riskier behaviour on slopes. In addition, helmet use has to be recommended because helmet use reduces the risk of head injuries among skiers and snowboarders"
793:"Risk homeostasis is not a theory. It is a hypothesis that repeatedly has been refuted by empirical studies. As Evans has noted, it commands about as much credence as the flat earth hypothesis"
462:
which is supposed to be protected by the levee. Consequently, when a flood does occur or the levee breaches, the effects of that disaster will be greater than if the levee had not been built.
278:
released a study in 2010 that found motorcycles with ABS were 37 percent less likely to be involved in a fatal crash than models without ABS. A 2004 study found that ABS reduced the risk of
76:
is an urban street design method which consciously aims to increase the level of perceived risk and uncertainty, thereby slowing traffic and reducing the number and seriousness of injuries.
1353:"The Peltzman (1975) effect predicts that when automobile safety regulations are made mandatory, at least some of their benefits will be offset by changes in the behavior of drivers
2028:
On the day of the change, only 150 minor accidents were reported. Traffic accidents over the next few months went down. ... By 1969, however, accidents were back at normal levels
160:
in Canada, which suggests that people maximise their benefit by comparing the expected costs and benefits of safer and riskier behaviour and which introduced the idea of the
2019:
3415:
2406:
330:
110:
1504:
1481:
1605:
Sagberg, Fridulv; Fosser, Stein; Sætermo, Inger-Anne F. (1997). "An investigation of behavioural adaptation to airbags and antilock brakes among taxi drivers".
594:. A 2015 study showed that adolescents with safe-sex beliefs (adolescents who believe that sex with condoms is 100% safe) have an earlier sexual initiation.
93:
research after it was claimed that many interventions failed to achieve the expected level of benefits but has since been investigated in many other fields.
2899:
Morrongiello, B. A.; Walpole, B; Lasenby, J (2007). "Understanding children's injury-risk behavior: Wearing safety gear can lead to increased risk taking".
3373:
2355:
although the findings do not support the existence of a strong risk compensation mechanism among helmeted cyclists, this possibility cannot be ruled out
128:
The Peltzman effect can also result in a redistributing effect where the consequences of risky behaviour are increasingly felt by innocent parties (see
2367:
Walker, Ian (2007). "Drivers overtaking bicyclists: Objective data on the effects of riding position, helmet use, vehicle type and apparent gender".
2568:
1178:
Van Tiggelen, D (2008). "Effective prevention of sports injuries: a model integrating efficacy, efficiency, compliance and risk-taking behaviour".
507:
use is not associated with riskier behavior among skiers and snowboarders, and that helmet usage reduces the risk and severity of head injuries.
38:'s second rule states that "The safer skydiving gear becomes, the more chances skydivers will take, in order to keep the fatality rate constant."
2122:
275:
3408:
3249:
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2835:
2071:
2002:
1904:
1422:
1374:
1121:
973:
674:"Behavioural adaptation generally does not eliminate the safety gains from programmes, but tends to reduce the size of the expected effects"
2881:
2686:
The average speed for helmet users of 45.8 km/h (28.4 mph) was significantly higher than those not using a helmet at 41.0 km/h (25.4 mph)
454:
are structures which run parallel to rivers and are meant to offer protection from flooding. The perception of safety can lead to unsafe
1830:
1082:
2053:
326:
2548:
Rodgers, Gregory B (1988). "Reducing Bicycle Accidents: A Re-evaluation of the Impacts of the CPSC Bicycle Standard and Helmet Use".
865:"It appears that most of the incidents happened under small (the average reported size was 107 square feet), highly loaded canopies."
174:
Expected benefits of safe behavior (e.g., insurance discounts for accident-free periods, enhancement of reputation of responsibility)
157:
3401:
1743:
488:
2248:
57:
By way of example, it has been observed that motorists drove closer to the vehicle in front when the vehicles were fitted with
3324:
2212:
be improved through making spaces feel riskier, but that is the firm conclusion from both research, and from empirical studies
1468:
risk homeostasis theory should be rejected because there is no convincing evidence supporting it and much evidence refuting it
2098:
3018:
Gray, Ronald; et al. (2007-02-01). "Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial".
1881:
3260:
3550:
1697:
638:
177:
Expected costs of safe behavior (e.g., using an uncomfortable seat belt, being called a coward by one's peers, time loss)
3530:
3388:
2935:
185:
115:
3115:"Safe-sex belief and sexual risk behaviours among adolescents from three developing countries: a cross-sectional study"
2260:
there is evidence to suggest that some cyclists ride less cautiously when helmeted because they feel more protected:...
144:, etc. by driving faster with less attention, then this can result in increases in injuries and deaths to pedestrians.
69:
prevalence and that condoms may foster disinhibition, with people engaging in risky sex both with and without condoms.
541:
435:
319:
259:
1020:
Vrolix, Klara (2006). Behavioral adaptation, risk compensation, risk homeostatis and moral hazard in traffic safety.
983:
Ruedl, G; et al. (February 2010). "Factors associated with self-reported risk-taking behaviour on ski slopes".
3590:
1839:
279:
101:
The reduction of predicted benefit from regulations that intend to increase safety is sometimes referred to as the
2668:
Shealy, JE; Ettlinger, CF; Johnson, RJ (2005). "How Fast Do Winter Sports Participants Travel on Alpine Slopes?".
573:
argued that the risk compensation phenomenon could explain the failure of condom distribution programs to reverse
3621:
3475:
2774:
Scott, M. D; Buller, D. B; Andersen, P. A; Walkosz, B. J; Voeks, J. H; Dignan, M. B; Cutter, G. R (1 June 2007).
2059:
1264:
1832:
The efficacy of seatbelt legislation: A comparative study of road accident fatality statistics from 18 countries
2639:
Wauters, S; Van Tiggelen, D (2016). "Injury Profile of Longsword fencing in Historical European Martial Arts".
603:
552:
Experimental studies have suggested that children who wear protective equipment are likely to take more risks.
239:
58:
2743:
Shealy, Jasper E.; et al. (2008). "Do Helmets Reduce Fatalities or Merely Alter the Patterns of Death?".
1722:
1327:
Pope, Adam T.; Tollison, Robert D. (2010). ""Rubbin' is racin": evidence of the Peltzman effect from NASCAR".
1300:
Robertson, Leon S. (1977). "A Critical Analysis of Peltzman's "The Effects of Automobile Safety Regulation"".
2953:
3560:
3424:
853:"The biggest opportunity for improvement in safety remains the selection and operation of main parachutes."
643:
444:
310:
205:
132:). By way of example, if a risk-tolerant driver responds to driver-safety interventions, such as compulsory
168:
Expected benefits of risky behavior (e.g., gaining time by speeding, fighting boredom, increasing mobility)
3585:
3261:"Regulation and the Wealth of Nations: The Connection between Government Regulation and Economic Progress"
2491:"Bicycle Helmet Wearing Is Not Associated with Close Motor Vehicle Passing: A Re-Analysis of Walker, 2007"
2224:
283:
3535:
1861:
306:
1657:
387:
the level of uncertainty for drivers and other road users by removing traditional demarcations between
3505:
2502:
2443:
2272:
Phillips, Ross Owen; Fyhri, Aslak; Sagberg, Fridulv (2011). "Risk Compensation and Bicycle Helmets".
399:
2126:
3480:
3445:
579:
2179:
2099:"Review and Analysis of Posted Speed Limits and Speed Limit Setting Practices in British Columbia"
1393:
Safety externalities of SUVs on passenger cars: An analysis of the Peltzman Effect using FARS data
3565:
3545:
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3200:
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3000:
2297:
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1975:
1344:
1246:
1238:
1203:
1157:
1008:
3540:
2145:
3062:
2885:
2776:"Testing the risk compensation hypothesis for safety helmets in alpine skiing and snowboarding"
3616:
3485:
3455:
3353:
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3226:
3192:
3146:
3095:
3035:
2992:
2916:
2831:
2805:
2721:
2621:
2530:
2471:
2384:
2346:
2289:
2067:
1998:
1900:
1784:
1622:
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1543:
1459:
1418:
1370:
1274:
1195:
1117:
1111:
1070:
1000:
969:
952:
909:
520:
363:
255:
85:
1843:
1086:
262:
supports risk compensation, terming it the "offset hypothesis". A study of crashes involving
3580:
3490:
3450:
3345:
3295:
3182:
3174:
3136:
3126:
3085:
3077:
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2795:
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2711:
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2611:
2603:
2520:
2510:
2461:
2451:
2376:
2336:
2328:
2281:
2194:
2160:
2063:
1967:
1933:
1892:
1811:
1776:
1767:
Janssen, W (1994). "Seat-belt wearing and driving behavior: An instrumented-vehicle study".
1614:
1570:
1561:
Ameen, J. R. M.; Naji, J. A. (2001). "Causal models for road accident fatalities in Yemen".
1535:
1526:
Oppe, S (1991). "The development of traffic and traffic safety in six developed countries".
1451:
1336:
1309:
1230:
1187:
1149:
1060:
1052:
1025:
992:
942:
934:
899:
891:
585:
455:
247:
171:
Expected costs of risky behavior (e.g., speeding tickets, car repairs, insurance surcharges)
61:. There is also evidence that the risk compensation phenomenon could explain the failure of
406:. The approach has been found to result in lower vehicle speeds and fewer road casualties.
3611:
3435:
1282:
570:
516:
141:
3515:
3495:
1268:
2506:
2447:
483:, where it is suggested that wearing protective gloves might lead to harder strikes and
242:
are designed to increase vehicle safety by allowing the vehicle to steer while braking.
3525:
3510:
3440:
3349:
3242:
Target Risk: Dealing with the Danger of Death, Disease and Damage in Everyday Decisions
3141:
3114:
3090:
2800:
2775:
2616:
2591:
2567:
Gissing, Andrew; Van Leeuwen, Jonathan; Tofa, Matalena; Haynes, Katharine (July 2018).
2525:
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2466:
2431:
2341:
2316:
1952:
1815:
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1065:
1040:
947:
922:
904:
879:
648:
415:
315:
251:
3178:
3031:
2988:
1618:
1574:
383:
is an approach to the design of roads, where risk compensation is consciously used to
3626:
3605:
3307:
3299:
3004:
2285:
2206:
1953:"The Effects of Mandatory Seat Belt Laws on Driving Behaviour and Traffic Fatalities"
1937:
1780:
1539:
1348:
1250:
1161:
653:
633:
565:
Evidence on risk compensation associated with HIV prevention interventions is mixed.
305:
In Britain in 1981 at a time when the government was considering the introduction of
3204:
3047:
2407:"Motorists Punish Helmet-Wearing Cyclists With Close Passes, Confirms Data Recrunch"
2301:
1922:"Risk Compensation or Risk Reduction? Seatbelts, State Laws, and Traffic Fatalities"
1207:
1012:
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3460:
1979:
1921:
1313:
628:
591:
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prevalence, providing a detailed explanations of his views in an op-ed article for
476:
403:
380:
375:
137:
129:
106:
73:
3336:
Evans, Leonard (March 1986). "Risk Homeostasis Theory and Traffic Accident Data".
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1442:
Evans, Leonard (March 1986). "Risk Homeostasis Theory and Traffic Accident Data".
298:
concluded that drivers were found to drive faster and less carefully when belted.
2515:
2456:
1889:
Clumsy Solutions for a Complex World: Governance, Politics and Plural Perceptions
1412:
3575:
3570:
3470:
3286:
Peltzman, Sam (7 June 2010). "Regulation and the Natural Progress of Opulence".
3275:
3131:
1391:
880:"Risky business: safety regulations, risk compensation, and individual behavior"
440:
395:
356:
90:
2864:
2164:
1971:
1701:
17:
3465:
2912:
2716:
2699:
2380:
1675:
1340:
537:
504:
459:
190:
153:
35:
1191:
996:
487:, possibly resulting in more severe injuries. It has also been suggested in
164:. He proposed four constituents to a person's calculations relating to risk:
1896:
533:
133:
3196:
3150:
3099:
3039:
2996:
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2791:
2725:
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2625:
2534:
2475:
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1643:
Challenges to Accident Prevention: The issue of risk compensation behaviour
1582:
1286:
1199:
1004:
913:
619:, raising risks of spreading sexually transmitted diseases other than HIV.
3393:
3357:
2607:
1788:
1658:"Study: Airbags, antilock brakes not likely to reduce accidents, injuries"
1626:
1547:
1463:
1074:
956:
294:
A 1994 research study of people who both wore and habitually did not wear
616:
295:
50:
2317:"Risk compensation theory and voluntary helmet use by cyclists in Spain"
2198:
1802:
Lund, AK; Zador, P (1984). "Mandatory belt use and driver risk taking".
3384:
3187:
2332:
2132:
self-enforcing and consequently makes for a manageable enforcement task
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1153:
566:
391:
388:
343:
263:
201:
182:
2756:
1056:
938:
895:
30:
3520:
2681:
1221:
Peltzman, Sam (1975). "The Effects of Automobile Safety Regulation".
1030:
781:"The extreme views of risk homeostasis have attracted little support"
612:
515:
Some researchers have found the counterintuitive result that wearing
480:
267:
197:
113:, who published "The Effects of Automobile Safety Regulation" in the
62:
46:
2972:
2700:"Risk-taking Behavior in Skiing Among Helmet Wearers and Nonwearers"
362:
A 1994 study conducted to test the risk homeostasis theory, using a
1234:
966:
Behavioural Adaptation and Road Safety: Theory, Evidence and Action
344:
the change from driving on the left to driving on the right in 1967
156:, initially proposed in 1982 by Gerald J. S. Wilde, a professor at
3061:
Wilson, Nicholas L.; Xiong, Wentao; Mattson, Christine L. (2014).
2851:
Stewart, Andrew (July 2004). "On risk: perception and direction".
451:
434:
29:
1278:
3397:
2828:
The Click Moment: Seizing Opportunity in an Unpredictable World
2814:
No evidence of risk compensation among helmet wearers was found
2569:"Flood levee influences on community preparedness: a paradox?"
2430:
Olivier, Jake; Bell, Melanie L. (2013). Rapallo, Fabio (ed.).
1891:. Global Issues Series. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 132β154.
607:
583:
and an extended interview with the BBC. A 2007 article in the
574:
484:
427:
compensation as one possible explanation of this association.
66:
2146:"A driving-simulator test of Wilde's risk homeostasis theory"
2020:"Dagen H: The day Sweden switched sides of the road (photo)"
1744:"Effectiveness of ABS and Vehicle Stability Control Systems"
3063:"Is sex like driving? HIV prevention and risk compensation"
2954:"The pope was right about condoms, says Harvard HIV expert"
221:
lead to less injuries or in worse cases enhance injuries.
2973:"Ten myths and one truth about generalised HIV epidemics"
355:
The control of traffic speeds using effectively enforced
1995:
Risk and Freedom: The Record of Road Safety Regulation
414:
Campaigns and legislation to encourage the wearing of
862:
850:
189:
the new regime. A similar pattern was seen following
2097:
British Columbia Ministry of Transportation (2003).
1920:Houston, David J.; Richardson, Lilliard E. (2007).
790:
1083:"Lessons to be Learned: The 2012 Fatality Summary"
49:which suggests that people typically adjust their
1430:brake-system (ABS) versus cars without the system
964:Rudin-Brown, Christina; Jamson, Samantha (2013).
814:
802:
191:Iceland's switch from left- to right-hand driving
84:Risk compensation is related to the broader term
2144:Jackson, Jeremy S. H.; Blackman, Roger (1994).
2085:the safer design and use of roads and vehicles.
1749:. Royal Automobile Club of Victoria. April 2004
1505:"Predictive models of road accident fatalities"
447:, flooding houses that had been built behind it
2489:Olivier, Jake; Walter, Scott R. (2013-09-25).
2055:World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention
331:National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
111:University of Chicago Booth School of Business
3409:
1887:. In Marco Verweij; Michael Thompson (eds.).
1482:"Linking deaths with vehicles and population"
325:However, a 2007 study based on data from the
282:by 18 percent, but had increased the risk of
8:
1105:
1103:
838:
826:
1390:Diosdado-De-La-Pena, Maria-Paulina (2008).
186:driving on the left to driving on the right
3416:
3402:
3394:
3374:"British planners take to 'naked streets'"
2573:Australian Journal of Emergency Management
2249:"Cycle helmets: A summary of the evidence"
3186:
3140:
3130:
3089:
2799:
2715:
2652:
2641:Journal of Combat Sports and Martial Arts
2615:
2524:
2514:
2465:
2455:
2432:"Effect Sizes for 2Γ2 Contingency Tables"
2340:
1064:
1029:
946:
923:"Risk homeostasis hypothesis: a rebuttal"
903:
503:Other recent studies have concluded that
2315:Lardelli-Claret, P; et al. (2003).
1838:(Technical report). Dept. of Geography,
1110:Zolli, Andrew; Healy, Ann Marie (2012).
2704:Wilderness & Environmental Medicine
1142:Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
1099:
778:
719:
707:
664:
532:'Booth's rule #2', often attributed to
1960:The Review of Economics and Statistics
1882:"The Failure of Seat Belt Legislation"
1414:The Psychology of Risk Taking Behavior
1173:
1171:
1135:
1133:
1041:"Risk homeostasis theory: an overview"
731:
695:
683:
671:
338:Swedish change to driving on the right
276:Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
3268:New Perspectives on Political Economy
3113:Osorio, Alfonso; et al. (2015).
2400:
2398:
2018:Flock, Elizabeth (17 February 2012).
1723:"Motorcycle ABS: Skepticism Debunked"
921:O'Neill, B; Williams, A (June 1998).
766:
754:
742:
475:This principle is recognised in some
7:
3372:Emling, Shelley (13 February 2005).
3325:"Buckle Up Your Seatbelt and Behave"
152:Risk homeostasis is a controversial
1951:Cohen, Alma; dEinav, Liran (2003).
1725:. Ultimate Motorcycling. 2012-05-16
1645:. Groningen, NL: Styx Publications.
1116:. Simon and Schuster. p. 194.
3350:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1986.tb00196.x
3323:Ecenbarger, William (April 2009).
2901:Accident Analysis & Prevention
2590:Critchley, GR; Mannion, S (1999).
2369:Accident Analysis & Prevention
1816:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1984.tb00130.x
1607:Accident Analysis & Prevention
1456:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1986.tb00196.x
1180:British Journal of Sports Medicine
1113:Resilience: Why Things Bounce Back
561:Risky sexual behavior and HIV/AIDS
327:Fatality Analysis Reporting System
109:, a professor of economics at the
25:
2882:"US Skydiving Fatalities History"
2592:"Injury rates in shotokan karate"
1997:. Transport Publishing Projects.
1700:. Psyc.queensu.ca. Archived from
65:distribution programs to reverse
3300:10.1111/j.1468-0270.2010.02006.x
3070:Journal of Development Economics
2286:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01589.x
2125:. Medway Council. Archived from
1938:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2007.00510.x
1769:Accident Analysis and Prevention
1563:Accident Analysis and Prevention
1528:Accident Analysis and Prevention
489:historical European martial arts
2971:Shelton, James D (2007-12-01).
2960:. BBC Radio Ulster. 2009-03-29.
2934:Green, Edward C. (2009-03-29).
2104:. p. 26 (tables 10 and 11)
1509:Traffic Engineering and Control
1486:Traffic Engineering and Control
1085:. 11 April 2013. Archived from
815:Rudin-Brown & Jamson (2013)
2178:Hamilton-Baillie, Ben (2008).
1662:Purdue University News Service
1314:10.1080/00213624.1977.11503463
803:Rudin-Brown & Jamson (2013
443:, the Netherlands, during the
1:
3551:Rebound effect (conservation)
3179:10.1016/s2352-3018(18)30072-9
3082:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.08.012
3032:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60313-4
2989:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61755-3
2745:Journal of ASTM International
2670:Journal of ASTM International
2550:Journal of Products Liability
2258:. November 2019. p. 19.
2153:Journal of Applied Psychology
1619:10.1016/S0001-4575(96)00083-8
1575:10.1016/S0001-4575(00)00069-5
791:O'Neill & Williams (1998)
181:Wilde noted that when Sweden
3531:Parable of the broken window
3274:(2): 185β204. Archived from
3240:Wilde, Gerald J. S. (1994).
2516:10.1371/journal.pone.0075424
2457:10.1371/journal.pone.0058777
1781:10.1016/0001-4575(94)90095-7
1696:Wilde, Gerald J. S. (1994).
1540:10.1016/0001-4575(91)90059-E
1223:Journal of Political Economy
863:Lessons to be Learned (2013)
851:Lessons to be Learned (2013)
548:Safety equipment in children
116:Journal of Political Economy
3132:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-007826
2698:RuΕΎiΔ, L; Tudor, A (2011).
1365:Robertson, Leon S. (2015).
1270:Notes on Railroad Accidents
320:driving under the influence
260:University of South Florida
3643:
3591:Tyranny of small decisions
2865:10.1016/j.cose.2004.05.003
2187:Urban Design International
2165:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.950
1972:10.1162/003465303772815754
1840:University College, London
1480:Andreassen, D. C. (1985).
1302:Journal of Economic Issues
373:
200:study, part of a fleet of
3476:Excess burden of taxation
3431:
2913:10.1016/j.aap.2006.10.006
2826:Johansson, Frans (2012).
2717:10.1016/j.wem.2011.09.001
2381:10.1016/j.aap.2006.08.010
2060:World Health Organization
1341:10.1007/s11127-009-9548-2
968:. CRC Press. p. 67.
240:Anti-lock braking systems
2853:Computers & Security
1926:Social Science Quarterly
1698:"Remedy by engineering?"
1192:10.1136/bjsm.2008.046441
997:10.1136/bjsm.2009.066779
604:pre-exposure prophylaxis
280:multiple vehicle crashes
3561:Self-defeating prophecy
3425:Unintended consequences
2936:"The Pope May Be Right"
1897:10.1057/9780230624887_6
644:Unintended consequences
445:North Sea flood of 1953
439:A breach in a levee in
3586:Tragedy of the commons
3259:Peltzman, Sam (2007).
2792:10.1136/ip.2006.014142
2180:"Towards shared space"
1677:Mannering-GMA-accident
1503:Broughton, J. (1988).
1411:Trimpop, R.M. (1994).
1273:. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
1039:Wilde, G. J S (1998).
448:
39:
3536:Paradox of enrichment
3385:Sam Peltzman on IDEAS
2888:on February 11, 2003.
2608:10.1136/bjsm.33.3.174
1656:Venere, Emil (2006).
438:
400:road surface markings
342:In Sweden, following
307:seat belt legislation
86:behavioral adaptation
33:
3506:Inverse consequences
3329:Smithsonian Magazine
3244:. PDE Publications.
3221:Adams, John (1995).
3125:(e007826). e007826.
1993:Adams, John (1985).
1880:Adams, John (2006).
1860:Adams, John (1981).
1829:Adams, John (1981).
878:Hedlund, J. (2000).
284:run-off-road crashes
162:target level of risk
3481:Four Pests campaign
2983:(9602): 1809β1811.
2940:The Washington Post
2507:2013PLoSO...875424O
2448:2013PLoSO...858777O
2199:10.1057/udi.2008.13
1869:(Technical report).
1367:Injury epidemiology
839:Ruedl et al. (2010)
827:Ruedl et al. (2010)
580:The Washington Post
216:Preventive measures
204:were equipped with
3566:Self-refuting idea
3546:Perverse incentive
2333:10.1136/ip.9.2.128
1154:10.1037/cbs0000153
1022:Hasselt University
449:
158:Queen's University
105:in recognition of
40:
3599:
3598:
3556:Risk compensation
3251:978-0-9699124-0-8
3232:978-1-85728-068-5
3026:(9562): 657β666.
2837:978-0-241-96351-7
2780:Injury Prevention
2757:10.1520/JAI101504
2321:Injury Prevention
2073:978-92-4-156260-7
2004:978-0-948537-05-9
1906:978-1-349-28058-2
1424:978-0-444-89961-3
1376:978-1-329-13171-2
1123:978-1-4516-8380-6
1057:10.1136/ip.4.2.89
1045:Injury Prevention
975:978-1-4398-5667-3
939:10.1136/ip.4.2.92
927:Injury Prevention
896:10.1136/ip.6.2.82
884:Injury Prevention
606:(PrEP) with anti-
521:gridiron football
364:driving simulator
256:civil engineering
254:, a professor of
43:Risk compensation
27:Behavioral theory
16:(Redirected from
3634:
3622:Cognitive biases
3581:Streisand effect
3491:Hawthorne effect
3451:Butterfly effect
3446:Braess's paradox
3418:
3411:
3404:
3395:
3381:
3361:
3332:
3319:
3288:Economic Affairs
3282:
3281:on 18 July 2011.
3280:
3265:
3255:
3236:
3209:
3208:
3190:
3173:(8): e448βe456.
3161:
3155:
3154:
3144:
3134:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3093:
3067:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2884:. Archived from
2878:
2872:
2871:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2803:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2719:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2682:10.1520/JAI12092
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2518:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2459:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2402:
2393:
2392:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2344:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2280:(8): 1187β1195.
2269:
2263:
2262:
2253:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2184:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2150:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2064:World Bank Group
2050:
2044:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1957:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1886:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1842:. Archived from
1837:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1335:(3β4): 507β513.
1324:
1318:
1317:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1175:
1166:
1165:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1107:
1090:
1078:
1068:
1035:
1033:
1016:
979:
960:
950:
917:
907:
866:
860:
854:
848:
842:
836:
830:
824:
818:
812:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
729:
723:
717:
711:
705:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
511:Football helmets
456:land development
248:Clifford Winston
235:Anti-lock brakes
206:anti-lock brakes
148:Risk homeostasis
59:anti-lock brakes
21:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3541:Parkinson's law
3436:Abilene paradox
3427:
3422:
3371:
3368:
3335:
3322:
3285:
3278:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3239:
3233:
3220:
3217:
3215:Further reading
3212:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3065:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3017:
3016:
3012:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2958:Sunday Sequence
2952:
2951:
2947:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2654:1854/LU-8599986
2638:
2637:
2633:
2596:Br J Sports Med
2589:
2588:
2584:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2415:
2413:
2405:Reid, Carlton.
2404:
2403:
2396:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2233:
2231:
2225:"Cycle helmets"
2223:
2222:
2218:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2148:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2129:on 2010-12-30.
2121:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2038:
2034:
2024:Washington Post
2017:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1866:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1835:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1728:
1726:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1707:
1705:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1425:
1417:. p. 219.
1410:
1409:
1405:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1177:
1176:
1169:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1124:
1109:
1108:
1101:
1097:
1081:
1038:
1019:
985:Br J Sports Med
982:
976:
963:
920:
877:
874:
869:
861:
857:
849:
845:
837:
833:
825:
821:
813:
809:
801:
797:
789:
785:
777:
773:
765:
761:
753:
749:
741:
737:
730:
726:
718:
714:
706:
702:
694:
690:
682:
678:
670:
666:
662:
625:
600:
571:Edward C. Green
563:
558:
550:
530:
513:
500:fatality rate.
497:
473:
468:
433:
412:
410:Bicycle helmets
378:
372:
353:
340:
292:
286:by 35 percent.
237:
232:
227:
218:
150:
142:antilock brakes
103:Peltzman effect
99:
97:Peltzman effect
82:
28:
23:
22:
18:Peltzman effect
15:
12:
11:
5:
3640:
3638:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3604:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3526:Osborne effect
3523:
3518:
3513:
3511:Jevons paradox
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3486:Goodhart's law
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3456:Campbell's law
3453:
3448:
3443:
3441:Adverse effect
3438:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3413:
3406:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3382:
3367:
3366:External links
3364:
3363:
3362:
3333:
3320:
3283:
3256:
3250:
3237:
3231:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3167:The Lancet HIV
3156:
3105:
3053:
3010:
2963:
2945:
2926:
2907:(3): 618β623.
2891:
2873:
2859:(5): 362β370.
2843:
2836:
2830:. Penguin UK.
2818:
2786:(3): 173β177.
2766:
2751:(10): 101504.
2735:
2710:(4): 291β296.
2690:
2660:
2631:
2602:(3): 174β177.
2582:
2559:
2540:
2481:
2422:
2394:
2375:(2): 417β425.
2359:
2327:(2): 128β132.
2307:
2264:
2240:
2216:
2193:(2): 130β138.
2170:
2159:(6): 950β958.
2136:
2123:"Speed limits"
2114:
2089:
2072:
2045:
2032:
2010:
2003:
1985:
1966:(4): 828β843.
1943:
1932:(4): 913β936.
1912:
1905:
1872:
1852:
1849:on 2006-06-23.
1821:
1794:
1775:(2): 249β261.
1759:
1735:
1714:
1688:
1667:
1648:
1632:
1613:(3): 293β302.
1597:
1588:
1569:(4): 547β561.
1553:
1534:(5): 401β412.
1518:
1495:
1492:(11): 547β549.
1472:
1434:
1423:
1403:
1382:
1375:
1357:
1319:
1308:(3): 587β600.
1292:
1256:
1235:10.1086/260352
1229:(4): 677β726.
1213:
1186:(8): 648β652.
1167:
1148:(2): 121β130.
1129:
1122:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1089:on 2016-03-08.
1079:
1036:
1017:
980:
974:
961:
918:
873:
870:
868:
867:
855:
843:
831:
819:
807:
795:
783:
779:Hedlund (2000)
771:
759:
747:
735:
724:
720:Hedlund (2000)
712:
708:Hedlund (2000)
700:
688:
676:
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
651:
649:Self-licensing
646:
641:
639:Rebound effect
636:
631:
624:
621:
599:
596:
562:
559:
557:
554:
549:
546:
529:
526:
512:
509:
496:
493:
472:
469:
467:
464:
432:
431:Infrastructure
429:
411:
408:
374:Main article:
371:
368:
352:
349:
339:
336:
329:(FARS) of the
316:breath testing
291:
288:
252:Fred Mannering
236:
233:
231:
230:Road transport
228:
226:
223:
217:
214:
179:
178:
175:
172:
169:
149:
146:
98:
95:
81:
78:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3639:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3414:
3412:
3407:
3405:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3338:Risk Analysis
3334:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3228:
3225:. Routledge.
3224:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3160:
3157:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3014:
3011:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2949:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2895:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2560:
2556:(4): 307β317.
2555:
2551:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2501:(9). e75424.
2500:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2442:(3). e58777.
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2274:Risk Analysis
2268:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2230:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2100:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2075:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2056:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1947:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1913:
1908:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1865:
1864:
1856:
1853:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1833:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1804:Risk Analysis
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1763:
1760:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1724:
1718:
1715:
1704:on 2007-11-21
1703:
1699:
1692:
1689:
1679:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1515:(5): 296β300.
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1444:Risk Analysis
1438:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1329:Public Choice
1323:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
981:
977:
971:
967:
962:
958:
954:
949:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
919:
915:
911:
906:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
876:
875:
871:
864:
859:
856:
852:
847:
844:
840:
835:
832:
828:
823:
820:
816:
811:
808:
804:
799:
796:
792:
787:
784:
780:
775:
772:
768:
763:
760:
756:
751:
748:
744:
739:
736:
733:
732:Vrolix (2006)
728:
725:
721:
716:
713:
709:
704:
701:
697:
696:Vrolix (2006)
692:
689:
685:
684:Vrolix (2006)
680:
677:
673:
672:Vrolix (2006)
668:
665:
659:
655:
654:Tullock Spike
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
634:Omission bias
632:
630:
627:
626:
622:
620:
618:
614:
609:
605:
597:
595:
593:
588:
587:
582:
581:
576:
572:
568:
560:
555:
553:
547:
545:
543:
539:
535:
527:
525:
522:
518:
510:
508:
506:
501:
494:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
470:
465:
463:
461:
457:
453:
446:
442:
437:
430:
428:
424:
420:
417:
416:cycle helmets
409:
407:
405:
404:traffic signs
401:
397:
393:
390:
386:
382:
377:
369:
367:
365:
360:
358:
350:
348:
345:
337:
335:
332:
328:
323:
321:
317:
312:
308:
303:
299:
297:
289:
287:
285:
281:
277:
274:However, the
272:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
243:
241:
234:
229:
224:
222:
215:
213:
209:
207:
203:
199:
194:
192:
187:
184:
176:
173:
170:
167:
166:
165:
163:
159:
155:
147:
145:
143:
139:
138:crumple zones
135:
131:
126:
123:
118:
117:
112:
108:
104:
96:
94:
92:
87:
79:
77:
75:
72:By contrast,
70:
68:
64:
60:
55:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
19:
3555:
3516:Murphy's law
3501:Hydra effect
3496:Hutber's law
3461:Cobra effect
3377:
3344:(1): 81β94.
3341:
3337:
3328:
3294:(2): 33β39.
3291:
3287:
3276:the original
3271:
3267:
3241:
3222:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3122:
3118:
3108:
3073:
3069:
3056:
3023:
3019:
3013:
2980:
2976:
2966:
2957:
2948:
2939:
2929:
2904:
2900:
2894:
2886:the original
2876:
2868:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2827:
2821:
2813:
2783:
2779:
2769:
2760:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2729:
2707:
2703:
2693:
2685:
2676:(7): 12092.
2673:
2669:
2663:
2647:(2): 87β88.
2644:
2640:
2634:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2576:
2572:
2562:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2439:
2435:
2425:
2414:. Retrieved
2410:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2354:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2243:
2232:. Retrieved
2228:
2219:
2210:
2190:
2186:
2173:
2156:
2152:
2139:
2130:
2127:the original
2117:
2106:. Retrieved
2092:
2083:
2077:. Retrieved
2054:
2048:
2043:Sept 2, 2009
2041:The Examiner
2040:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2013:
1994:
1988:
1963:
1959:
1946:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1888:
1875:
1863:Isles Report
1862:
1855:
1844:the original
1831:
1824:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1751:. Retrieved
1738:
1727:. Retrieved
1717:
1706:. Retrieved
1702:the original
1691:
1681:, retrieved
1676:
1670:
1661:
1651:
1642:
1635:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1591:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1467:
1450:(1): 81β94.
1447:
1443:
1437:
1428:
1413:
1406:
1397:
1392:
1385:
1366:
1360:
1352:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1269:
1259:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1183:
1179:
1145:
1141:
1112:
1087:the original
1051:(2): 89β91.
1048:
1044:
1021:
991:(3): 204β6.
988:
984:
965:
930:
926:
890:(2): 82β89.
887:
883:
858:
846:
834:
822:
810:
798:
786:
774:
767:Wilde (1998)
762:
755:Wilde (1998)
750:
743:Wilde (1998)
738:
727:
715:
703:
691:
679:
667:
629:Moral hazard
601:
584:
578:
564:
551:
531:
514:
502:
498:
479:, including
477:martial arts
474:
471:Martial arts
450:
425:
421:
413:
394:by removing
384:
381:Shared space
379:
376:Shared space
370:Shared space
361:
357:speed limits
354:
351:Speed limits
341:
324:
322:of alcohol.
304:
300:
293:
273:
244:
238:
219:
210:
195:
183:changed from
180:
161:
151:
130:moral hazard
127:
121:
114:
107:Sam Peltzman
102:
100:
83:
74:shared space
71:
56:
42:
41:
3576:Social trap
3571:Serendipity
3471:Externality
3378:Times Argus
3188:1874/377504
2579:(3): 38β43.
1399:pedestrians
933:(2): 92β3.
592:circumcised
569:researcher
495:Ski helmets
441:Papendrecht
91:road safety
3606:Categories
3466:CSI effect
3020:The Lancet
2977:The Lancet
2416:2018-12-19
2256:Cycling UK
2234:2020-02-11
2229:Cycling UK
2108:2009-09-17
2079:2010-04-13
1753:2010-12-07
1729:2012-08-18
1708:2010-12-07
1683:2021-04-28
1396:(Thesis).
1095:References
1024:(Report).
538:Bill Booth
460:floodplain
311:John Adams
290:Seat belts
154:hypothesis
134:seat belts
36:Bill Booth
3308:154585032
3076:: 78β91.
3005:205949345
2207:110538901
1810:: 41β53.
1349:153527032
1265:Adams, CF
1251:153473566
1162:210359660
1031:1942/4002
534:skydiving
528:Skydiving
296:seatbelts
34:Skydiver
3617:Ethology
3205:47015652
3197:29885813
3151:25916489
3119:BMJ Open
3100:26997745
3048:15958720
3040:17321311
2997:18061042
2921:17112456
2810:17567972
2726:22137861
2626:10378069
2535:24086528
2495:PLOS ONE
2476:23505560
2436:PLOS ONE
2389:17064655
2351:12810738
2302:25935602
2294:21418079
2066:. 2004.
1583:11426685
1287:7162865M
1279:06029469
1267:(1879).
1208:42945041
1200:18400875
1013:27944820
1005:20231601
914:10875661
623:See also
617:anal sex
536:pioneer
385:increase
264:taxicabs
225:Examples
202:taxicabs
122:complete
80:Overview
51:behavior
3358:3602497
3316:1621983
3142:4420939
3091:4794434
2801:2598370
2762:helmets
2617:1756164
2526:3783373
2503:Bibcode
2467:3591379
2444:Bibcode
2342:1730952
1980:7309959
1789:8198694
1627:9183467
1548:1741895
1464:3602497
1243:1830396
1075:9666358
1066:1730348
957:9666359
948:1730350
905:1730605
872:Sources
613:condoms
567:Harvard
517:helmets
485:punches
458:in the
392:traffic
389:vehicle
258:at the
3612:Safety
3521:Nocebo
3356:
3314:
3306:
3248:
3229:
3203:
3195:
3149:
3139:
3098:
3088:
3046:
3038:
3003:
2995:
2919:
2834:
2808:
2798:
2731:others
2724:
2624:
2614:
2533:
2523:
2474:
2464:
2411:Forbes
2387:
2349:
2339:
2300:
2292:
2205:
2070:
2001:
1978:
1903:
1787:
1625:
1581:
1546:
1462:
1421:
1373:
1347:
1285:
1277:
1249:
1241:
1206:
1198:
1160:
1120:
1073:
1063:
1011:
1003:
972:
955:
945:
912:
902:
602:While
586:Lancet
556:Health
505:helmet
481:karate
452:Levees
402:, and
268:Munich
198:Munich
63:condom
47:theory
3389:RePEc
3304:S2CID
3279:(PDF)
3264:(PDF)
3201:S2CID
3066:(PDF)
3044:S2CID
3001:S2CID
2298:S2CID
2252:(PDF)
2203:S2CID
2183:(PDF)
2149:(PDF)
2102:(PDF)
1976:S2CID
1956:(PDF)
1885:(PDF)
1867:(PDF)
1847:(PDF)
1836:(PDF)
1747:(PDF)
1345:S2CID
1247:S2CID
1239:JSTOR
1204:S2CID
1158:S2CID
1009:S2CID
660:Notes
466:Sport
396:curbs
196:In a
45:is a
3627:Risk
3354:PMID
3312:SSRN
3246:ISBN
3227:ISBN
3223:Risk
3193:PMID
3147:PMID
3096:PMID
3036:PMID
2993:PMID
2917:PMID
2832:ISBN
2806:PMID
2722:PMID
2622:PMID
2531:PMID
2472:PMID
2385:PMID
2347:PMID
2290:PMID
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