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manufacture, sale and distribution of prison-made products. Congress enacted the Hawes-Cooper Act in 1929, the
Ashurst-Sumners Act in 1935 (now known as 18 U.S.C. § 1761(a)), and the Walsh-Healey Act in 1936. Walsh controlled the production of prison-made goods while Ashurst prohibited the distribution of such products in interstate transportation or commerce. Both statutes authorized federal criminal prosecutions for violations of state laws enacted pursuant to the Hawes-Cooper Act. Private companies got involved again in 1979, when Congress passed a law establishing the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners in some circumstances. PIECP relaxed the restrictions imposed under the Ashurst-Sumners and Walsh-Healey Acts, and allowed for the manufacture, sale and distribution of prisoner-made products across state lines. However, PIECP limited participation in the program to 38 jurisdictions (later increased to 50), and required each to apply to the U.S. Department of Justice for certification.
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20 million annually according to officials, with local entities also benefiting from the monetary funds the program receives from the state of
Georgia. According to Prison Warden of Muscogee County Prison, Dwight Hamrick, the top priority is to provide prison labor to Columbus Consolidated Government and to rehabilitate inmates, with all inmates being required to work. Inmates performing tasks related to sanitation, golf courses, recycling, and landfills receive a monetary compensation of around US$ 3 per day, while those in jobs such as facility maintenance, transportation, and street beautification do not receive any compensation.
43:
2242:. 43 conservation camps for adult offenders exist in California and 30 to 40% of CAL FIRE firefighters are inmates from these camps. Inmates within the firefighting programs receive two days off for every day they spend in the conservation camps and receive around US$ 2 per hour. Most California inmate programs inside of institutions receive a little over $ 0.25 to $ 1.25 per hour for labor. The inmate firefighter camps have their origins in the prisoner work camps that built many of the roads across rural and remote areas of California during the early 1900s.
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Prisons, at the same time, charge us a variety of fees, such as for our identification cards or wrist bracelets, and numerous fines, especially for possession of contraband. They charge us high phone and commissary prices. Prisons each year are taking larger and larger sums of money from the inmates and their families. The state gets from us millions of dollars in free labor and then imposes fees and fines. You have that work in kitchens 12 to 15 hours a day and have done this for years and have never been paid."
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Federal Bureau of
Prisons, all able-bodied sentenced prisoners were required to work, except those who participated full-time in education or other treatment programs or who were considered security risks. Correctional standards promulgated by the American Correctional Association provide that sentenced inmates, who are generally housed in maximum, medium, or minimum security prisons, be required to work and be paid for that work. Some states require, as with Arizona, all able-bodied inmates to work.
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incarceration, has further exacerbated these disparities. This complex includes not only the privatization of prison management but also the exploitation of prison labor by numerous U.S. corporations, contributing to the industry's rapid growth. As prisons increasingly became a source of cheap labor, the exploitation of incarcerated individuals by for-profit entities has raised ethical concerns and sparked public debate regarding the role of prison labor in modern society.
2259:, was valued at US$ 88.9 million in 2014. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice states that the prisoner's free labor pays for room and board while the work they perform in prison equips inmates with the skills and experience necessary to gain and maintain employment after they are released. Texas is one of the four states in the United States that does not pay inmates for their labor in monetary funds, with the other states being Georgia, Arkansas, and Alabama.
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2056:, and logging companies. Private lessees were permitted to use prisoner labor with very little oversight. The result was extremely poor conditions. Inadequacy of necessities like food, water, and shelter, was often exacerbated by unsafe labor practices and inhuman discipline. Nevertheless, the convict lease system prompted the southern economy's return from devastation as the (cheap) labor supply returned to southern capitalism.
1883:, which outlaws slavery, "except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial cannot be forced to participate in labor programs in prison as this would violate the Thirteenth Amendment. Critics of the prison labor system argue that the portrayal of prison expansion as a means of creating employment opportunity is a particularly harmful element of the
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any work whether inside the prison (such as custodial work and food services) or in state-owned businesses. Additionally, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and South
Carolina allowed unpaid labor for at least some jobs. Prison workers in the US are generally exempt from workers' rights and occupational safety protections, including when seriously injured or killed.
2390:. We have focused our first boycott on McDonald's. McDonald's uses prisoners to process beef for patties and package bread, milk, chicken products. We have called for a national Stop Campaign against McDonald's. We have identified this corporation to expose all the others. There are too many corporations exploiting prison labor to try and take them all on at once."
2402:, Scott Paul stated that "It's bad enough that our companies have to compete with exploited and forced labor in China. They shouldn't have to compete against prison labor here at home. The goal should be for other nations to aspire to the quality of life that Americans enjoy, not to discard our efforts through a downward competitive spiral."
1926:, and prisoners were forced to work in particular workshops assigned to them. The products they created were then sold and used to support the prison, and by the 1820s, "nearly all able-bodied male prisoners were contracted to private companies, which paid the prison," not the prisoners, "for their labor." With the passage of the
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passed by the
Legislature on the 15th April, 1817... 'And whereas, it is believed that a habit of industry is the best preventive of vice—to encourage which habit in the criminals in the state prison, whom the state are desirous of reforming, it may be useful to allow them a reasonable portion of the
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is known to make extensive use of unpaid prison labor. Prisoners are engaged in various forms of labor with tasks ranging from agriculture and animal husbandry, to manufacturing soap and clothing items. The inmates receive no salary or monetary remuneration for their labor, but receive other rewards,
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Alabama practices convict leasing, in which prisoners are leased out to private companies to perform labor. In a 2023 lawsuit, prisoners from the state of
Alabama claimed that the state frequently made a practice of denying parole for the sole purpose of maintaining a source of profit, despite policy
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in the United States (and ratification of the 13th amendment), the slave labor-dependent economy of the South faced widespread poverty and market collapse. Southern lawmakers began to exploit the so-called "loophole" written in the 13th amendment and turned to prison labor as a means of restoring the
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Ray said "We do not believe in the political process ... We are not looking to politicians to submit reform bills. We aren't giving more money to lawyers. We don't believe in the courts. We will rely only on protests inside and outside of prisons and on targeting the corporations that exploit prison
1900:
In recent decades "tough-on-crime" policies have led to a surge in incarceration rates, disproportionately affecting Black and poor communities. The emergence of the "prison-industrial complex" (PIC), a term used to describe the intersecting interests of government and industry in perpetuating mass
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of criminals. Prisoners are required to work if medically able. Job assignments usually include employment in areas such as food service or warehouse, plumber, painter, groundskeeper, or inmate orderly. According to the
Federal Bureau of Prisons, Inmates earn 12-40 cents per hour for these jobs, far
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The New York
Department of Corrections' prison labor division, Corcraft, holds a partial monopoly on all goods purchased by state agencies - in which if the requisite item or a sufficiently similar item is available from Corcraft, it must be purchased from Corcraft. The jobs inmates are mandated to
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Louisiana state law requires that all prisoners serving a felony sentence must work while in prison. The inmates may be compensated, or they may not, but if they are the compensation shall be no more than one dollar an hour. Those who are assigned to work outside the prison, such as serving food or
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Most prisoners in the U.S. are required to work, and all state prison systems and the federal system have some form of penal labor. Although inmates are paid for their labor in most states, they usually receive less than $ 1 per hour. As of 2017, Arkansas, Georgia, and Texas did not pay inmates for
2009:
by courts to employers until the age of 21. Minors apprenticed under Black Codes were authorized to be forced into labor against their will, and apprentice relationships closely resembled those of master and slave in terms of discipline and involuntary labor. By 1866, nearly all southern states had
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Movement, seeks to achieve the goal of eliminating imprisonment, policing and surveillance and create lasting effective alternatives to prison and punishment. Their approach to abolition is a broad strategy since they believe that the prison–industrial complex maintains oppression and inequalities
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and harsh working conditions were exposed. These revelations during the 1970s led the state to declare that it would abandon the for-profit aspect of its forced labor from convicts and planned to hire a professional penologist to head the prison. A state commission recommended reducing the size of
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has operated as a for-profit plantation, which yields revenues for the state from its earliest years. Many prisoners were used to clear the dense growth in the
Mississippi bottomland, and then to cultivate the land for agriculture. By the mid-20th century, it had 21,000 acres (8,500 ha) under
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The Prison-Industries Act allowed third-party companies to buy prison manufactured goods from prison factories and sell the products locally or ship them across state lines. Through the program PIECP, there were "thirty jurisdictions with active operations." in states such as
Arizona, Arkansas,
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Pat Biegler, director of the Georgia Public Works department stated that the prison labor system implemented in Georgia facilities saves the department around US$ 140,000 per week. The largest county prison work camp in Columbus, Georgia, Muscogee County Prison, saves the city around $ 17 to US$
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Council, one of the founders of the Free Alabama Movement, said: "We will not work for free anymore. All the work in prisons, from cleaning to cutting grass to working in the kitchen, is done by inmate labor. in Alabama is paid. Without us the prisons, which are slave empires, cannot function.
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Over the years, the courts have held inmates may be forced to work and are not protected by the constitution against involuntary servitude. They have also consistently held that inmates have no constitutional right to compensation and that inmates are paid by the "grace of the state." Under the
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In 1924, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, held a conference on the "ruinous and unfair competition between prison-made products and free industry and labor" (70 Cong. Rec. S656 (1928)). The eventual legislative response to the committee's report led to federal laws regulating the
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is a multi-billion-dollar industry. Annually, incarcerated workers provide at least $ 9 billion in services to the prison system and produce more than $ 2 billion in goods. The industry underwent many transitions throughout the late 19th and early and mid 20th centuries. Legislation such as the
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since the start of the labor strike. Protests took place in three Alabama prisons, and the movement has smuggled out videos and pictures of abusive conditions. Authorities say the men will remain in solitary confinement indefinitely. The prisoners' work stoppages and refusal to cooperate with
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authorities in Alabama are modeled on actions that took place in the Georgia prison system in December 2010. The strike leaders argue that refusing to work is a tactic that would force prison authorities to hire compensated labor or to induce the prisoners to return to their jobs by paying a
1972:
laws that criminalized African Americans’ lack of employment or permanent residence. Inability to pay fees for vagrancy crimes resulted in imprisonment, during which prisoners labored in the very same wage-free positions held by slaves less than two years prior. Other "crimes" punishable by
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prohibited the use of prison labor with the exception of state institutions. However, lobbying by corporations eventually allowed them to use prison labor by 1979, and by 1995 businesses won exemptions from minimum wage laws which permitted them to exploit prison labor for, according to
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In an effort to help inmates obtain employment post-release, legal scholars have argued that states should require in their contracts with private employers that the employer cannot have a policy that prohibits employing former prison inmates after they have been released.
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in the Union-washed South. This end to the reconstruction era set the stage for future reinvention of Black Code laws. States configured legislation to more precisely target the poor, further criminalizing the vast majority of former slaves who had not yet adapted to a
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or accrued wealth. Mississippi’s "pig law" followed this trend of hyper criminalization and fed the penal labor force simultaneously by tacking on outrageous sentences to violations. The "pig law" classified theft of a farm animal or any property worth $ 10 or more as
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cleaning floors at the Louisiana State Capitol, are forbidden from receiving any form of pay. Many prisoners are forced to work on for-profit plantations, including picking cotton. Refusal to work can be met with solitary confinement and physical beatings.
2342:, and Prison-Industries Act in state prisons all contributed a substantial role in cultivating the prison-industrial complex. Between the years 1980 through 1994, prison industry profits jumped substantially from $ 392 million to $ 1.31 billion.
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work range from mundane ones such as tailoring and taxi driving, to more hazardous ones as lead paint and asbestos removal. Inadequate work and/or refusal to work can be punished with beatings. The average wage for a prison laborer is 65 cents an hour.
1765:. Increases in prison labor participation began in 1979 with the formation of the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP). The PIECP is a federal program first authorized under the Justice System Improvement Act of 1979. Approved by
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through violence, punishment, and control over millions of incarcerated individuals. The organization strives to build better models for future strategies and views abolition as not only a practical organizing tool but also a long-term goal.
2446:) is considered by some observers the largest in the country's history. In particular, inmates objected to being excluded from the 13th amendment which forces them to work for pennies a day, a condition they assert is "modern-day slavery."
1951:. Convicts would be transported by private companies and sold by auction to plantation owners. Between 1718 and 1776, it is estimated that 30,000-50,000 convicts were transported for penal labor to at least nine of the continental colonies.
2032:. Previously responsible for the housing and feeding of the new prison labor force, the states developed a convict leasing system as a means to rid penitentiaries of the responsibility to care for the incarcerated population.
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such as time credits, which could work towards cutting down a prison sentence and allow for early release under mandatory supervision. Prisoners are allotted to work up to 12 hours per day. The penal labor system, managed by
1934:
was deemed unconstitutional. Involuntary servitude as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, a practice that had already been widely used by the states, was still explicitly allowed.
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2010:
enacted individual sets of Black Codes. The widespread enforcement of Black Code laws effectively used the 13th amendment's exception of penal labor to reinvent the chattel slavery economy and society to comply with
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According to the International Labor Organization, in 2000–2011 wages in American prisons ranged between $ 0.23 and $ 1.15 an hour. In California, prisoners earn between $ 0.30 and $ 0.95 an hour before deductions.
2174:
Prisoners in Alaska primarily work either on farms, or in the manufacture of various goods. Alaska notably does not have its own state-owned prisoner industries program, instead relying solely on convict leasing.
4246:"Investigative Summary Findings of Fraud and Other Irregularities Related to the Manufacture and Sale of Combat Helmets by the Federal Prison Industries and ArmorSource, LLC, to the Department of Defense, page 2"
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John M. Brackett, "Cutting Costs by Cutting Lives: Prisoner Health and the Abolishment of Florida's Convict-Lease System." Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South, 2007, Vol. 14#2 pp 69-83
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in the United States. Some believe that reducing the economic drain of prisons at the expense of an incarcerated populace prioritizes personal financial gain over ensuring payment of societal debt or actual
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1918:-era economy and society. The first for-profit prison, and prison to use forced, incarcerated labor, was created in New York State, with the construction of the Auburn Prison completed in 1817. The
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Robinson, Michael A. (April 7, 2017). "Black Bodies on the Ground: Policing Disparities in the African American Community—An Analysis of Newsprint From January 1, 2015, Through December 31, 2015".
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if such credit shall exceed the debit side of the account, it shall be in the discretion of the inspectors when such convict is discharged to give him or her a part or the whole of such excess
2145:, "mere pennies an hour." She adds that "many are forced to work in unsafe conditions without protective equipment, because workplace health and safety laws do not apply to prison workers."
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The constitutional history of New York from the beginning of the colonial period to the year 1905 : showing the origin, development, and judicial construction of the constitution
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2411:, Alex Friedmann regards the prison labor system in the United States as part of a "confluence of similar interests" among corporations and politicians referring to the rise of a
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2089:. Violation carried a sentence of incarceration up to five years. Following enactment of the "pig law," the incarcerated population quadrupled over the following three years.
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The 2017 Northern California wildfires consumed over 201,000 acres of land and took 42 lives. The state fire agency, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (
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in 1990 for indefinite continuation, the program legalizes the transportation of prison-made goods across state lines and allows prison inmates to earn market wages in
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1968:
were enacted by politicians in the South to maintain white control over former slaves, namely by restricting African Americans’ labor activity. Common codes included
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Officially, forced labor in Colorado prisons was constitutionally abolished in 2018. In practice, however, it is still in widespread use due to lack of enforcement.
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harvesting and moved toward work in the private sector. States leased out convicts to private businesses that utilized the low-cost labor to run enterprises such as
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in 1796. More explicit legislation suggesting that "it may be useful to allow a reasonable portion of the fruits of their labor" was later enacted in 1817 under
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occupation in the South and national pressure began to change the laws by which African Americans were arbitrarily imprisoned. By 1868, the last official laws of
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2292:, it was noted that FPI would receive priority when the federal government purchases products such as office furniture to replace what was damaged in the riots.
1872:, it was noted that FPI would receive priority when the federal government purchases products such as office furniture to replace what was damaged in the riots.
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for the private sector had been outlawed for decades to avoid competition. The introduction of prison labor in the private sector, the implementation of PIECP,
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Laws of the State of New York Comprising the Constitution and the Acts of Legislature since the Revolution from the First to the Twentieth Session, Inclusive
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2378:. Prisoners appear to be currently organizing in Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia and Washington.
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2323:(BOP) to produce goods and services. FPI is restricted to selling its products and services to federal government agencies, with some recent exceptions.
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Additionally, prisoners in Mississippi may be leased out to company’s such as Popeye’s or even to individual citizens for tasks such as yardwork.
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Inmates have reported that some private companies, such as Martori Farms, do not check for medical background or age when pulling women for jobs.
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Three prisoners – Melvin Ray, James Pleasant and Robert Earl Council – who led work stoppages in Alabama prisons in January 2014 as part of the
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2431:, protesting for better pay, better conditions and for the end of forced labor. Strike leaders have been punished with solitary confinement.
2415:. He stated, "This has been ongoing for decades, with prison privatization contributing to the escalation of incarceration rates in the US."
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California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, and twelve others.
2238:), mobilized over 11,000 firefighters in response, of which 1,500 were prisoners of minimum security conservation camps overseen by the
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2887:"13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)"
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Between 1866 and 1869, Alabama, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, and Florida became the first states in the U.S. to
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Zonderman, David A.; Foner, Eric; Mahoney, Olivia (June 1999). "America's Reconstruction: People and Politics after the Civil War".
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reportedly paid inmates from US$ 0.23 per hour up to a maximum of US$ 1.15 per hour to produce various goods, including furniture,
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Raza, A. E. (2011). "LEGACIES OF THE RACIALIZATION OF INCARCERATION: FROM CONVICT-LEASE TO THE PRISON INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX".
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The Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP) is a federal program that was initiated along with the
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1788:(WOTC) serves as a federal tax credit that grants employers $ 2,400 for every work-release employed inmate. "Prison
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and food industries are often provided tax incentives to contract prison labor, commonly at below market rates. The
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2857:"The Furniture Damaged in the Capitol Riot Will Almost Certainly Be Rebuilt By Incarcerated People For Pennies"
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2011:
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Federal Prison Industries, Inc: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives
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Hawes-Cooper Act of 1929 placed limitations on the trade of prison-made goods. Federal establishment of the
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Arrests shot up dramatically; the number of state convicts quadrupled, from 272 in 1874 to 1,072 by 1877.
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cultivation. In the late 20th century, prison conditions were investigated under civil rights laws, when
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2806:"Work Opportunity Tax Credit, Employment & Training Administration (ETA) – U.S. Department of Labor"
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maximized profits by putting the responsibility on the lessee to provide food, clothing, shelter, and
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and many more actively participated in prison in-sourcing throughout the 1990s and 2000s. After the
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Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Prison Association of New York for 1867
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Hijacked: How Neoliberalism Turned the Work Ethic against Workers and How Workers Can Take It Back
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4582:"As prison strikes heat up, former inmates talk about horrible state of labor and incarceration"
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3751:"Prisoners in the US are part of a hidden workforce linked to hundreds of popular food brands"
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Responsible for the largest prison population in the United States (over 140,000 inmates) the
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acreage, to grow only what is needed for the prison. However, an investigation in 2024 by the
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found that Parchman Farm remained one of the largest for-profit plantations in the country.
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3477:"The Prison Industries Enhancement Certification Program: Why Everyone Should be Concerned"
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2751:"Bureau of Justice Assistance – Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP)"
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3989:"Incarcerated People Forced to Do Dangerous Work for "Slave" Wages at Height of Pandemic"
3933:"'You're a slave': Inside Louisiana's forced prison labor and a failed overhaul attempt"
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The earliest known law permitting convicts to be paid for their labor traces back to an
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without written permission from an employer, and practicing any occupation other than
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MISSISSIPPI URGED TO REVAMP PRISON; Panel Proposes Eliminating Farm-for-Profit System
3903:"Colorado banned forced prison labor 5 years ago. Prisoners say it's still happening"
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This law, however, enacted under Governor Tompkins, was repealed the subsequent year.
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2836:"How Prison Labor is the New American Slavery and Most of Us Unknowingly Support it"
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1090:
618:
591:
554:
532:
419:
136:
116:
94:
84:
74:
69:
59:
2556:"US prison workers produce $ 11bn worth of goods and services a year for pittance"
899:
4307:
Title 18 U.S. Code § 4122 Section A - Administration of Federal Prison Industries
4245:
3452:
fruits of their labor, to be set apart and secured for them or their families..."
2677:
1914:
The current state of prison labor in the United States has distinct roots in the
4649:"Combating Discrimination Against the Formerly Incarcerated in the Labor Market"
3299:
2482:
2375:
2081:
2049:
2037:
1994:
1753:
1489:
1477:
830:
633:
623:
581:
395:
3405:
3068:
Freeman's Challenge: The Murder That Shook America's Original Prison for Profit
3053:
Freeman's Challenge: The Murder That Shook America's Original Prison for Profit
4181:
3173:
2714:
2494:
2300:
2281:
2041:
1982:
1853:
1789:
1637:
934:
638:
505:
4343:
3694:
3686:
3148:
3140:
3102:
3010:"Hustle and Flow: Prison Privatization Fueling the Prison Industrial Complex"
2781:"These 5 Everyday Companies Are Profiting from the Prison-Industrial Complex"
2567:
2071:
were repealed in most states. As Reconstruction lost its vigor, however, the
4586:
4019:"How NY Prison 'Slave Labor' Powers A $ 50 Million Manufacturing Enterprise"
1849:
1845:
1817:
882:
547:
409:
3564:
2063:
continued to rise during Reconstruction, feeding the convict lease system,
1861:
564:
4520:"Major prison strike spreads across US and Canada as inmates refuse food"
4386:
3671:"When work is punishment: Penal subjectivities in punitive labor regimes"
2917:"Jailing Americans for Profit: The Rise of the Prison Industrial Complex"
2137:
2114:
1969:
1472:
1030:
974:
926:
586:
431:
286:
192:
4551:"U.S. Inmates Plan Nationwide Prison Strike To Protest Labor Conditions"
3811:"Prisoners Sue Alabama, Calling Prison Labor System a 'Form of Slavery'"
4458:"US inmates stage nationwide prison labor strike over 'modern slavery'"
3110:
2106:
2086:
1986:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1455:
537:
217:
34:
4489:"US inmates sent to solitary confinement over 'prison slavery' strike"
1973:
imprisonment (and subsequent slave labor) as per Black Codes included
2002:
1990:
1813:
1157:
979:
559:
542:
404:
239:
207:
4072:"Meet the inmates risking their lives to fight California wildfires"
3449:. C. Van Benthuysen & Sons. January 29, 1868. pp. 168–169.
3410:. Rochester, N.Y. : The Lawyers Co-operative Pub. Co. pp.
3355:
Worse than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice
3094:
3507:"How US prison labour pads corporate profits at taxpayers' expense"
4400:"The Largest Prison Strike in U.S. History Enters its Second Week"
2715:"Work in American Prisons: Joint Ventures with the Private Sector"
2091:
1922:
contained several factories that used water power form the nearby
1857:
1821:
414:
400:
375:
2001:
or farmer without holding a judge-ordered license. Additionally,
2334:) and the Prison-Industries Act in 1979. Before these programs,
1761:(FPI) in 1934 revitalized the prison labor system following the
281:
111:
4427:"America's prisoners are going on strike in at least 17 states"
3314:"Convict Leasing System: History & Explanation | Study.com"
4554:
1805:
4216:"Department of the Army W91CRB08D0045-0015 To Unicor $ 42.5k"
3532:""California governor seeks end to federal prison oversight""
3292:
Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies
2096:
Floridian convicts leased to harvest timber in the mid-1910s.
2005:
minors and minors removed from their homes by the state were
4042:"The California Inmates Fighting The Wine Country Wildfires"
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
2979:"Defending Justice - What Is The Prison Industrial Complex?"
2590:"Captive Labor: Exploitation of Incarcerated Workers | ACLU"
1841:
1777:, victim compensation, family support, and room and board.
3873:"At Alaska's prison farm, a different way of serving time"
2040:
for the prisoners. Convict labor strayed from small-scale
3781:"Locked Up: The prison labor that built business empires"
3427:
State of New York Report of the Prison Survey Committee
2622:
Prison Labor in the United States: An Economic Analysis
2240:
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
2230:
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
4366:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4114:"Unpaid Labor in Texas Prisons Is Modern-Day Slavery"
3713:"How much do incarcerated people earn in each state?"
2200:
Forced labor exists in many prisons. In Mississippi,
1412:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
3978:, October 8, 1972, p. 8. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
3749:McDowell, Robin; Mason, Margie (January 29, 2024).
3608:. Corrections ADC. 2013. p. 16. Archived from
2678:"Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program"
2018:Prison labor in the Reconstruction era (1866–1877)
4189:, Congressional Research Service, July 13, 2007,
3565:"Perspectives on Paying the Federal Minimum Wage"
2459:Prison Industrial Complex Abolition, led by the
2315:(UNICOR or FPI) is a wholly owned United States
1527:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
3632:
3630:
3500:
3498:
2438:, sponsored by Jailhouse Lawyers Speak and the
2319:created in 1934 that uses penal labor from the
4580:Bozelko, Chandra; Lo, Ryan (August 25, 2018).
3070:. The University of Chicago Press. p. 16.
3055:. The University of Chicago Press. p. 15.
4332:"The Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor"
1947:The British used parts of North America as a
1733:
8:
1955:Prison labor post-13th amendment (1865–1866)
1532:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
3602:Constituent Services Informational Handbook
2722:National Criminal Justice Reference Service
2685:National Criminal Justice Reference Service
4112:Walker, Jason Renard (September 6, 2016).
2290:2021 storming of the United States Capitol
2121:, only to be repealed the following year.
1740:
1726:
17:
2491:which includes discussion of prison labor
2440:Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee
4330:Elk, Mike; Sloan, Bob (August 1, 2011).
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
2442:(the latter a branch of the labor group
2299:
1537:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1402:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1382:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
4499:from the original on September 13, 2018
4468:from the original on September 12, 2018
4406:from the original on September 16, 2016
4226:from the original on September 23, 2017
3213:"The Southern 'Black Codes' of 1865–66"
2516:
1981:relationships, violation of slave-like
29:
4663:from the original on February 21, 2020
4437:from the original on December 17, 2020
3943:from the original on February 24, 2024
3913:from the original on February 20, 2024
3723:from the original on November 27, 2021
3706:
3704:
3538:from the original on December 12, 2013
3271:from the original on February 16, 2021
2973:
2971:
2940:
2938:
2816:from the original on November 17, 2017
4614:"What is the PIC? What is Abolition?"
4594:from the original on February 4, 2021
4561:from the original on February 4, 2021
4530:from the original on February 9, 2021
4325:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4262:from the original on January 16, 2021
4196:from the original on January 26, 2021
4176:
4174:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4036:
4034:
4032:
3999:from the original on January 30, 2024
3883:from the original on January 30, 2024
3821:from the original on February 9, 2024
3791:from the original on January 30, 2024
3761:from the original on January 30, 2024
3744:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3353:Oshinsky, David M. (April 22, 1997).
3324:from the original on October 24, 2018
3219:from the original on October 24, 2018
3207:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3184:from the original on October 23, 2018
3168:
3166:
3122:
3120:
2897:from the original on October 10, 2011
2867:from the original on January 19, 2021
2851:
2849:
2761:from the original on October 24, 2018
2657:from the original on February 8, 2021
2600:from the original on February 4, 2024
2328:American Legislative Exchange Council
1424:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1101:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
7:
4124:from the original on August 14, 2018
3853:from the original on August 27, 2024
3581:from the original on January 3, 2015
3215:. Constitutional Rights Foundation.
3174:"Black code | United States history"
2989:from the original on August 27, 2024
2731:from the original on August 27, 2024
2694:from the original on October 4, 2018
2252:Texas Department of Criminal Justice
2246:Texas Department of Criminal Justice
2075:recovered and de-stigmatized casual
1616:Slave marriages in the United States
1220:Human trafficking in the Middle East
4624:from the original on April 14, 2020
4487:Fryer, Brooke (September 5, 2018).
2956:from the original on April 16, 2024
2713:Sexton, George E. (November 1995).
2427:and 2018, some prisoners in the US
2400:Alliance for American Manufacturing
2196:Mississippi for-profit prison labor
955:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
4653:Northwestern University Law Review
4549:Corley, Cheryl (August 21, 2018).
4518:Pilkington, Ed (August 23, 2018).
4456:Pilkington, Ed (August 21, 2018).
4159:from the original on April 7, 2018
4082:from the original on April 7, 2018
4052:from the original on April 7, 2018
2923:from the original on June 14, 2013
2676:Herraiz, Domingo S. (March 2004).
2619:Bair, Asatar (November 21, 2007).
2500:Incarceration in the United States
2136:Laws passed during the era of the
1609:last survivors of American slavery
14:
4699:Unfree labor in the United States
4694:Human rights in the United States
4425:Lopez, German (August 22, 2018).
4183:Federal Prison Industries RL32380
3483:from the original on May 18, 2015
3032:from the original on May 27, 2024
3008:Fulcher, Patrice (July 2, 2012).
2535:from the original on May 31, 2021
2263:Georgia Department of Corrections
2187:Louisiana for-profit prison labor
570:Field slaves in the United States
437:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
4689:Penal labor in the United States
3711:Sawyer, Wendy (April 10, 2017).
3430:. J.B. Lyon. 1920. p. 119.
3404:Lincoln, Charles Zebina (1906).
2554:Anguiano, Dani (June 15, 2022).
1964:pre-abolition free labor force.
447:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
442:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
271:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
41:
4287:. DIANE Publishing. p. 1.
3083:The Journal of American History
2838:. June 13, 2016. Archived from
2450:Alternative policies and reform
2444:Industrial Workers of the World
2161:Alabama for-profit prison labor
1870:2021 storming of the US Capitol
1397:Committee of Experts on Slavery
948:East, Southeast, and South Asia
2594:American Civil Liberties Union
1875:Penal labor is allowed by the
1096:Slave raiding in Easter Island
1:
2257:Texas Correctional Industries
1780:Firms including those in the
4149:"Prison labor sparks debate"
2179:Colorado forced prison labor
1387:Temporary Slavery Commission
1048:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
3669:Hatton, Erin (April 2018).
2152:Modern prison labor systems
1786:Work Opportunity Tax Credit
1407:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
452:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
4715:
4281:McCollum, William (1996).
3646:Cambridge University Press
3390:. 1797. pp. 291–299.
2398:Executive Director of the
2358:
2304:Prison labor in a UNICOR (
2021:
1959:Immediately following the
1592:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1429:Anti-Slavery International
1194:North Africa and West Asia
3066:Bernstein, Robin (2024).
3051:Bernstein, Robin (2024).
2525:"The Uncounted Workforce"
2505:Prison–industrial complex
2487:– Netflix documentary by
2455:Prison abolition movement
2413:prison–industrial complex
2388:school-to-prison pipeline
2321:Federal Bureau of Prisons
2313:Federal Prison Industries
2306:Federal Prison Industries
2278:Federal Prison Industries
2272:Federal Prison Industries
1885:prison–industrial complex
1773:jobs that can go towards
1759:Federal Prison Industries
1688:Emancipation Proclamation
1360:Opposition and resistance
1118:Sex trafficking in Europe
1106:Blackbirding in Polynesia
669:Trans-Saharan slave trade
4253:US Department of Justice
3717:Prison Policy Initiative
3687:10.1177/1462474517690001
3675:Punishment & Society
3141:10.1177/0021934717702134
3129:Journal of Black Studies
2296:Prison labor legislation
2288:In the aftermath of the
1468:Compensated emancipation
679:Indian Ocean slave trade
4645:Onwuachi-Willig, Angela
3505:Walshe, Sadhbh (2012).
3178:Encyclopædia Britannica
2166:claiming the contrary.
1392:1926 Slavery Convention
1148:Germany in World War II
765:North and South America
287:Contract of manumission
4402:. September 16, 2016.
4380:June 22, 2015, at the
4375:America’s Slave Empire
3968:July 23, 2018, at the
2588:ACLU (June 15, 2022).
2468:Prison labor contracts
2436:prison strikes of 2018
2423:From 2010 to 2015 and
2386:labor and finance the
2317:government corporation
2309:
2097:
1752:In the United States,
873:British Virgin Islands
425:Circassian slave trade
391:Safavid imperial harem
386:Ottoman Imperial Harem
3479:. Prison Legal News.
2367:Free Alabama Movement
2361:Free Alabama Movement
2355:Free Alabama Movement
2303:
2221:New York Prison Labor
2143:Elizabeth S. Anderson
2095:
1897:of $ 7.25 per hour.
1112:Europe and North Asia
1072:Australia and Oceania
772:Pre-Columbian America
344:Slave raid of Suðuroy
276:Slavery in al-Andalus
198:Black Sea slave trade
127:21st-century jihadism
4046:The Marshall Project
3877:Anchorage Daily News
3648:. pp. 270–271.
3014:Washburn Law Journal
2946:"BOP: Work Programs"
2405:Associate Editor of
2371:solitary confinement
1995:agricultural produce
1989:, making or selling
1961:abolition of slavery
1567:Indentured servitude
1495:Underground Railroad
1295:United Arab Emirates
684:Zanzibar slave trade
651:By country or region
464:Atlantic slave trade
366:Ma malakat aymanukum
250:Venetian slave trade
4618:Critical Resistance
3638:Anderson, Elizabeth
3475:Sloan, Bob (2010).
3239:"Freedom to Fear -"
2863:. January 8, 2021.
2461:Critical Resistance
2207:abuses of prisoners
2170:Alaska prison labor
2101:Hired convict labor
2061:incarceration rates
1653:Slave Route Project
784:Americas indigenous
674:Red Sea slave trade
664:Contemporary Africa
527:Topics and practice
297:Crimean slave trade
292:Bukhara slave trade
245:Genoese slave trade
122:Contemporary Africa
102:Forced prostitution
3975:The New York Times
2310:
2119:Daniel D. Tompkins
2098:
2030:lease out convicts
1434:Blockade of Africa
741:Somali slave trade
657:Sub-Saharan Africa
349:Turkish Abductions
307:Khivan slave trade
302:Khazar slave trade
255:Balkan slave trade
213:Prague slave trade
4294:978-0-7567-0060-7
3386:. Vol. III.
3265:"Freedom to Fear"
3040:– via SSRN.
2983:www.publiceye.org
2632:978-1-135-89840-3
2408:Prison Legal News
2034:State governments
1975:unlawful assembly
1881:U.S. Constitution
1830:Victoria's Secret
1810:Texas Instruments
1750:
1749:
1700:Freedmen's Bureau
1522:Third Servile War
1517:International law
1084:Human trafficking
846:Human trafficking
521:Thirteen colonies
339:Sack of Baltimore
107:Human trafficking
4706:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4668:
4643:Ajunwa, Ifeoma;
4640:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4577:
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4396:
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4068:
4062:
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4059:
4057:
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4015:
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4004:
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3826:
3807:
3801:
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3798:
3796:
3777:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3755:Associated Press
3746:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3708:
3699:
3698:
3666:
3660:
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3634:
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3455:
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3441:
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3422:
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3401:
3395:
3394:
3388:Thomas Greenleaf
3378:
3372:
3371:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3310:
3304:
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3287:
3281:
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3278:
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3229:
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3209:
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3115:
3114:
3078:
3072:
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3063:
3057:
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3039:
3037:
3005:
2999:
2998:
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2994:
2975:
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2961:
2942:
2933:
2932:
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2928:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2853:
2844:
2843:
2842:on June 7, 2023.
2832:
2826:
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2576:
2574:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2521:
2212:Associated Press
2073:Democratic party
1985:, possession of
1939:British Empire (
1763:Great Depression
1742:
1735:
1728:
1712:Emancipation Day
1545:
1512:Slave Trade Acts
203:Byzantine Empire
45:
18:
4714:
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4709:
4708:
4707:
4705:
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4419:
4409:
4407:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4382:Wayback Machine
4369:
4358:
4348:
4346:
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4311:
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4172:
4162:
4160:
4153:ledger-enquirer
4147:
4146:
4137:
4127:
4125:
4111:
4110:
4095:
4085:
4083:
4070:
4069:
4065:
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4040:
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4030:
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4012:
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4000:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3970:Wayback Machine
3960:
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3901:
3900:
3896:
3886:
3884:
3871:
3870:
3866:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3841:"Captive Labor"
3839:
3838:
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3809:
3808:
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3792:
3779:
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3380:
3379:
3375:
3365:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3327:
3325:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3289:
3288:
3284:
3274:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3245:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3210:
3197:
3187:
3185:
3172:
3171:
3164:
3126:
3125:
3118:
3095:10.2307/2567415
3080:
3079:
3075:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3035:
3033:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2992:
2990:
2977:
2976:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2944:
2943:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2900:
2898:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2870:
2868:
2855:
2854:
2847:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2789:
2787:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2764:
2762:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2660:
2658:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2603:
2601:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2572:
2570:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2536:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2479:
2470:
2457:
2452:
2429:refused to work
2421:
2396:
2363:
2357:
2352:
2298:
2286:combat helmets.
2274:
2265:
2248:
2232:
2223:
2198:
2189:
2181:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2103:
2026:
2024:Convict leasing
2020:
1983:labor contracts
1957:
1945:
1912:
1907:
1746:
1717:
1716:
1621:Slave narrative
1577:Fugitive slaves
1557:
1549:
1548:
1539:
1507:Slave rebellion
1362:
1352:
1351:
1310:
1300:
1299:
1122:United Kingdom
1058:Yankee princess
652:
644:
643:
371:Avret Pazarları
317:Avret Pazarları
186:Medieval Europe
152:
142:
141:
80:Forced marriage
55:
12:
11:
5:
4712:
4710:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4681:
4680:
4675:
4674:
4635:
4605:
4572:
4541:
4510:
4479:
4448:
4417:
4391:
4356:
4309:
4300:
4293:
4273:
4237:
4206:
4170:
4135:
4093:
4063:
4028:
4010:
3980:
3954:
3924:
3894:
3864:
3832:
3802:
3772:
3734:
3700:
3681:(2): 174–191.
3661:
3655:978-1009275439
3654:
3626:
3615:on May 2, 2015
3592:
3572:Prisoner Labor
3549:
3523:
3494:
3456:
3436:
3417:
3396:
3373:
3367:. p. 40:
3364:978-0684830957
3363:
3357:. Free Press.
3345:
3335:
3305:
3282:
3263:Gates, Henry.
3255:
3230:
3195:
3162:
3135:(6): 551–571.
3116:
3073:
3058:
3043:
3020:(3): 589–617.
3000:
2967:
2934:
2908:
2878:
2845:
2827:
2797:
2772:
2742:
2705:
2668:
2638:
2631:
2611:
2580:
2546:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2478:
2475:
2469:
2466:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2420:
2419:Inmate strikes
2417:
2395:
2392:
2359:Main article:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2297:
2294:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2247:
2244:
2231:
2228:
2222:
2219:
2197:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2177:
2171:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2102:
2099:
2022:Main article:
2019:
2016:
1956:
1953:
1944:
1937:
1928:13th amendment
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1890:rehabilitation
1877:13th Amendment
1775:tax deductions
1771:private sector
1748:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1599:List of slaves
1596:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1317:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1143:Dutch Republic
1140:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1075:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1011:
1006:
1005:
1004:
999:
989:
988:
987:
982:
977:
967:
962:
957:
951:
950:
944:
943:
938:
931:
930:
929:
924:
914:
909:
904:
903:
902:
892:
887:
886:
885:
880:
875:
870:
860:
855:
850:
849:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
793:
792:
791:
781:
780:
779:
768:
767:
761:
760:
755:
750:
745:
744:
743:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
687:
686:
676:
671:
666:
660:
659:
653:
650:
649:
646:
645:
642:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
615:
614:
610:
609:
604:
602:Child soldiers
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
578:
577:
567:
562:
557:
552:
551:
550:
545:
540:
529:
528:
524:
523:
518:
513:
511:Spanish Empire
508:
503:
498:
493:
491:Middle Passage
488:
483:
478:
473:
467:
466:
460:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
428:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
353:
352:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
321:
320:
319:
312:Ottoman Empire
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
273:
267:
266:
260:
259:
258:
257:
247:
242:
237:
236:
235:
230:
225:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
189:
188:
182:
181:
176:
171:
166:
160:
159:
153:
148:
147:
144:
143:
140:
139:
134:
132:Sexual slavery
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
98:
97:
92:
90:Child marriage
87:
77:
72:
67:
65:Child soldiers
62:
56:
51:
50:
47:
46:
38:
37:
27:
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4711:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4639:
4636:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4609:
4606:
4598:September 13,
4593:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4576:
4573:
4565:September 13,
4560:
4556:
4552:
4545:
4542:
4534:September 13,
4529:
4525:
4521:
4514:
4511:
4503:September 13,
4498:
4494:
4490:
4483:
4480:
4472:September 13,
4467:
4463:
4459:
4452:
4449:
4441:September 13,
4436:
4432:
4428:
4421:
4418:
4410:September 16,
4405:
4401:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4376:
4373:(June 2015).
4372:
4371:Hedges, Chris
4367:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4304:
4301:
4296:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4277:
4274:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4241:
4238:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4207:
4192:
4185:
4184:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4136:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4098:
4094:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4067:
4064:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4011:
3998:
3994:
3993:The Intercept
3990:
3984:
3981:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3958:
3955:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3928:
3925:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3895:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3849:
3842:
3836:
3833:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3803:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3776:
3773:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3631:
3627:
3611:
3604:
3603:
3596:
3593:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3512:
3508:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3421:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3377:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3309:
3306:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3283:
3270:
3266:
3259:
3256:
3244:
3240:
3234:
3231:
3218:
3214:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3077:
3074:
3069:
3062:
3059:
3054:
3047:
3044:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2909:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2669:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2647:"BOP: UNICOR"
2642:
2639:
2634:
2628:
2625:. Routledge.
2624:
2623:
2615:
2612:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2584:
2581:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2547:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2510:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2474:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2454:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2425:again in 2016
2418:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2401:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2372:
2369:have been in
2368:
2362:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2302:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2271:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2253:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2229:
2227:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2202:Parchman Farm
2195:
2193:
2186:
2184:
2178:
2176:
2169:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2094:
2090:
2088:
2087:grand larceny
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1920:Auburn Prison
1917:
1909:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1643:Slave catcher
1641:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1572:Forced labour
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1543:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1417:Abolitionists
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1355:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1116:
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597:Slave raiding
595:
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2489:Ava DuVernay
2483:
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2336:prison labor
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2058:
2038:medical care
2027:
1958:
1949:penal colony
1946:
1924:Owasco River
1913:
1899:
1895:minimum wage
1874:
1779:
1751:
1648:Slave patrol
1485:Freedom suit
1461:Sierra Leone
1451:Colonization
1367:Abolitionism
1347:Baháʼí Faith
1320:Christianity
1270:Saudi Arabia
1126:Penal Labour
1091:Blackbirding
997:Debt bondage
985:penal system
825:
811:Contemporary
801:Field slaves
789:U.S. Natives
748:South Africa
619:Galley slave
592:Slave market
582:House slaves
555:Blackbirding
533:Conscription
457:21st century
420:Umm al-walad
264:Muslim world
233:Emancipation
137:Wage slavery
117:Penal labour
95:Wife selling
85:Bride buying
70:Conscription
60:Child Labour
53:Contemporary
15:
4230:January 23,
4200:January 29,
4003:January 30,
3947:January 30,
3887:January 30,
3857:January 30,
3825:January 30,
3795:January 30,
3765:January 30,
3574:: 4. 1993.
3542:December 8,
3328:October 23,
3243:EJI Reports
3223:October 23,
3188:October 23,
2950:www.bop.gov
2927:October 23,
2901:October 23,
2871:January 23,
2820:October 23,
2790:October 23,
2785:Groundswell
2765:October 23,
2735:October 23,
2698:October 23,
2651:www.bop.gov
2604:February 4,
2573:February 4,
2539:February 4,
2082:free market
2012:federal law
2007:apprenticed
1979:interracial
1966:Black Codes
1794:Whole Foods
1790:in-sourcing
1754:penal labor
1663:court cases
1540: [
1490:Slave Power
1478:Manumission
1325:Catholicism
1200:Afghanistan
941:Puerto Rico
853:The Bahamas
831:Slave codes
634:Shanghaiing
624:Impressment
516:Slave Coast
396:Qajar harem
356:Concubinage
329:slave trade
4683:Categories
4336:The Nation
4266:August 19,
4214:GovTribe.
3089:(1): 179.
2810:doleta.gov
2511:References
2495:Labor camp
2308:) program.
2282:body armor
2109:passed by
2069:Black Code
2050:coal mines
2046:share crop
2042:plantation
1993:, selling
1893:below the
1798:McDonald's
1782:technology
1678:J.Q. Adams
1668:Washington
1638:Slave name
1587:convention
1562:Common law
935:Encomienda
731:Seychelles
716:Mauritania
639:Slave ship
506:Panyarring
501:New France
150:Historical
4587:USA Today
4493:NITV News
4344:0027-8378
4076:VICE News
4023:Gothamist
3695:1462-4745
3318:Study.com
3300:903538405
3157:152144149
3149:0021-9347
3103:0021-8723
3036:April 15,
2568:0261-3077
2376:fair wage
2276:In 2007,
2113:governor
2054:railroads
1941:1615–1776
1930:in 1865,
1850:Microsoft
1846:Starbucks
1818:Nordstrom
1673:Jefferson
1330:Mormonism
1265:Palestine
1079:Australia
1009:Indonesia
900:Lei Áurea
883:Code Noir
863:Caribbean
836:Treatment
575:Treatment
548:Devshirme
410:Odalisque
228:In Russia
169:Babylonia
157:Antiquity
4661:Archived
4659:: 1385.
4647:(2018).
4628:April 7,
4622:Archived
4592:Archived
4559:Archived
4528:Archived
4497:Archived
4466:Archived
4435:Archived
4404:Archived
4387:Truthdig
4378:Archived
4349:April 6,
4257:Archived
4224:Archived
4191:archived
4163:April 7,
4157:Archived
4128:April 6,
4122:Archived
4118:Truthout
4086:April 6,
4080:Archived
4056:April 6,
4050:Archived
3997:Archived
3966:Archived
3941:Archived
3911:Archived
3881:Archived
3848:Archived
3846:. ACLU.
3819:Archived
3789:Archived
3759:Archived
3721:Archived
3640:(2023).
3576:Archived
3536:Archived
3481:Archived
3322:Archived
3296:ProQuest
3269:Archived
3217:Archived
3182:Archived
3030:Archived
2987:Archived
2960:April 8,
2954:Archived
2921:Archived
2895:Archived
2865:Archived
2814:Archived
2759:Archived
2726:Archived
2689:Archived
2655:Archived
2598:Archived
2533:Archived
2477:See also
2350:Response
2236:CAL FIRE
2138:New Deal
2115:John Jay
2111:New York
2003:orphaned
1987:firearms
1970:vagrancy
1838:AT&T
1826:Wal-Mart
1767:Congress
1705:Iron bit
1695:40 acres
1658:breeding
1473:Freedman
1308:Religion
1168:Portugal
1053:Thailand
1043:Maldives
1038:Malaysia
1031:Kwalliso
975:Booi Aha
927:Restavek
907:Colombia
878:Trinidad
868:Barbados
758:Zanzibar
706:Ethiopia
587:Saqaliba
481:Database
432:Saqaliba
193:Ancillae
23:a series
21:Part of
3619:May 14,
3585:May 14,
3516:May 14,
3487:May 14,
3294:: 164.
3111:2567415
3026:2097864
2891:loc.gov
2861:Jezebel
2755:bja.gov
2394:Critics
1999:servant
1932:slavery
1916:slavery
1910:Origins
1905:History
1879:of the
1834:Aramark
1683:Lincoln
1556:Related
1456:Liberia
1342:Judaism
1280:Tunisia
1255:Morocco
1245:Lebanon
1210:Bahrain
1205:Algeria
1173:Romania
1138:Denmark
1131:Slavery
1065:Vietnam
736:Somalia
726:Nigeria
701:Comoros
629:Pirates
538:Ghilman
471:Bristol
361:history
334:pirates
223:History
112:Peonage
35:slavery
4342:
4291:
3693:
3652:
3361:
3298:
3155:
3147:
3109:
3101:
3024:
2629:
2566:
2284:, and
2077:racism
2059:While
1991:liquor
1866:Sprint
1862:Macy's
1814:Boeing
1802:Target
1604:owners
1240:Kuwait
1235:Jordan
1188:Sweden
1178:Russia
1163:Poland
1158:Norway
980:Laogai
965:Brunei
960:Bhutan
922:revolt
895:Brazil
858:Canada
821:partus
806:female
691:Angola
560:Coolie
543:Mamluk
496:Nantes
476:Brazil
405:Cariye
240:Thrall
208:Kholop
174:Greece
4260:(PDF)
4249:(PDF)
4194:(PDF)
4187:(PDF)
3851:(PDF)
3844:(PDF)
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3606:(PDF)
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3414:–252.
3153:S2CID
3107:JSTOR
2729:(PDF)
2718:(PDF)
2692:(PDF)
2681:(PDF)
2065:Union
1858:Honda
1822:Intel
1631:songs
1626:films
1544:]
1500:songs
1337:Islam
1315:Bible
1290:Yemen
1285:Qatar
1275:Syria
1250:Libya
1215:Egypt
1183:Spain
1153:Malta
1026:Korea
1014:Japan
992:India
970:China
917:Haiti
777:Aztec
753:Sudan
721:Niger
613:Naval
486:Dutch
415:Qiyan
401:Jarya
376:Harem
218:Serfs
164:Egypt
4669:2020
4630:2018
4600:2018
4567:2018
4536:2018
4505:2018
4474:2018
4443:2018
4412:2018
4351:2018
4340:ISSN
4289:ISBN
4268:2016
4232:2021
4202:2021
4165:2018
4130:2018
4088:2018
4058:2018
4005:2024
3949:2024
3937:WaPo
3919:2024
3889:2024
3859:2024
3827:2024
3797:2024
3767:2024
3729:2021
3691:ISSN
3650:ISBN
3621:2015
3587:2015
3544:2013
3518:2015
3489:2015
3359:ISBN
3330:2018
3277:2021
3250:2021
3225:2018
3190:2018
3145:ISSN
3099:ISSN
3038:2024
3022:SSRN
2995:2024
2962:2024
2929:2018
2903:2018
2873:2021
2822:2018
2792:2018
2767:2018
2737:2018
2700:2018
2663:2021
2627:ISBN
2606:2024
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2564:ISSN
2541:2024
2484:13th
2434:The
2340:ALEC
2332:ALEC
2044:and
1864:and
1854:Nike
1582:laws
1444:U.S.
1439:U.K.
1377:U.S.
1372:U.K.
1260:Oman
1230:Iraq
1225:Iran
912:Cuba
816:maps
711:Mali
696:Chad
282:Baqt
179:Rome
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4657:112
4555:NPR
4431:Vox
3972:."
3907:NPR
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