440:
337:– constitutes about 10% of the total PBL depth. Above the surface layer the PBL turbulence gradually dissipates, losing its kinetic energy to friction as well as converting the kinetic to potential energy in a density stratified flow. The balance between the rate of the turbulent kinetic energy production and its dissipation determines the planetary boundary layer depth. The PBL depth varies broadly. At a given wind speed, e.g. 8 m/s, and so at a given rate of the turbulence production, a PBL in wintertime Arctic could be as shallow as 50 m, a nocturnal PBL in mid-latitudes could be typically 300 m in thickness, and a tropical PBL in the trade-wind zone could grow to its full theoretical depth of 2000 m. The PBL depth can be 4000 m or higher in late afternoon over desert.
138:
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448:. This implies a reaction of the land surface ecosystem that will evapotranspire (evaporation from the soil and transpiration from plants) more, to compensate for this loss of moisture in the lower layer, but gradually causing a drying of the soil. (Source: Combe, M., Vilà -Guerau de Arellano, J., Ouwersloot, H. G., Jacobs, C. M. J., and Peters, W.: Two perspectives on the coupled carbon, water and energy exchange in the planetary boundary layer, Biogeosciences, 12, 103–123, .https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-103-2015, 2015)
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300:
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456:. An SBL is solely driven by the wind shear turbulence and hence the SBL cannot exist without the free atmosphere wind. An SBL is typical in nighttime at all locations and even in daytime in places where the Earth's surface is colder than the air above. An SBL plays a particularly important role in high latitudes where it is often prolonged (days to months), resulting in very cold air temperatures.
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Physical laws and equations of motion, which govern the planetary boundary layer dynamics and microphysics, are strongly non-linear and considerably influenced by properties of the Earth's surface and evolution of processes in the free atmosphere. To deal with this complexity, the whole array of
290:
formed during the night are broken up as a consequence of the turbulent rise of heated air. The boundary layer stabilises "shortly before sunset" and remains so during the night. All this make up a daily cycle. During winter and cloudy days the breakup of the nighttime layering is incomplete and
226:
coefficient based on surface type. The height above ground where surface friction has a negligible effect on wind speed is called the "gradient height" and the wind speed above this height is assumed to be a constant called the "gradient wind speed". For example, typical values for the predicted
291:
atmospheric conditions established in previous days can persist. The breakup of the nighttime boundary layer structure is fast on sunny days. The driving force is convective cells with narrow updraft areas and large areas of gentle downdraft. These cells exceed 200–500 m in diameter.
40:
443:
Interactions between the carbon (green), water (blue) and heat (red) cycles in the coupled land–ABL system. As the atmospheric boundary layer decreases in height due to subsidence, it experiences an increase in temperature, a reduction in moisture, and a depletion of
141:
The difference in the amount of aerosols below and above the boundary layer is easy to see in this aerial photograph. Light pollution from the city of Berlin is strongly scattered below the layer, but above the layer it mostly propagates out into
402:
A convective planetary boundary layer is a type of planetary boundary layer where positive buoyancy flux at the surface creates a thermal instability and thus generates additional or even major turbulence. (This is also known as having CAPE or
198:
The reduction in velocity near the surface is a function of surface roughness, so wind velocity profiles are quite different for different terrain types. Rough, irregular ground, and man-made obstructions on the ground can reduce the
254:
effect. The cross-isobar angle of the diverted ageostrophic flow near the surface ranges from 10° over open water, to 30° over rough hilly terrain, and can increase to 40°-50° over land at night when the wind speed is very low.
569:
52:
This movie is a combined visualization of the PBL and wind dynamics over the Los
Angeles basin for a one-month period. Vertical motion of the PBL is represented by the gray "blanket". The height of the PBL is largely driven by
411:.) A convective boundary layer is typical in tropical and mid-latitudes during daytime. Solar heating assisted by the heat released from the water vapor condensation could create such strong convective turbulence that the
278:. This effect is even larger over the sea, where there is much less diurnal variation of the height of the boundary layer than over land. In the convective boundary layer, strong mixing diminishes vertical wind gradient.
57:
associated with the changing surface temperature of the Earth (for example, rising during the day and sinking at night). The colored arrows represent the strength and direction of winds at different altitudes.
249:
of the wind is usually three-dimensional, that is, there is also a change in direction between the 'free' pressure gradient-driven geostrophic wind and the wind close to the ground. This is related to the
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42:
41:
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179:. Flow near the surface encounters obstacles that reduce the wind speed, and introduce random vertical and horizontal velocity components at right angles to the main direction of flow. This
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Flow near the surface encounters small obstacles that change the wind speed and introduce random vertical and horizontal velocity components at right angles to the main direction of flow.
333:
suggest, the planetary boundary layer turbulence is produced in the layer with the largest velocity gradients that is at the very surface proximity. This layer – conventionally called a
45:
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230:
Although the power law exponent approximation is convenient, it has no theoretical basis. When the temperature profile is adiabatic, the wind speed should vary
464:
has been proposed. However, they are often not accurate enough to meet practical requirements. Significant improvements are expected from application of a
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between the air moving horizontally at one level and the air at those levels immediately above and below it, which is important in dispersion of
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Perhaps the most important processes, which are critically dependent on the correct representation of the PBL in the atmospheric models (
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speed by 40% to 50%. Over open water or ice, the reduction may be only 20% to 30%. These effects are taken into account when siting
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of the planetary boundary layer. Wind speed increases with increasing height above the ground, starting from zero due to the
1116:...both the wind gradient and the mean wind profile itself can usually be described diagnostically by the log wind profile.
352:(between 0.7 and 1 of the PBL depth). Four main external factors determine the PBL depth and its mean vertical structure:
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Therefore the vertical gradient of mean wind speed (dū/dz) is greatest over smooth terrain, and least over rough surfaces.
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954:
1304:"Does the height of the boundary layer influence the turbulence structure near the surface over the Baltic Sea?"
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gradient height are 457 m for large cities, 366 m for suburbs, 274 m for open terrain, and 213 m for open sea.
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113:) and vertical mixing is strong. Above the PBL is the "free atmosphere", where the wind is approximately
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In the bulk of the convective boundary layer, strong mixing diminishes vertical wind gradient...
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After sundown the wind gradient near the surface increases, with the increasing stability.
1019:
International
Perspectives on Natural Disasters: Occurrence, Mitigation, and Consequences
887:
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1151:
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771:
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The relation between wind speed and height is called the wind profile or wind gradient.
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509:
274:, principally atmospheric stability and the height of any convective boundary layer or
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27:
Lowest part of the atmosphere directly influenced by contact with the planetary surface
452:
The SBL is a PBL when negative buoyancy flux at the surface damps the turbulence; see
340:
In addition to the surface layer, the planetary boundary layer also comprises the PBL
171:, there is a wind gradient in the wind flow ~100 meters above the Earth's surface—the
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1130:"Wind and Temperature Profile Characteristics from Observations on a 1400 ft Tower"
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with height. Measurements over open terrain in 1961 showed good agreement with the
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The planetary boundary layer is different between day and night. During the day
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117:(parallel to the isobars), while within the PBL the wind is affected by surface
70:
955:
Effect of
Complex Terrain on Vertical Wind Profile Measured by SODAR Technique.
1249:"Remote Measurements of Boundary-Layer Wind Profiles Using a CW Doppler Lidar"
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Representations of the atmospheric boundary layer in global climate models
223:
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994:
Guidelines for Design of Low-Rise
Buildings Subjected to Lateral Forces
594:"Planetary boundary layer | atmospheric science | Britannica"
271:
1397:. Translated by Nappo, Carmen J.; Klein. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
65:
Depiction of where the planetary boundary layer lies on a sunny day.
61:
1479:
969:
Wind
Turbine Operation in Electric Power Systems: Advanced Modeling
484:
383:
298:
136:
60:
97:
and its behaviour is directly influenced by its contact with a
218:
exhibiting a vertical velocity profile varying according to a
105:
in an hour or less. In this layer physical quantities such as
1079:. City: Alpha Science International, Ltd. pp. 378–379.
242:), with near constant average wind speed up through 1000 m.
1280:
10.1175/1520-0450(1984)023<0148:RMOBLW>2.0.CO;2
1161:
10.1175/1520-0450(1964)003<0299:WATPCF>2.0.CO;2
344:(between 0.1 and 0.7 of the PBL depth) and the PBL top or
1075:
Ghosal, M. (2005). "7.8.5 Vertical Wind Speed
Gradient".
109:, temperature, and moisture display rapid fluctuations (
1247:
Köpp, F.; Schwiesow, R.L.; Werner, C. (January 1984).
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1378:
1376:
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1372:
1359:
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307:
at the leading edge of a thunderstorm complex on the
101:. On Earth it usually responds to changes in surface
419:(the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the
1104:. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 442.
777:. Washington: Mathematical Association of America.
1302:Johansson, C.; Uppsala, S.; Smedman, A.S. (2002).
770:
732:Dalgliesh, W. A. & D. W. Boyd (1 April 1962).
669:
893:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. p.
359:the surface heat (more exactly buoyancy) balance;
1312:15th Conference on Boundary Layer and Turbulence
1308:15th Conference on Boundary Layer and Turbulence
953:Maeda, Takao, Shuichiro Homma, and Yoshiki Ito.
435:Stably stratified planetary boundary layer (SBL)
427:), which is at 10 km to 18 km in the
1428:American Meteorological Society glossary entry
1254:Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology
676:. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. p.
1102:An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology
8:
214:purposes, the wind gradient is modeled as a
1419:Description of the planetary boundary layer
415:comprises the entire troposphere up to the
365:the free atmosphere vertical wind shear or
362:the free atmosphere density stratification;
916:
914:
855:
853:
468:technique to problems related to the PBL.
1278:
1159:
565:Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer
473:Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project
392:Convective planetary boundary layer (CBL)
808:. New York: Marcel Dekker. p. 618.
773:Mathematical Modeling in the Environment
475:), are turbulent transport of moisture (
438:
266:tends to vertically constrain turbulent
38:
1439:
702:
700:
585:
1189:. London: Chapman & Hall. p.
1382:
1363:
1333:. City: Kluwer Academic. p. 69.
1331:Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion
1128:Thuillier, R.H.; Lappe, U.O. (1964).
996:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 49.
796:
794:
405:convective available potential energy
7:
1186:Fundamentals of Weather and Climate
398:Convective planetary boundary layer
1050:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp.
1046:Handbook of Structural Engineering
707:Brown, G. Z.; DeKay, Mark (2001).
25:
925:Atmospheric Processes and Systems
1490:
1478:
1466:
1454:
1442:
1021:. Berlin: Springer. p. 73.
971:. Berlin: Springer. p. 17.
929:. New York: Routledge. pp.
864:. New York: Wiley. p. 272.
487:in the boundary layer influence
282:Nocturnal and diurnal conditions
1316:American Meteorological Society
1263:American Meteorological Society
1144:American Meteorological Society
833:. London: Methuen. p. 54.
711:. New York: Wiley. p. 18.
575:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
525:Alpine planetary boundary layer
356:the free atmosphere wind speed;
1183:McIlveen, J. F. Robin (1992).
1135:Journal of Applied Meteorology
672:Developing Wind Power Projects
429:Intertropical convergence zone
238:up to 100 m or so (within the
133:Cause of surface wind gradient
1:
889:Understanding Our Environment
1222:. London: J. Wiley. p.
806:Encyclopedia of Soil Science
93:, is the lowest part of the
734:"CBD-28. Wind on Buildings"
1529:
1513:Boundary layer meteorology
1077:Renewable Energy Resources
967:Lubosny, Zbigniew (2003).
921:Thompson, Russell (1998).
395:
372:
145:
83:atmospheric boundary layer
29:
1017:Stoltman, Joseph (2005).
860:Crawley, Stanley (1993).
322:twin towers and out over
1423:theweatherprediction.com
957:Retrieved on 2008-07-04.
829:Oke, Timothy R. (1987).
738:Canadian Building Digest
644:"Geostrophic wind level"
262:occurring at night with
75:planetary boundary layer
30:Not to be confused with
831:Boundary Layer Climates
668:Wizelius, Tore (2007).
555:Atmospheric electricity
495:, and energy exchange.
350:capping inversion layer
331:Navier–Stokes equations
1393:Foken, Thomas (2017).
1100:Stull, Roland (1997).
1042:Chen, Wai-Fah (1997).
885:Harrison, Roy (1999).
449:
409:atmospheric convection
388:
326:
311:that extends from the
143:
66:
58:
1329:Shao, Yaping (2000).
1214:Burton, Tony (2001).
992:Gupta, Ajaya (1993).
709:Sun, Wind & Light
466:large eddy simulation
454:Convective inhibition
442:
413:free convective layer
387:
373:Further information:
309:South Side of Chicago
302:
260:Atmospheric stability
140:
121:and turns across the
81:), also known as the
64:
51:
1218:Wind Energy Handbook
648:glossary.ametsoc.org
623:glossary.ametsoc.org
550:Atmospheric sciences
462:turbulence modelling
32:planetary boundaries
1271:1984JApMe..23..148K
1152:1964JApMe...3..299T
744:on 12 November 2007
560:Astronomical seeing
545:Atmospheric physics
598:www.britannica.com
493:hydrological cycle
479:) and pollutants (
477:evapotranspiration
450:
389:
327:
295:Constituent layers
164:Typically, due to
144:
129:for more detail).
67:
59:
1404:978-3-642-25439-0
1340:978-0-7923-6657-7
1086:978-1-84265-125-4
687:978-1-84407-262-0
619:"Free atmosphere"
346:entrainment layer
276:capping inversion
264:radiative cooling
177:no-slip condition
103:radiative forcing
99:planetary surface
49:
16:(Redirected from
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1146:: 299–306.
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520:Mixed layer
515:Ekman layer
489:trade winds
421:troposphere
375:Ekman layer
305:shelf cloud
224:exponential
212:engineering
166:aerodynamic
160:Ekman layer
127:Ekman layer
115:geostrophic
91:peplosphere
71:meteorology
18:Peplosphere
1383:Foken 2017
1364:Foken 2017
581:References
540:Microburst
535:Wind shear
530:Turbulence
417:tropopause
189:pollutants
181:turbulence
148:Wind shear
146:See also:
111:turbulence
95:atmosphere
55:convection
1473:Astronomy
1289:1520-0450
1170:1520-0450
313:Hyde Park
220:power law
1507:Category
804:(2005).
769:(1998).
628:21 March
499:See also
423:and the
247:shearing
1497:Science
1449:Weather
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