786:, stemming from a number of what are presented as discrepancies in the standard opponent process theory. For example, the phenomenon of an after-image of complementary color can be induced by fatiguing the cells responsible for color perception, by staring at a vibrant color for a length of time, and then looking at a white surface. This phenomenon of complementary colors demonstrates cyan, rather than green, to be the complement of red and magenta, rather than red, to be the complement of green, as well as demonstrating, as a consequence, that the reddish-green color proposed to be impossible by opponent process theory is, in fact, the color yellow. Although this phenomenon is more readily explained by the trichromatic theory, explanations for the discrepancy may include alterations to the opponent process theory, such as redefining the opponent colors as red vs. cyan, to reflect this effect. Despite such criticisms, both theories remain in use.
773:, posits three types of cones preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red, respectively. Others have suggested that the trichromatic theory is not specifically a theory of color vision but a theory of receptors for all vision, including color but not specific or limited to it. Equally, it has been suggested that the relationship between the phenomenal opponency described by Hering and the physiological opponent processes are not straightforward (see below), making of physiological opponency a mechanism that is relevant to the whole of vision, and not just to color vision alone.
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visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.
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the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw; their existence in primates was suggested by
1379:) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellowâbut cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes. The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to the identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.
104:
1839:, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the colors in this file are specified in Adobe RGB. Areas outside the triangle cannot be accurately rendered because they are out of the gamut of Adobe RGB, therefore they have been interpreted. Note that the colors depicted depend on the color space of the device you use to view the image (number of colors on your monitor, etc.), and may not be a strictly accurate representation of the color at a particular position.
1188:; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as
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360:(colors that are produced by a narrow band of wavelengths) such as red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet can be found in this range. These spectral colors do not refer to a single wavelength, but rather to a set of wavelengths: red, 625â740 nm; orange, 590â625 nm; yellow, 565â590 nm; green, 500â565 nm; cyan, 485â500 nm; blue, 450â485 nm; violet, 380â450 nm.
1243:, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.
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finding confirmed by subsequent studies. The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2 and V3. Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called
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stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO. Area V4 was initially suggested by
1041:, and are thought to come in two flavors, redâgreen and blue-yellow. Redâgreen cells compare the relative amounts of redâgreen in one part of a scene with the amount of redâgreen in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of
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produced by looking at a green surface that is reflecting more "green" (middle-wave) than "red" (long-wave) light is magenta, so is the afterâimage of the same surface when it reflects more "red" than "green" light (when it is still perceived as green). This would seem to rule out an explanation of color opponency based on retinal cone adaptation.
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corresponds loosely to redâgreen opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blueâyellow opponency but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.
1291:, for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers. In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of
1140:) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.
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combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version of tan; instead, there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength,
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In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long-wavelength light if
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and a low density in the rest of the retina. Thus color information is mostly taken in at the fovea. Humans have poor color perception in their peripheral vision, and much of the color we see in our periphery may be filled in by what our brains expect to be there on the basis of context and memories.
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to be exclusively dedicated to color, and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others, a
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and beyond. In Hering's theory, opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of redâgreen, blueâyellow, and light-dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which
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is to a large degree independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it. Also the after-image produced by looking at a given part of a complex scene is also independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it alone. Thus, while the color of the after-image
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Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both
Helmholtz's trichromatic theory and Hering's opponent-process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent
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Greenâmagenta and blueâyellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. Although these two theories are both currently widely accepted theories, past
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had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the
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The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones
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in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300â400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are
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From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick
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proposed the opponent process theory in 1872. It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are generally accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the adjacent
706:: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and which is finalized in the
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Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.
445:
The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of
1093:. "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the
1130:" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. This inversion has never been demonstrated in experiment, though.
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have been found to categorize colors differently from most
Westerners and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades
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1021:. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated.
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Color is a feature of visual perception by an observer. There is a complex relationship between the wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher
2017:
This system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color. So, in general, there is no such thing as
91:, color vision may have evolved under selective pressure for a variety of visual tasks including the foraging for nutritious young leaves, ripe fruit, and flowers, as well as detecting predator camouflage and emotional states in other primates.
1486:(daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants. Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropodsâthe only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.
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while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color.
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A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.
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lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross-section, corresponding to constant
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patients. Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas. These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.
1270:, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.
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Cones are present at a low density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp peak in the center of the fovea. Conversely, rods are present at high density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp decline in the
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throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receives axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.
990:: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma, the visual tracts are referred to as the
927:; one study found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men. A small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome.
482:
Impossible colors are a combination of cone responses that cannot be naturally produced. For example, medium cones cannot be activated completely on their own; if they were, we would see a 'hyper-green' color.
1898:
lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their
736:
The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision; in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.
1320:
and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals. In
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A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional
1195:
In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a
476:
Shades include colors such as pink or brown. Pink is obtained from mixing red and white. Brown may be obtained from mixing orange with gray or black. Navy is obtained from mixing blue and black.
479:
Violet-red colors include hues and shades of magenta. The light spectrum is a line on which violet is one end and the other is red, and yet we see hues of purple that connect those two colors.
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of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.
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have the capability of seeing color in dim light. At least some color-guided behaviors in amphibians have also been shown to be wholly innate, developing even in visually deprived animals.
1942:, and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.
1352:
Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal
1382:
However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans.
2023:
while the boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure red at the ends of the visible spectral colors.
1166:
Psychophysical experiments have shown that color is perceived before the orientation of lines and directional motion by as much as 40ms and 80 ms respectively, thus leading to a
1576:(in the visible range). In principle there exist infinitely many distinct spectral colors, and so the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional
4652:
Koyanagi M, Nagata T, Katoh K, Yamashita S, Tokunaga F (February 2008). "Molecular evolution of arthropod color vision deduced from multiple opsin genes of jumping spiders".
1859:. To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (
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which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions,
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Mollon JD, Bowmaker JK, Jacobs GH (September 1984). "Variations of colour vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments".
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Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in
1447:
Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In
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wavelengths to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure
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The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals, in general, have a color vision of a limited type, and usually have
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depends upon the three sets of cone cells ("red," "green," and "blue") separately perceiving each surface's relative lightness in the scene and, together with the
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butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in
422:. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is
83:. Color vision is found in many animals and is mediated by similar underlying mechanisms with common types of biological molecules and a complex history of
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Peichl, Leo; Behrmann, Gunther; Kroger, Ronald H. H. (April 2001). "For whales and seals the ocean is not blue: a visual pigment loss in marine mammals".
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Shozo
Yokoyama and F. Bernhard Radlwimmera, "The Molecular Genetics of Red and Green Color Vision in Mammals", Genetics, Vol. 153, 919â932, October 1999.
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has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S cones and M cones do not directly correspond to
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In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a
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When viewed in full size, this image contains about 16 million pixels, each corresponding to a different color in the full set of RGB colors. The
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is a function from the range of visible wavelengthsâconsidered as an interval of real numbers âto the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength
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have lost one or many photopsin genes, leading to lower-dimension color vision. The dimensions of color vision range from 1-dimensional and up:
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may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the
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Nathans J, Thomas D, Hogness DS (April 1986). "Molecular genetics of human color vision: the genes encoding blue, green, and red pigments".
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are trichromats. Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive
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means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types may occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of
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1203:), while keeping other colors also looking realistic. For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between
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1489:
Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some
473:
Grayscale colors include white, gray, and black. Rods contain rhodopsin, which reacts to light intensity, providing grayscale coloring.
4458:
Jacobs GH, Deegan JF, Neitz J, Crognale MA, Neitz M (September 1993). "Photopigments and color vision in the nocturnal monkey, Aotus".
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3290:"Color-tuned neurons are spatially clustered according to color preference within alert macaque posterior inferior temporal cortex"
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Zeki S (March 1983). "The distribution of wavelength and orientation selective cells in different areas of monkey visual cortex".
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1770:). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space
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Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color
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Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional
Hilbert space
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mammals have less-developed color vision since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that
3928:
Neumeyer C (2012). "Chapter 2: Color Vision in
Goldfish and Other Vertebrates". In Lazareva O, Shimizu T, Wasserman E (eds.).
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1037:. As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called
733:, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.
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in its inner segment. Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell.
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61:, is an ability to perceive differences between light composed of different frequencies independently of light intensity.
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Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Deegan JF (October 1991). "Retinal receptors in rodents maximally sensitive to ultraviolet light".
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79:. Those photoreceptors then emit outputs that are propagated through many layers of neurons and then ultimately to the
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and is mediated by a complex process between neurons that begins with differential stimulation of different types of
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mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (
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2518:"The Paton prize lecture 2021: A colourful experience leading to a reassessment of colour vision and its theories"
2289:"Genomic evidence for rod monochromacy in sloths and armadillos suggests early subterranean history for Xenarthra"
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Cronin TW, Marshall NJ (1989). "A retina with at least ten spectral types of photoreceptors in a mantis shrimp".
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The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the
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1259:
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673:
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Normalized response spectra of human cones to monochromatic spectral stimuli, with wavelength given in nanometers
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stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions
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941:, which encodes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on
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Sitzungsberichte der
MathematischâNaturwissenschaftliche Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
2168:"Experimental evidence that primate trichromacy is well suited for detecting primate social colour signals"
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The same figures as above represented here as a single curve in three (normalized cone response) dimensions
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3899:"True or False? The common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultra-violet light"
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Cuthill IC, Partridge JC, Bennett AT, Church SC, Hart NS, Hunt S (2000). "Ultraviolet Vision in Birds".
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3536:"The Ferrier Lecture 1995 behind the seen: the functional specialization of the brain in space and time"
3051:"Color vision mechanisms in monkey striate cortex: dual-opponent cells with concentric receptive fields"
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The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their
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Neitz J, Jacobs GH (1986). "Polymorphism of the long-wavelength cone in normal human colour vision".
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2011:
1972:) as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of
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types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone
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4296:"The dual rod system of amphibians supports colour discrimination at the absolute visual threshold"
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The perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented.
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protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.
1313:) having between 12 and 16 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.
1299:) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's.
438:. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the
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2760:(6th ed.). Chichester UK: WileyâIS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology. pp.
2582:. LXVI. Band (III Abtheilung). K.-K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei in Commission bei C. Gerold's Sohn.
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in the matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.
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However, our accuracy of color perception in the periphery increases with the size of stimulus.
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Journal of
Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural & Behavioral Physiology
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3098:"Spatial structure of cone inputs to color cells in alert macaque primary visual cortex (V-1)"
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Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Katz LC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, Williams SM (2001).
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recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "
58:
4705:"Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light"
1847:
approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them
901:
Cones and rods are not evenly distributed in the human eye. Cones have a high density at the
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331:
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There are a variety of colors in addition to spectral colors and their hues. These include
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3998:"Spectral Sensitivity of Photoreceptors and Colour Vision in the Solitary Bee, Osmia Rufa"
2841:"Signatures of selection and gene conversion associated with human color vision variation"
1633:
1592:
1251:
1250:(Old World monkeys and apesâprimates closely related to humans), there are three types of
1212:
1189:
1185:
1042:
914:
902:
798:
794:
730:
439:
280:
2971:
Daw NW (November 1967). "Goldfish retina: organization for simultaneous color contrast".
1285:
have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet.
1078:. This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of
4735:
4665:
4524:
4300:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
4147:
3600:
3540:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
3398:
3305:
2984:
2699:
2471:
2416:
2357:
1089:
Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior
668:. Cone cells contain different forms of opsin â a pigment protein â that have different
344:
relative brightness sensitivity of the human visual system as a function of wavelength (
6112:
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6022:
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5800:
5614:
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5350:
5222:
5187:
5160:
4435:
4410:
4377:
4346:
4322:
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Arikawa K (November 2003). "Spectral organization of the eye of a butterfly, Papilio".
3966:
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3535:
3511:
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3462:
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958:
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467:
431:
400:
357:
159:
2897:
1367:, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by
371:, respectively. Humans cannot generally see these wavelengths, but other animals may.
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6342:
6220:
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5997:
5582:
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5393:
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5217:
5123:
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4979:
4618:
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4294:
Yovanovich CA, Koskela SM, Nevala N, Kondrashev SL, Kelber A, Donner K (April 2017).
3816:
3360:
3174:
2817:
2557:
2490:
2455:
2257:
2054:
1844:
1811:. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same
1581:
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1395:
1326:
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141:
68:
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4120:
4077:
4044:"A review of the evolution of animal colour vision and visual communication signals"
3982:
3764:
3422:
3269:
2389:
2273:
2119:
1455:, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand,
5832:
5795:
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5577:
5569:
5510:
5502:
5365:
5055:
5010:
4860:
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4163:
3657:. Vol. II. Psychological aspects. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 159â72.
3632:
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323:
146:
17:
4944:
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Color vision is categorized foremost according to the dimensionality of the color
334:
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4060:
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3870:
3680:
Visual perception - an interactive journey of discovery through our visual system
3243:
2992:
1451:
primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In
982:
Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the
499:
required to represent the color vision. This is generally equal to the number of
6262:
6235:
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5969:
5827:
5604:
5599:
5463:
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5398:
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4411:"Photopigments and colour vision in New World monkeys from the family Atelidae"
3294:
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2786:
2669:
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2216:
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and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find
1123:
1070:
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574:
504:
403:
are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable
392:
119:
4917:
4367:
4021:
3997:
3616:
3074:
3066:
3025:
Neural Mechanisms of Color Vision: Double-Opponent Cells in the Visual Cortex
2639:
2541:
2312:
1591:. More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the
909:
The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X
6418:
6403:
6240:
6183:
6170:
5839:
5812:
5807:
5316:
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Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TM (1993). Bischof HJ, Zeigler HP (eds.).
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130:
124:
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2874:
2658:
2549:
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2201:
2183:
2111:
1700:
stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to
1101:("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among other features.
4878:
Feynman lectures on physics. Volume, Mainly mechanics, radiation, and heat
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occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to
1423:, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus
1266:. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are
6428:
6337:
6094:
5817:
5425:
4513:
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520:
511:. The common vertebrate ancestor possessed four photopsins (expressed in
423:
415:
411:
379:
Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived
364:
341:
88:
3906:
3082:
2683:
6448:
6433:
5866:
5148:
2664:
2033:), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated
1752:). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color
1596:
1301:
1199:(CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (
1050:
1010:
688:
621:
617:
32:
4815:"Simulating the Visual Experience of Very Bright and Very Dark Scenes"
4178:
3194:. Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics (third ed.). New York:
2517:
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801:, which shows that the color of any surface that is part of a complex
6364:
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48:
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3502:
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2731:
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1033:, first demonstrated by C.R. Michael and subsequently confirmed by
664:
Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells known as
6311:
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5712:
5702:
5672:
5143:
5114:
3781:(72nd ed.). Chicago, IL: World Book, Inc. 2022. p. 819.
1831:. The Planckian locus is shown with color temperatures labeled in
1824:
1818:
1399:
1353:
1055:
965:(green) is also shown. They originate from a common source in the
952:
824:
744:
726:
680:
655:
647:
492:
336:
330:
after being split into its component colors when passed through a
232:
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31:
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The CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram with a triangle showing the
1160:) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.
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5687:
5667:
5537:
5454:
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1471:. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common
1357:
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3179:. Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology.
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light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the
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Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "
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For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as
434:
comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the
5783:
5677:
5442:
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2890:"Some women may see 100 million colors, thanks to their genes"
2038:
1945:
By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities (
1505:
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at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary
714:
380:
304:
76:
41:
4933:"The Science of Why No One Agrees on the Color of This Dress"
2668:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
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3228:"Specialized color modules in macaque extrastriate cortex"
2287:
Emerling, Christopher A.; Springer, Mark S. (2015-02-07).
1599:
whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the
4183:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
3955:
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
363:
Wavelengths longer or shorter than this range are called
1926:) matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of
4867:. Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement (IDEA).
2293:
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3585:"The representation of colours in the cerebral cortex"
2806:
American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics
2670:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1985:
origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the
1777:
can all result in the same single perceived color in
1170:
that is demonstrable with brief presentation times.
6396:
6363:
6271:
6169:
6075:
5988:
5913:
5906:
5857:
5776:
5726:
5658:
5649:
5568:
5501:
5490:
5379:
5326:
5208:
5131:
5122:
5019:
4986:
753:Two complementary theories of color vision are the
679:Each individual cone contains pigments composed of
4880:(New millennium ed.). New York: Basic Books.
4351:Tadpoles Is Persistent and Requires the Tegmentum"
1938:would have to be added with some intensity to the
1480:evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates
1064:can distinguish about 10 million different colors.
683:apoprotein covalently linked to a light-absorbing
27:Ability to perceive differences in light frequency
5736:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
1337:(LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored
1117:Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate
1017:(V1) located at the back of the brain within the
729:, although they are often described as such. The
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3438:"Equiluminance cells in visual cortical area v4"
2456:"Primate photopigments and primate color vision"
2086:"Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision"
1184:In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to
961:(purple) is important in color recognition. The
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3226:Conway BR, Moeller S, Tsao DY (November 2007).
2621:Zeki S, Cheadle S, Pepper J, Mylonas D (2017).
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107:sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light
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4037:
4035:
3738:The Image and Visual Representation Lab (IVRL)
3283:
3281:
3279:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3215:
1295:insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and
1097:or the "what pathway", distinguished from the
6149:
5099:
4960:
3869:Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TH (1993).
8:
4345:Hunt JE, Bruno JR, Pratt KG (May 12, 2020).
3380:
3378:
1572:A "physical color" is a combination of pure
1262:. These primates, like humans, are known as
3846:Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of Birds
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2839:Verrelli BC, Tishkoff SA (September 2004).
2787:"Anatomical Distribution of Rods and Cones"
2591:
2589:
1540:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
672:. Humans contain three types, resulting in
6156:
6142:
6134:
6118:
5910:
5655:
5498:
5128:
5106:
5092:
5084:
4967:
4953:
4945:
533:
98:
4903:. University of Utah School of Medicine.
4830:
4594:
4471:
4434:
4376:
4366:
4347:"An Innate Color Preference Displayed by
4321:
4311:
4270:
4059:
3559:
3510:
3461:
3323:
3313:
3251:
3121:
2864:
2648:
2638:
2489:
2479:
2320:
2247:
2191:
2150:
2101:
1560:Learn how and when to remove this message
356:ranges from about 380 to 740 nanometers.
5887:International Commission on Illumination
957:Visual pathways in the human brain. The
837:
784:criticism of the opponent process theory
503:expressed: a correlation that holds for
4711:from the original on November 23, 2014.
4226:"Introducing Comparative Colour Vision"
4042:Osorio D, Vorobyev M (September 2008).
3192:Color in Business, Science and Industry
2623:"The Constancy of Colored After-Images"
2076:
1674:) corresponding to the response of the
387:in wavelength varies from about 1
5877:Color Association of the United States
3794:
2215:Davson H, Perkins ES (7 August 2020).
2014:, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram.
1215:, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.
4876:. In Gottlieb MA, Pfeiffer R (eds.).
2511:
2509:
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1794:to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space
1443:Evolution of color vision in primates
7:
4775:Vision, brain, and behavior in birds
4355:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
3875:Vision, Brain, and Behavior in Birds
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3653:. In Pitchford N, Biggam CP (eds.).
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1538:adding citations to reliable sources
761:theory. The trichromatic theory, or
710:and associative areas of the brain.
495:, which is defined by the number of
410:In very low light levels, vision is
4409:Jacobs GH, Deegan JF (April 2001).
3288:Conway BR, Tsao DY (October 2009).
1835:. The outer curved boundary is the
1417:), have trichromatic color vision.
67:perception is a part of the larger
5741:Blueâgreen distinction in language
4566:(4th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth.
4232:. London: Routledge. p. 149.
3967:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb00738.x
3114:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-08-02768.2001
2845:American Journal of Human Genetics
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2139:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
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25:
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4800:Advances in the Study of Behavior
3821:Advances in the Study of Behavior
1105:Subjectivity of color perception
797:, is based on a demonstration of
6117:
6108:
6107:
5898:International Colour Association
5481:
4415:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4028:from the original on 2016-03-04.
2818:10.1097/00006324-198602000-00003
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2236:European Journal of Neuroscience
2172:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1510:
974:processes arise at the level of
782:and more recent work has led to
4002:Journal of Experimental Biology
2627:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
1502:Mathematics of color perception
1329:is achieved through up to four
5893:International Color Consortium
5882:International Colour Authority
4654:Journal of Molecular Evolution
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2950:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.127
2729:Wyszecki G, Stiles WS (1982).
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644:Physiology of color perception
582:most mammals and a quarter of
1:
5958:List of Crayola crayon colors
4931:Rogers A (26 February 2015).
4861:"What colors do animals see?"
3932:. Oxford Scholarship Online.
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3801:: CS1 maint: date and year (
3049:Michael, C. R. (1978-05-01).
2938:Annual Review of Neuroscience
2682:Land, Edwin (December 1977).
555:lack of any color perception
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4627:. New York: Norton. p.
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3190:Judd DB, Wyszecki G (1975).
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2993:10.1126/science.158.3803.942
935:color vision. Variations in
5761:Traditional colors of Japan
5538:Achromatic colors (Neutral)
5421:Multi-primary color display
5195:Spectral power distribution
4707:. EducationGuardian.co.uk.
4703:Hambling D (May 30, 2002).
3442:The Journal of Neuroscience
3102:The Journal of Neuroscience
1316:Vertebrate animals such as
821:Cone cells in the human eye
789:A newer theory proposed by
527:. However, many vertebrate
6511:
3655:Progress in Colour Studies
3055:Journal of Neurophysiology
2757:The Reproduction of Colour
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2576:"Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne"
2516:Zeki, Semir (2022-10-09).
2454:Jacobs GH (January 1996).
1704:), over the interval , of
1686:cone cells, respectively.
1440:
1434:
1177:
1156:), vivid blue and green (
1114:
1108:
1000:lateral geniculate nucleus
949:Color in the primate brain
385:just-noticeable difference
6103:
5621:Color realism (art style)
5479:
5279:Evolution of color vision
4674:10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9
4596:10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.036
4195:10.1017/S1464793102005985
4105:10.1007/s00359-003-0454-7
3705:"8. Chromatic Adaptation"
2913:The First Steps in Seeing
2791:Neuroscience. 2nd Edition
2596:Ali MA, Klyne MA (1985).
1437:Evolution of color vision
1415:Sminthopsis crassicaudata
1260:trichromatic color vision
1241:redâgreen color blindness
1219:Color vision in nonhumans
929:X chromosome inactivation
674:trichromatic color vision
450:such as blue and yellow.
101:
5938:List of colors (compact)
5756:Color in Chinese culture
5406:Digital image processing
5139:Electromagnetic spectrum
4368:10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00071
3096:Conway BR (April 2001).
3067:10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.572
2640:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00229
2084:Vorobyev M (July 2004).
1756:(which is an element in
558:Some mammals, including
6495:Mathematics in medicine
6439:Relational frame theory
6414:Higher nervous activity
5943:List of colors by shade
3871:"Color vision of birds"
3709:Color Appearance Models
3315:10.1073/pnas.0810943106
2522:Experimental Physiology
2366:10.1126/science.2937147
2221:Encyclopedia Britannica
2152:10.3389/fevo.2017.00034
1152:in Himba), very light (
749:Opponent process theory
426:: light is detected by
414:: light is detected by
6409:Experiential avoidance
5948:List of color palettes
4533:10.1098/rspb.1984.0071
4427:10.1098/rspb.2000.1421
4313:10.1098/rstb.2016.0066
3757:"Chromatic Adaptation"
3734:"Chromatic Adaptation"
3711:. Wiley. p. 146.
3552:10.1098/rstb.2005.1666
3407:10.1098/rspb.1983.0020
3172:McCann M, ed. (1993).
2305:10.1098/rspb.2014.2192
2184:10.1098/rspb.2016.2458
1840:
1646:Since each wavelength
1473:electronic transitions
1065:
976:retinal ganglion cells
970:
831:
763:YoungâHelmholtz theory
750:
719:microspectrophotometry
704:spectral sensitivities
670:spectral sensitivities
661:
653:
436:retinal ganglion cells
354:visible light spectrum
349:
108:
75:by light entering the
51:
6424:Ironic process theory
6189:Cognitive flexibility
5872:Color Marketing Group
5627:On Vision and Colours
5560:Tinctures in heraldry
5171:Structural coloration
4895:Gouras P (May 2009).
4562:Sternberg RJ (2006).
3703:Fairchild MD (2005).
2598:Vision in Vertebrates
2481:10.1073/pnas.93.2.577
1829:Adobe RGB color space
1822:
1636:. We call this space
1168:perceptual asynchrony
1109:Further information:
1059:
956:
828:
771:Hermann von Helmholtz
748:
659:
651:
340:
106:
35:
5953:List of color spaces
5845:Tint, shade and tone
5728:Cultural differences
5543:Polychromatic colors
5528:Complementary colors
5516:Monochromatic colors
5006:Intraocular pressure
4564:Cognitive Psychology
4014:10.1242/jeb.136.1.35
3909:on December 24, 2013
3844:Jamieson BG (2007).
3678:NĂ€nni, JĂŒrg (2008).
3534:Zeki S (June 2005).
2012:CIE 1931 color space
1534:improve this section
1394:, and both sexes of
1365:evolution of mammals
1180:Chromatic adaptation
1174:Chromatic adaptation
943:spectral sensitivity
695:or, more rarely, 11-
637:rare in vertebrates
448:complementary colors
407:can be much higher.
45:photographic filters
6454:Thought suppression
5933:List of colors: NâZ
5928:List of colors: GâM
5923:List of colors: AâF
4872:Feynman RP (2015).
4736:1991Natur.353..655J
4666:2008JMolE..66..130K
4525:1984RSPSB.222..373M
4224:Thompson E (1995).
4148:1989Natur.339..137C
3601:1980Natur.284..412Z
3491:Nature Neuroscience
3399:1983RSPSB.217..449Z
3306:2009PNAS..10618034C
3145:Dowling JE (2001).
2985:1967Sci...158..942D
2911:Rodieck RW (1998).
2700:1977SciAm.237f.108L
2688:Scientific American
2472:1996PNAS...93..577J
2417:1986Natur.323..623N
2358:1986Sci...232..193N
1940:physical test color
1277:have color vision.
755:trichromatic theory
454:Non-spectral colors
346:luminosity function
18:Perception of color
5980:List of web colors
5975:List of RAL colors
5381:Color reproduction
5346:LĂŒscher color test
5183:Color of chemicals
4624:How the Mind Works
3196:Wiley-Interscience
3022:Conway BR (2002).
2299:(1800): 20142192.
2178:(1856): 20162458.
1841:
1621:in its intensity
1411:fat-tailed dunnart
1066:
998:to synapse at the
994:, which enter the
971:
832:
751:
662:
654:
350:
109:
52:
6490:Visual perception
6467:
6466:
6226:Critical thinking
6194:Cognitive liberty
6131:
6130:
6071:
6070:
5853:
5852:
5645:
5644:
5635:Theory of Colours
5477:
5476:
5389:Color photography
5341:Color preferences
5284:Impossible colors
5274:Color vision test
5269:Color temperature
5247:Color calibration
5176:Animal coloration
5081:
5080:
4916:McEvoy B (2008).
4887:978-0-465-04085-8
4784:978-0-262-24036-9
4638:978-0-393-04535-2
4421:(1468): 695â702.
4259:Journal of Vision
4239:978-0-203-41767-6
3939:978-0-195-33465-4
3884:978-0-262-24036-9
3855:978-1-57808-386-2
3830:978-0-12-004529-7
3718:978-0-470-01216-1
3689:978-3-7212-0618-0
3664:978-90-272-9302-2
3595:(5755): 412â418.
3583:Zeki, S. (1980).
3546:(1458): 1145â83.
3448:(35): 12398â412.
3205:978-0-471-45212-6
3158:978-0-674-00462-7
3035:978-1-4020-7092-1
2922:978-0-87893-757-8
2771:978-0-470-02425-6
2740:978-0-471-02106-3
2607:978-0-306-42065-8
2528:(11): 1189â1208.
2352:(4747): 193â202.
1570:
1569:
1562:
1384:New World monkeys
1128:inverted spectrum
899:
898:
699:-dehydroretinal.
641:
640:
634:5D+ color vision
464:impossible colors
321:
320:
59:visual perception
16:(Redirected from
6502:
6485:Image processing
6164:Mental processes
6158:
6151:
6144:
6135:
6121:
6120:
6111:
6110:
5911:
5777:Color dimensions
5766:Human skin color
5656:
5533:Analogous colors
5499:
5485:
5411:Color management
5328:Color psychology
5294:Opponent process
5210:Color perception
5129:
5108:
5101:
5094:
5085:
5046:Opponent process
4969:
4962:
4955:
4946:
4940:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4912:
4891:
4868:
4845:
4844:
4834:
4819:ACM Trans. Graph
4810:
4804:
4803:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4744:10.1038/353655a0
4719:
4713:
4712:
4700:
4694:
4693:
4649:
4643:
4642:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4598:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4519:(1228): 373â99.
4508:
4502:
4501:
4475:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4438:
4406:
4400:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4380:
4370:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4325:
4315:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4221:
4215:
4214:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4156:10.1038/339137a0
4142:(6220): 137â40.
4131:
4125:
4124:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4063:
4039:
4030:
4029:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3905:. Archived from
3895:
3889:
3888:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3800:
3792:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3763:. Archived from
3752:
3746:
3745:
3740:. Archived from
3729:
3723:
3722:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3652:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3609:10.1038/284412a0
3580:
3574:
3573:
3563:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3393:(1209): 449â70.
3382:
3373:
3372:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3327:
3317:
3285:
3274:
3273:
3255:
3223:
3210:
3209:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3125:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3019:
3013:
3012:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2896:. Archived from
2894:Post-Gazette.com
2885:
2879:
2878:
2868:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2754:Hunt RW (2004).
2751:
2745:
2744:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2662:
2652:
2642:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2534:10.1113/ep089760
2513:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2483:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2425:10.1038/323623a0
2400:
2394:
2393:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2251:
2242:(8): 1520â1528.
2231:
2225:
2224:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2195:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2105:
2081:
1593:topological cone
1565:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1514:
1506:
1491:cataract surgery
1369:gene duplication
1258:), resulting in
1225:visible spectrum
1111:Color appearance
895:564â580 nm
881:534â555 nm
867:420â440 nm
850:Peak wavelength
838:
759:opponent process
685:prosthetic group
609:4D color vision
596:3D color vision
579:2D color vision
534:
460:grayscale colors
332:dispersive prism
326:discovered that
301:
277:
253:
229:
205:
181:
157:
99:
21:
6510:
6509:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6501:
6500:
6499:
6470:
6469:
6468:
6463:
6392:
6359:
6267:
6246:Problem solving
6231:Decision-making
6165:
6162:
6132:
6127:
6099:
6067:
5984:
5902:
5859:
5849:
5772:
5751:Blue in culture
5722:
5641:
5588:Secondary color
5564:
5521:black-and-white
5493:
5486:
5473:
5375:
5361:National colors
5356:Political color
5336:Color symbolism
5322:
5252:Color constancy
5230:Color blindness
5204:
5161:Spectral colors
5118:
5112:
5082:
5077:
5029:Color blindness
5015:
4982:
4973:
4943:
4930:
4922:
4920:
4915:
4894:
4888:
4871:
4858:
4854:
4852:Further reading
4849:
4848:
4832:10.1145/2714573
4812:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4730:(6345): 655â6.
4721:
4720:
4716:
4702:
4701:
4697:
4651:
4650:
4646:
4639:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4583:Current Biology
4576:
4575:
4571:
4561:
4560:
4556:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4473:10.1.1.568.1560
4466:(13): 1773â83.
4460:Vision Research
4457:
4456:
4452:
4408:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4293:
4292:
4288:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4240:
4223:
4222:
4218:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4099:(11): 791â800.
4090:
4089:
4085:
4054:(20): 2042â51.
4048:Vision Research
4041:
4040:
4033:
3995:
3994:
3990:
3952:
3951:
3947:
3940:
3927:
3926:
3922:
3912:
3910:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3885:
3868:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3843:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3815:
3814:
3810:
3793:
3789:
3777:
3776:
3772:
3754:
3753:
3749:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3719:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3650:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3582:
3581:
3577:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3503:10.1038/nn.2676
3484:
3483:
3479:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3384:
3383:
3376:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3300:(42): 18034â9.
3287:
3286:
3277:
3225:
3224:
3213:
3206:
3198:. p. 388.
3189:
3188:
3184:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3036:
3021:
3020:
3016:
2979:(3803): 942â4.
2970:
2969:
2965:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2888:Roth M (2006).
2887:
2886:
2882:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2772:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2595:
2594:
2587:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2515:
2514:
2507:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2411:(6089): 623â5.
2402:
2401:
2397:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2051:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1925:
1916:
1907:
1885:
1876:
1867:
1810:
1800:
1793:
1783:
1776:
1769:
1762:
1699:
1642:
1634:Euclidean space
1616:
1590:
1574:spectral colors
1566:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1531:
1515:
1504:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1252:color receptors
1221:
1213:Adobe Photoshop
1207:with different
1190:color constancy
1186:color constancy
1182:
1176:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1043:color constancy
951:
915:color blindness
892:500â700 nm
878:450â630 nm
823:
799:color constancy
743:
731:RGB color model
646:
554:
553:1D color vision
540:Characteristic
489:
468:metallic colors
456:
440:Purkinje effect
401:spectral colors
377:
358:Spectral colors
308:
299:
284:
275:
260:
251:
236:
227:
212:
203:
188:
179:
164:
155:
144:
133:
122:
97:
57:, a feature of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6508:
6506:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6472:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6434:Mental fatigue
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6400:
6398:
6394:
6393:
6391:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6369:
6367:
6361:
6360:
6358:
6357:
6352:
6351:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6283:
6277:
6275:
6269:
6268:
6266:
6265:
6260:
6259:
6258:
6253:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6207:
6206:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6175:
6173:
6167:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6160:
6153:
6146:
6138:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6125:
6115:
6104:
6101:
6100:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6081:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5994:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5983:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5966:
5965:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5919:
5917:
5908:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5863:
5861:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5836:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5805:
5804:
5803:
5793:
5792:
5791:
5780:
5778:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5747:Color history
5745:
5744:
5743:
5732:
5730:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5664:
5662:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5631:
5630:(Schopenhauer)
5623:
5618:
5615:Color analysis
5612:
5610:Color triangle
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5585:
5574:
5572:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5546:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5507:
5505:
5496:
5488:
5487:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5472:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5423:
5416:Color printing
5413:
5408:
5403:
5402:
5401:
5396:
5385:
5383:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5351:Kruithof curve
5348:
5343:
5338:
5332:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5320:
5313:
5308:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5265:
5264:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5237:
5227:
5226:
5225:
5223:Sonochromatism
5214:
5212:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5180:
5179:
5178:
5173:
5163:
5158:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5135:
5133:
5126:
5120:
5119:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5103:
5096:
5088:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5039:Köllner's rule
5036:
5025:
5023:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4992:
4990:
4984:
4983:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4964:
4957:
4949:
4942:
4941:
4928:
4918:"Color vision"
4913:
4897:"Color Vision"
4892:
4886:
4874:"Color Vision"
4869:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4805:
4790:
4783:
4765:
4714:
4695:
4644:
4637:
4610:
4569:
4554:
4503:
4450:
4401:
4392:
4337:
4286:
4272:10.1167/9.3.27
4265:(3): 27.1â11.
4245:
4238:
4216:
4169:
4126:
4083:
4031:
3988:
3945:
3938:
3920:
3890:
3883:
3861:
3854:
3836:
3829:
3808:
3787:
3770:
3767:on 2011-09-26.
3747:
3744:on 2011-08-18.
3724:
3717:
3695:
3688:
3670:
3663:
3638:
3575:
3526:
3497:(12): 1542â8.
3477:
3428:
3374:
3349:Brain Research
3339:
3275:
3211:
3204:
3182:
3164:
3157:
3137:
3108:(8): 2768â83.
3088:
3061:(3): 572â588.
3041:
3034:
3014:
2963:
2928:
2921:
2903:
2900:on 2006-11-08.
2880:
2857:10.1086/423287
2831:
2796:
2777:
2770:
2746:
2739:
2721:
2674:
2613:
2606:
2585:
2563:
2505:
2446:
2395:
2336:
2279:
2249:10.1.1.486.616
2226:
2207:
2158:
2125:
2096:(4â5): 230â8.
2075:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2050:
2047:
2037:, mixtures of
1967:
1958:
1949:
1921:
1912:
1903:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1845:psychophysical
1837:spectral locus
1808:
1798:
1791:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1760:
1697:
1640:
1614:
1588:
1568:
1567:
1518:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1465:animal kingdom
1435:Main article:
1432:
1429:
1421:Marine mammals
1409:, such as the
1396:howler monkeys
1220:
1217:
1178:Main article:
1175:
1172:
1106:
1103:
1095:ventral stream
1031:Torsten Wiesel
1027:David H. Hubel
1019:occipital lobe
959:ventral stream
950:
947:
933:tetrachromatic
897:
896:
893:
890:
887:
883:
882:
879:
876:
873:
869:
868:
865:
859:
856:
852:
851:
848:
845:
842:
822:
819:
795:Retinex Theory
742:
739:
645:
642:
639:
638:
635:
632:
625:
624:
610:
607:
601:
600:
597:
594:
588:
587:
580:
577:
571:
570:
556:
551:
545:
544:
541:
538:
525:tetrachromatic
519:(expressed in
488:
487:Dimensionality
485:
455:
452:
432:mesopic vision
405:chromaticities
376:
373:
319:
318:
315:
312:
309:
298:
295:
294:
291:
288:
285:
274:
271:
270:
267:
264:
261:
250:
247:
246:
243:
240:
237:
226:
223:
222:
219:
216:
213:
202:
199:
198:
195:
192:
189:
178:
175:
174:
171:
168:
165:
154:
151:
150:
139:
128:
117:
111:
110:
96:
93:
73:photoreceptors
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6507:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6475:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6373:Consolidation
6371:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6362:
6356:
6353:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6313:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6292:
6289:
6288:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6276:
6274:
6270:
6264:
6261:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6221:Consciousness
6219:
6217:
6216:Comprehension
6214:
6212:
6209:
6205:
6202:
6201:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6176:
6174:
6172:
6168:
6159:
6154:
6152:
6147:
6145:
6140:
6139:
6136:
6124:
6116:
6114:
6106:
6105:
6102:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6074:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5987:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5964:
5961:
5960:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5920:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5905:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5864:
5862:
5860:organizations
5856:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5810:
5809:
5806:
5802:
5801:Pastel colors
5799:
5798:
5797:
5794:
5790:
5787:
5786:
5785:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5775:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5737:
5734:
5733:
5731:
5729:
5725:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5648:
5637:
5636:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5583:Primary color
5581:
5580:
5579:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5567:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5550:Light-on-dark
5548:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5519:
5518:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5512:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5504:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5489:
5484:
5470:
5469:Color mapping
5467:
5465:
5462:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5451:
5448:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5418:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5394:Color balance
5392:
5391:
5390:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5382:
5378:
5372:
5371:Chromotherapy
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5329:
5325:
5319:
5318:
5314:
5312:
5311:Tetrachromacy
5309:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5235:Achromatopsia
5233:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5224:
5221:
5220:
5219:
5218:Chromesthesia
5216:
5215:
5213:
5211:
5207:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5132:Color physics
5130:
5127:
5125:
5124:Color science
5121:
5116:
5109:
5104:
5102:
5097:
5095:
5090:
5089:
5086:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5066:Tetrachromacy
5064:
5062:
5061:Pentachromacy
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5044:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5034:Achromatopsia
5032:
5031:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4996:Accommodation
4994:
4993:
4991:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4980:visual system
4977:
4970:
4965:
4963:
4958:
4956:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4938:
4934:
4929:
4919:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4889:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4857:
4856:
4851:
4842:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4809:
4806:
4801:
4794:
4791:
4786:
4780:
4776:
4769:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4718:
4715:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4696:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4648:
4645:
4640:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4614:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4589:(6): R193-4.
4588:
4584:
4580:
4573:
4570:
4565:
4558:
4555:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4507:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4405:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4388:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4350:
4341:
4338:
4333:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4249:
4246:
4241:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4220:
4217:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4189:(1): 81â118.
4188:
4184:
4180:
4173:
4170:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4130:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3989:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3961:(3): 413â71.
3960:
3956:
3949:
3946:
3941:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3921:
3913:September 28,
3908:
3904:
3900:
3894:
3891:
3886:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3865:
3862:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3840:
3837:
3832:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3812:
3809:
3804:
3798:
3790:
3788:9780716601227
3784:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3766:
3762:
3761:Lindbloom.com
3758:
3755:Lindbloom B.
3751:
3748:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3732:SĂŒsstrunk S.
3728:
3725:
3720:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3696:
3691:
3685:
3681:
3674:
3671:
3666:
3660:
3656:
3649:
3642:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3530:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3238:(3): 560â73.
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3178:
3176:
3175:Edwin H. Land
3168:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3042:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3018:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2918:
2914:
2907:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2851:(3): 363â75.
2850:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2812:(2): 97â103.
2811:
2807:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2758:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2722:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2694:(6): 108â28.
2693:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2466:(2): 577â81.
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2159:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2077:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2055:Achromatopsia
2053:
2052:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2024:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1583:
1582:Hilbert space
1579:
1575:
1564:
1561:
1553:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1519:This section
1517:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1467:, especially
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1347:pentachromats
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1327:tetrachromacy
1324:
1319:
1318:tropical fish
1314:
1312:
1311:mantis shrimp
1309:(such as the
1308:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1275:invertebrates
1271:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:color balance
1198:
1193:
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1187:
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1171:
1169:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1141:
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1131:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1099:dorsal stream
1096:
1092:
1091:temporal lobe
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1047:Edwin H. Land
1045:explained by
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1015:visual cortex
1012:
1007:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
988:optic chiasma
985:
980:
977:
968:
967:visual cortex
964:
963:dorsal stream
960:
955:
948:
946:
944:
940:
939:
934:
930:
926:
922:
921:
916:
912:
907:
904:
894:
891:
888:
885:
884:
880:
877:
874:
871:
870:
866:
864:
860:
857:
854:
853:
849:
846:
843:
840:
839:
836:
827:
820:
818:
816:
815:visual cortex
812:
811:natural scene
807:
804:
803:natural scene
800:
796:
792:
791:Edwin H. Land
787:
785:
779:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
747:
740:
738:
734:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
711:
709:
708:visual cortex
705:
700:
698:
694:
693:-hydroretinal
692:
686:
682:
677:
675:
671:
667:
658:
650:
643:
636:
633:
630:
629:Pentachromacy
627:
626:
623:
619:
615:
611:
608:
606:
605:Tetrachromacy
603:
602:
598:
595:
593:
590:
589:
585:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
569:
565:
561:
557:
552:
550:
547:
546:
542:
539:
536:
535:
532:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
509:invertebrates
506:
502:
498:
494:
486:
484:
480:
477:
474:
471:
469:
465:
461:
453:
451:
449:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
375:Hue detection
374:
372:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
347:
343:
339:
335:
333:
329:
325:
316:
313:
310:
307:
306:
297:
296:
292:
289:
286:
283:
282:
273:
272:
268:
265:
262:
259:
258:
249:
248:
244:
241:
238:
235:
234:
225:
224:
220:
217:
214:
211:
210:
201:
200:
196:
193:
190:
187:
186:
177:
176:
172:
169:
166:
163:
162:
153:
152:
148:
143:
142:Photon energy
140:
137:
132:
129:
126:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
105:
100:
94:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
69:visual system
66:
62:
60:
56:
50:
47:as imaged by
46:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
6480:Color vision
6285:
5833:Fluorescence
5796:Colorfulness
5789:Dichromatism
5633:
5625:
5595:Chromaticity
5578:Color mixing
5570:Color theory
5503:Color scheme
5366:Chromophobia
5315:
5209:
5056:Monochromacy
5021:Color vision
5020:
5011:Visual field
4936:
4921:. Retrieved
4900:
4877:
4865:Web Exhibits
4864:
4822:
4818:
4808:
4799:
4793:
4774:
4768:
4727:
4723:
4717:
4698:
4660:(2): 130â7.
4657:
4653:
4647:
4623:
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4572:
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4051:
4047:
4008:(1): 35â52.
4005:
4001:
3991:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3929:
3923:
3911:. Retrieved
3907:the original
3902:
3893:
3874:
3864:
3845:
3839:
3820:
3811:
3778:
3773:
3765:the original
3760:
3750:
3742:the original
3737:
3727:
3708:
3698:
3679:
3673:
3654:
3641:
3592:
3588:
3578:
3543:
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3494:
3490:
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3441:
3431:
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3355:(2): 422â7.
3352:
3348:
3342:
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3235:
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3191:
3185:
3173:
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3147:
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3105:
3101:
3091:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3028:. Springer.
3024:
3017:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2912:
2906:
2898:the original
2893:
2883:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2790:
2780:
2756:
2749:
2730:
2724:
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2677:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2597:
2579:
2566:
2525:
2521:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2220:
2210:
2175:
2171:
2161:
2142:
2138:
2128:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2060:Color theory
2027:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1813:chromaticity
1805:
1803:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1778:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1690:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1645:
1637:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1585:
1578:vector space
1571:
1556:
1547:
1532:Please help
1520:
1496:
1488:
1477:
1453:hummingbirds
1446:
1425:monochromats
1419:
1414:
1404:
1392:monochromats
1381:
1362:
1351:
1335:photopigment
1315:
1300:
1293:hymenopteran
1286:
1272:
1245:
1238:
1222:
1209:white points
1205:ICC profiles
1196:
1194:
1183:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:Himba people
1142:
1132:
1120:
1088:
1067:
1035:Bevil Conway
1023:
1008:
1004:
992:optic tracts
981:
972:
936:
918:
908:
900:
833:
810:
808:
802:
788:
780:
775:Ewald Hering
767:Thomas Young
752:
735:
712:
701:
696:
690:
678:
663:
599:most humans
549:Monochromacy
490:
481:
478:
475:
472:
457:
444:
409:
378:
362:
351:
324:Isaac Newton
322:
303:
279:
255:
231:
207:
183:
160:
63:
55:Color vision
54:
53:
29:
6263:Prospection
6236:Imagination
6199:Forecasting
6179:Association
5970:Color chart
5828:Iridescence
5660:Basic terms
5651:Color terms
5605:Color wheel
5600:Color solid
5464:Color space
5450:subtractive
5433:Color model
5304:Unique hues
5200:Colorimetry
5166:Chromophore
5071:Trichromacy
2217:"Human eye"
1606:An element
1461:ultraviolet
1449:herbivorous
1388:owl monkeys
1377:dichromatic
1339:oil droplet
1323:bird vision
1307:stomatopods
1264:trichromats
1138:ideasthesia
1134:Synesthesia
1084:color space
984:optic nerve
925:polymorphic
717:receptors,
631:and higher
592:Trichromacy
584:color blind
543:Occurrence
505:vertebrates
369:ultraviolet
328:white light
36:Colorless,
6474:Categories
6444:Mental set
6323:Peripheral
6273:Perception
6256:strategies
5990:Shades of:
5823:Brightness
5555:Web colors
5511:Color tool
5494:philosophy
5399:Color cast
5299:Afterimage
5289:Metamerism
5262:Color code
5257:Color task
5240:Dichromacy
5051:Dichromacy
4976:Physiology
4923:2012-03-30
4361:(71): 71.
3817:Cuthill IC
3779:World Book
2944:: 127â53.
2071:References
1886:) for the
1736:), and of
1441:See also:
1407:marsupials
1288:Osmia rufa
1283:bumblebees
1268:dichromats
1256:cone cells
1254:(known as
1248:Catarrhini
1124:John Locke
1115:See also:
1071:Semir Zeki
911:chromosome
666:cone cells
575:Dichromacy
537:Dimension
523:), so was
501:photopsins
428:cone cells
393:blue-green
317:1.65â1.98
293:1.98â2.10
269:2.10â2.19
245:2.19â2.48
221:2.48â2.56
197:2.56â2.75
173:2.75â3.26
120:Wavelength
95:Wavelength
6419:Intention
6404:Attention
6338:Harmonics
6291:RGB model
6241:Intuition
6211:Foresight
6204:affective
6184:Awareness
6171:Cognition
5840:Grayscale
5813:Lightness
5808:Luminance
5617:(fashion)
5317:The dress
4901:Webvision
4825:(3): 15.
4468:CiteSeerX
4022:0022-0949
3797:cite book
3617:1476-4687
3177:'s Essays
3075:0022-3077
2558:252335063
2542:0958-0670
2313:0962-8452
2244:CiteSeerX
2065:The dress
2028:spectral
1595:over the
1521:does not
1457:nocturnal
1431:Evolution
1390:are cone
1373:Eutherian
1279:Honeybees
1082:found in
1062:human eye
1011:synapsing
841:Cone type
778:diagram.
687:: either
568:Xenarthra
564:Cetaceans
560:Pinnipeds
517:rhodopsin
497:primaries
416:rod cells
131:Frequency
85:evolution
6459:Volition
6449:Thinking
6429:Learning
6378:Encoding
6113:Category
6095:Lighting
5818:Darkness
5638:(Goethe)
5438:additive
5426:Quattron
4909:21413395
4841:14960893
4709:Archived
4690:23837628
4682:18217181
4621:(1997).
4619:Steven P
4605:16546067
4549:24416536
4445:11321057
4387:32477078
4332:28193811
4306:(1717).
4281:19757966
4203:12620062
4121:25685593
4113:14520495
4078:12025276
4070:18627773
4026:Archived
3983:24172719
3903:Skeptive
3570:16147515
3521:21076422
3472:21880901
3423:39700958
3334:19805195
3270:11724926
3262:17988638
3132:11306629
2958:10845061
2875:15252758
2659:28539878
2574:(1872).
2572:Hering E
2550:36114718
2390:34321827
2331:25540280
2274:16062564
2266:11328346
2202:28615496
2120:40234800
2112:15312027
2049:See also
1601:centroid
1550:May 2016
1405:Several
1297:sawflies
1246:In most
1053:theory.
996:thalamus
861:400â500
757:and the
741:Theories
618:reptiles
529:lineages
507:but not
424:photopic
412:scotopic
365:infrared
342:Photopic
314:400â480
311:625â750
290:480â510
287:590â625
266:510â530
263:565â590
242:530â600
239:500â565
218:600â620
215:485â500
194:620â670
191:450â485
170:670â790
167:380â450
89:primates
6383:Storage
6251:methods
6077:Related
6038:Magenta
5963:history
5867:Pantone
5154:Visible
5149:Rainbow
4978:of the
4760:4283145
4752:1922382
4732:Bibcode
4662:Bibcode
4541:6149558
4521:Bibcode
4498:3745725
4490:8266633
4436:1088658
4378:7235192
4349:Xenopus
4323:5312016
4211:7610125
4164:4367079
4144:Bibcode
3975:8347768
3633:4310049
3625:6767195
3597:Bibcode
3561:1609195
3512:3005205
3463:3171995
3415:6134287
3395:Bibcode
3369:4196224
3325:2764907
3302:Bibcode
3253:8162777
3123:6762533
3009:1108881
3001:6054169
2981:Bibcode
2973:Science
2866:1182016
2826:3953765
2696:Bibcode
2650:5423953
2633:: 229.
2500:8570598
2468:Bibcode
2441:4316301
2433:3773989
2413:Bibcode
2382:2937147
2354:Bibcode
2346:Science
2322:4298209
2193:5474062
2035:purples
2010:of the
1833:kelvins
1827:of the
1597:simplex
1542:removed
1527:sources
1484:diurnal
1469:insects
1363:In the
1345:may be
1343:Pigeons
1302:Papilio
1051:retinex
1049:in his
1002:(LGN).
986:to the
586:humans
515:) plus
418:of the
391:in the
6388:Recall
6365:Memory
6355:Visual
6348:Speech
6328:Social
6308:Haptic
6281:Amodal
6090:Qualia
6085:Vision
6033:Purple
6028:Violet
6008:Yellow
6003:Orange
5698:Orange
5693:Purple
5683:Yellow
5117:topics
4988:Vision
4907:
4884:
4839:
4781:
4758:
4750:
4724:Nature
4688:
4680:
4635:
4603:
4547:
4539:
4496:
4488:
4470:
4443:
4433:
4385:
4375:
4330:
4320:
4279:
4236:
4209:
4201:
4162:
4136:Nature
4119:
4111:
4076:
4068:
4020:
3981:
3973:
3936:
3881:
3852:
3827:
3785:
3715:
3686:
3661:
3631:
3623:
3615:
3589:Nature
3568:
3558:
3519:
3509:
3470:
3460:
3421:
3413:
3367:
3332:
3322:
3268:
3260:
3250:
3232:Neuron
3202:
3155:
3130:
3120:
3081:
3073:
3032:
3007:
2999:
2956:
2919:
2873:
2863:
2824:
2768:
2737:
2716:929159
2714:
2657:
2647:
2604:
2556:
2548:
2540:
2498:
2488:
2439:
2431:
2405:Nature
2388:
2380:
2374:169687
2372:
2329:
2319:
2311:
2272:
2264:
2246:
2200:
2190:
2118:
2110:
2043:violet
1894:, and
1855:, and
1720:), of
1682:, and
1354:geckos
1233:nectar
1009:After
938:OPN1MW
920:OPN1LW
917:. The
830:fovea.
793:, the
566:, and
466:, and
420:retina
397:yellow
383:; the
302:
300:
281:orange
278:
276:
257:yellow
254:
252:
230:
228:
206:
204:
182:
180:
161:violet
158:
156:
49:camera
40:, and
6397:Other
6343:Pitch
6333:Sound
6312:Touch
6298:Depth
6286:Color
6123:Index
6063:Black
6053:White
6048:Brown
6013:Green
5915:Lists
5907:Names
5889:(CIE)
5858:Color
5718:Brown
5713:White
5703:Black
5673:Green
5492:Color
5188:Water
5144:Light
5115:Color
4937:Wired
4837:S2CID
4756:S2CID
4686:S2CID
4545:S2CID
4494:S2CID
4207:S2CID
4160:S2CID
4117:S2CID
4074:S2CID
3979:S2CID
3651:(PDF)
3629:S2CID
3419:S2CID
3266:S2CID
3083:96222
3005:S2CID
2554:S2CID
2491:40094
2437:S2CID
2386:S2CID
2370:JSTOR
2270:S2CID
2116:S2CID
2030:locus
1825:gamut
1809:color
1799:color
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