1887:
decennia however, it became clear that the central nervous system plays an important role in the onset of fatigue during prolonged exercise (Klass et al., 2008), certainly when ambient temperature is increased ... 5-HT, DA, and NA have all been implicated in the control of thermoregulation and are thought to mediate thermoregulatory responses, certainly since their neurons innervate the hypothalamus (Roelands & Meeusen, 2010). ... This indicates that subjects did not feel they were producing more power and consequently more heat. The authors concluded that the "safety switch" or the mechanisms existing in the body to prevent harmful effects are overridden by the drug administration (Roelands et al., 2008b). Taken together, these data indicate strong ergogenic effects of an increased DA concentration in the brain, without any change in the perception of effort. ... The combined effects of DA and NA on performance in the heat were studied by our research group on a number of occasions. ... the administration of bupropion (DA/NA reuptake inhibitor) significantly improved performance. Coinciding with this ergogenic effect, the authors observed core temperatures that were much higher compared with the placebo situation. Interestingly, this occurred without any change in the subjective feelings of thermal sensation or perceived exertion. Similar to the methylphenidate study (Roelands et al., 2008b), bupropion may dampen or override inhibitory signals arising from the central nervous system to cease exercise because of hyperthermia, and enable an individual to continue maintaining a high power output
2582:
addition, we examined the evidence for publication bias. Forty-eight studies (total of 1,409 participants) were included in the analyses. We found evidence for small but significant stimulant enhancement effects on inhibitory control and short-term episodic memory. Small effects on working memory reached significance, based on one of our two analytical approaches. Effects on delayed episodic memory were medium in size. However, because the effects on long-term and working memory were qualified by evidence for publication bias, we conclude that the effect of amphetamine and methylphenidate on the examined facets of healthy cognition is probably modest overall. In some situations, a small advantage may be valuable, although it is also possible that healthy users resort to stimulants to enhance their energy and motivation more than their cognition. ... Earlier research has failed to distinguish whether stimulants' effects are small or whether they are nonexistent (Ilieva et al., 2013; Smith & Farah, 2011). The present findings supported generally small effects of amphetamine and methylphenidate on executive function and memory. Specifically, in a set of experiments limited to high-quality designs, we found significant enhancement of several cognitive abilities. ...
1467:
dextroamphetamine versus placebo. Most of the information to answer this question has been obtained in the past decade through studies of fatigue rather than an attempt to systematically investigate the effect of ADHD drugs on exercise. ... In 2008, Roelands and colleagues studied the effect of reboxetine, a pure NE reuptake inhibitor, similar to atomoxetine, in 9 healthy, well-trained cyclists. They too exercised in both temperate and warm environments. They showed decreased power output and exercise performance at both 18 and 30 degrees centigrade. Their conclusion was that DA reuptake inhibition was the cause of the increased exercise performance seen with drugs that affect both DA and NE (MPH, amphetamine, and bupropion).
829:
Studies have shown that the most common gendered risk factors include being an adolescent female dissatisfied with their body weight or an adolescent male who perceives larger body sizes as the ideal. Having a negative body image or a history of depression can also be a significant risk factor. These are further exacerbated by parental pressures surrounding appearance, media influence, and peer pressure.
403:: one of the most popular nutritional supplements, it contributes to 400 million dollars in sales globally every year. It is a nonessential amino acid that helps to improve an athlete's performance during short-term, high intensity exercises such as weightlifting. Supplementation of creatine increases skeletal muscle creatine levels, this boosts performance by increasing the rate at which
3832:
603:, the most commonly used substance by athletes, can be used for cardiovascular improvements though has significant detrimental effects. Ethanol was formerly banned by WADA during performance for athletes performing in aeronautics, archery, automobile, karate, motorcycling and powerboating, but was taken off the ban list in 2017. It is detected by
2585:
The results of this meta-analysis cannot address the important issues of individual differences in stimulant effects or the role of motivational enhancement in helping perform academic or occupational tasks. However, they do confirm the reality of cognitive enhancing effects for normal healthy adults
832:
Studies show that adolescent males who engage with fitness magazines are twice as likely to use performance-enhancing substances. Adolescents who partake in competitive sports are at a particularly high risk, with those involved in gridiron football, basketball, wrestling, baseball, and gymnastics at
1466:
In 1980, Chandler and Blair showed significant increases in knee extension strength, acceleration, anaerobic capacity, time to exhaustion during exercise, pre-exercise and maximum heart rates, and time to exhaustion during maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) testing after administration of 15 mg of
1886:
Physical fatigue has classically been attributed to peripheral factors within the muscle (Fitts, 1996), the depletion of muscle glycogen (Bergstrom & Hultman, 1967) or increased cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory strain (Abbiss & Laursen, 2005; Meeusen et al., 2006b). In recent
1688:
Aside from accounting for the reduced performance of mentally fatigued participants, this model rationalizes the reduced RPE and hence improved cycling time trial performance of athletes using a glucose mouthwash (Chambers et al., 2009) and the greater power output during a RPE matched cycling time
479:
Actoprotectors or synthetic adaptogens are compounds that enhance an organism's resilience to physical stress without increasing heat output. Actoprotectors are distinct from other doping compounds in that they increase physical and psychological resilience via non-exhaustive action. Actoprotectors
798:
In the 20th century, testosterone was isolated and characterized by scientists. In 1941, the first record of synthesized testosterone use occurred when a horse was given testosterone which successfully improved its race performance. Sports trainers soon after began advocating for testosterone use.
1092:
Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication. ... The first aim of this paper was to review
1526:
Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding
2581:
The present meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the magnitude of the effects of methylphenidate and amphetamine on cognitive functions central to academic and occupational functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory, short-term episodic memory, and delayed episodic memory. In
828:
Adolescents are the most vulnerable group when it comes to taking performance-enhancing substances. This is in part due to the significance placed on physical appearance by this age group as well as feelings of invincibility combined with a lack of knowledge surrounding long-term consequences.
357:
Ergogenic aids, or athletic performance-enhancing substances, include a number of drugs with various effects on physical performance. Drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate increase power output at constant levels of perceived exertion and delay the onset of fatigue, among other
759:
had consumed a diet consisting of dried figs which was a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race. Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated stimulants such as wine and brandy into their training routines. Stimulants derived from plants (e.g.,
444:. Despite its small window for detection, two primary methods of testing have been developed for hGH, one being an isoform test which detects changes in growth hormone structure in the blood, and the markers test, which detects changes in serum protein ratios.
411:, thereby increasing maximal power output. Potential side effects include gastrointestinal cramps, weight gain, fatigue, and diarrhea. Creatine is currently not recognized as a prohibited substance and can be purchased as a legal dietary supplement.
1093:
current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as
Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults.
420:: endogenous hormone that can help decrease fat mass while increasing lean body mass. hGH is one of the most commonly used substances among professional athletes because it has a small window for detection. It works by promoting the release of
464:
was that "The principle of an adaptogenic action needs further clarification and studies in the pre-clinical and clinical area. As such, the term is not accepted in pharmacological and clinical terminology that is commonly used in the EU."
1527:
during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.
803:
with massive muscles began circulating which further perpetuated a desire among athletes to use testosterone. In 1967, the first prohibited substance list and anti-doping measures were implemented at the 1968 Olympics.
819:
to criminalize the distribution and possession of non-medical anabolic steroids. In 1999, WADA was formed to address the escalating use of substances in sports, particularly after the 1998 doping scandal in cycling.
459:
Adaptogens are plants that support health through nonspecific effects, neutralize various environmental and physical stressors while being relatively safe and free of side effects. As of 2008, the position of the
659:
which increases the delivery of oxygen to muscles. It is commonly used among endurance athletes such as cyclists. It functions by protecting red blood cells against destruction whilst simultaneously stimulating
118:
Anabolic steroids are synthetically derived from testosterone and modified to have greater anabolic effects. They work by increasing the concentration of nitrogen in the muscle which inhibits catabolic
633:
Blood doping agents increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing.
1023:
Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training ...
851:
is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term "steroids"); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. Agencies such as the WADA and
3864:
3571:
2394:
1226:
92:
supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases;
64:, are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.
1689:
trial following amphetamine ingestion (Swart, 2009). ... Dopamine stimulating drugs are known to enhance aspects of exercise performance (Roelands et al., 2008)
783:
were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use. Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity. The main stimulants being used included
281:) also promote mental and athletic performance, as cognitive enhancers and ergogenic aids respectively, by improving muscle strength and endurance while decreasing
1600:
Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing".
3292:"Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: implications for prevention programs"
3857:
1123:
756:
285:
and fatigue. Stimulants are commonly used in lengthy exercises that require short bursts (e.g., tennis, team sports, etc.). Stimulants work by increasing
139:
method, orally, or through injection. Injectable forms of the steroid are the most potent and long-lasting. In general, potential side effects include:
3031:"Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is an anabolic steroid like dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the most potent natural androgen, and tetrahydrogestrinone (THG)"
1027: • Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
743:
in 2005 became classified as a controlled substance by WADA, however DHEA can still be obtained legally as an over-the-counter nutritional supplement.
615:
is banned at all times for an athlete by WADA, though performance-enhancing effects have yet to be studied. Cannabis and nicotine are detected through
3850:
2359:
Koncic MZ, Tomczyk M (August 2013). "New insights into dietary supplements used in sport: active substances, pharmacological and side effects".
693:
Gene doping agents are a relatively recently described class of athletic performance-enhancing substances. These drug therapies, which involve
1419:
395:
are naturally occurring compounds in humans that have well-established ergogenic effects and effects on body composition when supplemented.
506:
Nootropics, or "cognition enhancers", are substances that are claimed to benefit overall cognition by improving memory (e.g., increasing
723:
and increase endogenous testosterone. The desired effects of steroid precursors however, are often not seen as they do not bind well to
123:
binding to muscle. This ultimately prohibits the breakdown of muscle and preserves muscle mass. Examples of anabolic steroids include:
3902:
873:
751:
While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the
72:
The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of
2401:
488:
have been used to prepare athletes and enhance performance in
Olympic competition. However, only bromantane has been placed on the
2598:
898:
883:
852:
634:
591:
which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort for more dangerous sports.
392:
379:
3601:"Implanted Port Catheter System Infection Caused by Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius ST71-SCCmec type III"
2544:
855:
try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. When medical exemptions are granted they are called
3922:
878:
247:
to epitestosterone glucuronide, which should be 3:1. Any ratio of 4:1 or greater is considered a positive test. The 1988
3897:
212:
3754:
1539:
1105:
3912:
3217:
Holt RI, Erotokritou-Mulligan I, SΓΆnksen PH (August 2009). "The history of doping and growth hormone abuse in sport".
2545:"Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis"
816:
638:
248:
1648:"Is it time to turn our attention toward central mechanisms for post-exertional recovery strategies and performance?"
424:, insulin-like growth factor, the release of which has anabolic effects on the body. Potential side effects include:
3917:
1906:
Momaya A, Fawal M, Estes R (April 2015). "Performance-enhancing substances in sports: a review of the literature".
1054:"Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology"
856:
337:. Some stimulants are allowed in competitive sports and are widely accessible, though may also be monitored by the
1313:
van
Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, Hartgens F (June 2010). "Adverse health effects of anabolicβandrogenic steroids".
3836:
2811:"Erythropoietin as a performance-enhancing drug: Its mechanistic basis, detection, and potential adverse effects"
1440:
Parr JW (July 2011). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding".
1127:
461:
252:
2112:
489:
441:
338:
244:
168:
160:
3190:
Prendergast HM, Bannen T, Erickson TB, Honore KR (March 2003). "The toxic torch of the modern
Olympic Games".
2428:"The pharmacology of actoprotectors: practical application for improvement of mental and physical performance"
3970:
3955:
3887:
728:
664:
739:. These steroids have little desired effect compared to anabolic steroids, but have the same side effects.
3907:
918:
736:
404:
2866:"Detection of EPO doping and blood doping: the haematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport"
868:
752:
554:
408:
362:
also increases power output at constant levels of perceived exertion, but only during short term use.
3960:
888:
371:
240:
152:
3965:
1351:
Albano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, Liberto A, Maglietta F, Esposito M, et al. (19 January 2021).
1106:
Better
Fighting Through Chemistry? The Role of FDA Regulation in Crafting the Warrior of the Future
519:
290:
48:, can be used to improve athletic performance and build muscle, which in most cases is considered
3892:
3517:
3076:
3008:
2846:
2693:"Red blood cells in sports: effects of exercise and training on oxygen supply by red blood cells"
2670:
2572:
2525:
2046:
1931:
1877:
1738:
1625:
1029: • Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
672:
515:
282:
274:
228:
216:
140:
49:
3029:
Labrie F, Luu-The V, Martel C, Chernomoretz A, Calvo E, Morissette J, et al. (July 2006).
1052:
Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, et al. (January 2015).
3929:
3736:
3684:
3630:
3552:
3509:
3458:
3418:
3367:
3323:
3265:
3234:
3199:
3172:
3164:
3123:
3115:
3096:"Oral andro-related prohormone supplementation: do the potential risks outweigh the benefits?"
3068:
3060:
3000:
2992:
2950:
2932:
2893:
2885:
2838:
2830:
2791:
2773:
2732:
2714:
2662:
2654:
2564:
2517:
2509:
2465:
2447:
2400:. European Medicines Agency Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products. 8 May 2008. Archived from
2376:
2341:
2333:
2289:
2271:
2232:
2214:
2175:
2157:
2093:
2085:
2038:
2030:
1991:
1973:
1923:
1869:
1795:
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1730:
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1679:
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1573:
1517:
1457:
1415:
1384:
1330:
1295:
1277:
1208:
1183:
1083:
1014:
972:
941:"The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance"
724:
511:
204:
200:
81:
45:
3478:"A review of designer anabolic steroids in equine sports: Designer steroids in equine sports"
3726:
3718:
3674:
3666:
3620:
3612:
3544:
3499:
3489:
3450:
3408:
3398:
3357:
3313:
3303:
3226:
3154:
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3050:
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2984:
2940:
2924:
2877:
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2781:
2763:
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2644:
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2455:
2439:
2368:
2323:
2279:
2263:
2222:
2206:
2165:
2149:
2077:
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1981:
1965:
1915:
1859:
1785:
1769:
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1669:
1659:
1609:
1507:
1497:
1449:
1407:
1374:
1364:
1322:
1285:
1267:
1173:
1165:
1073:
1065:
1006:
962:
952:
893:
812:
180:
113:
77:
1540:"Office of Dietary Supplements β Dietary Supplements for Exercise and Athletic Performance"
255:
both deemed anabolic steroids as an illegal substance when not used for disease treatment.
17:
3876:
842:
784:
740:
676:
612:
302:
278:
220:
53:
184:
2752:"Erythropoietin regulation of red blood cell production: from bench to bedside and back"
1841:
1839:
3731:
3706:
3679:
3654:
3625:
3600:
3599:
Kitagawa H, Hisatsune J, Ohge H, Kutsuno S, Hara T, Masuda K, et al. (July 2021).
3413:
3386:
3362:
3345:
3318:
3291:
3159:
3142:
2945:
2912:
2786:
2751:
2727:
2692:
2460:
2427:
2284:
2251:
2227:
2194:
2170:
2137:
1986:
1953:
1790:
1757:
1674:
1647:
1512:
1485:
1379:
1352:
1290:
1255:
1178:
1153:
1078:
1053:
967:
940:
732:
716:
656:
650:
616:
546:
523:
507:
433:
425:
415:
236:
120:
73:
41:), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.
2988:
2504:
2487:
1773:
1069:
3949:
3616:
3454:
3441:
Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire EJ (February 2001). "A brief history of testosterone".
2674:
2443:
1411:
698:
608:
474:
286:
3080:
3012:
2576:
2529:
2312:"Growth hormone doping in sports: a critical review of use and detection strategies"
2050:
1935:
1881:
1742:
1629:
3873:
3521:
2850:
2768:
800:
780:
720:
694:
675:
or stroke. Per the WADA, it is a banned substance. Urine samples can be tested via
628:
440:. If not prescribed by a professional, it is a banned substance in competition per
346:
270:
208:
148:
3842:
3346:"Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review"
3046:
2372:
1326:
997:
Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS".
761:
688:
668:
661:
604:
596:
550:
387:
318:
306:
172:
136:
124:
3230:
2928:
1565:
1202:
2826:
2026:
1919:
1818:
1718:
1613:
1453:
1369:
1010:
788:
710:
582:
485:
322:
232:
192:
156:
132:
128:
61:
3670:
3403:
3168:
3119:
3064:
2996:
2936:
2889:
2834:
2777:
2718:
2709:
2658:
2513:
2486:
Burnat P, Payen A, Le
Brumant-Payen C, Hugon M, Ceppa F (27 September 1997).
2451:
2337:
2275:
2267:
2218:
2161:
2153:
2089:
2034:
2011:"Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations"
1977:
1969:
1781:
1758:"Caffeine: Cognitive and Physical Performance Enhancer or Psychoactive Drug?"
1726:
1664:
1502:
1281:
3308:
3095:
3030:
2972:
2865:
2810:
2631:
Breenfeldt
Andersen A, Nordsborg NB, Bonne TC, Bejder J (26 December 2022).
2065:
2010:
1702:
1109:
957:
808:
769:
765:
562:
540:
501:
454:
437:
359:
298:
264:
224:
196:
188:
176:
96:, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.
3740:
3688:
3634:
3556:
3513:
3462:
3422:
3371:
3327:
3269:
3253:
3238:
3203:
3176:
3127:
3072:
3004:
2954:
2897:
2842:
2795:
2736:
2666:
2568:
2469:
2380:
2345:
2293:
2236:
2179:
2097:
2042:
1995:
1927:
1873:
1799:
1734:
1683:
1621:
1577:
1521:
1461:
1388:
1334:
1299:
1212:
1187:
1087:
1018:
976:
655:
Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a hormone that helps increase the production of
545:
Allows performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise
3831:
2521:
2081:
3776:
3722:
3548:
2560:
2328:
2311:
1169:
776:
592:
578:
566:
481:
429:
399:
375:
314:
310:
294:
93:
85:
56:. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as
2586:
in general, while also indicating that these effects are modest in size.
2210:
1641:
1639:
104:
The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:
52:
by organized athletic organizations. This usage is often referred to as
3504:
3055:
2136:
Saugy M, Robinson N, Saudan C, Baume N, Avois L, Mangin P (July 2006).
1272:
600:
588:
342:
330:
89:
2649:
2632:
1864:
1847:
1353:"Adverse Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Literature Review"
1033: • Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue
3494:
3477:
792:
334:
326:
164:
3111:
2881:
27:
Substance used to improve any form of activity performance in humans
2864:
Schumacher YO, Saugy M, Pottgiesser T, Robinson N (November 2012).
1402:
Levy JL, Cabrera J, Thomas S, Brennan FH (2008). "Ergogenic Aids".
641:
is the only indirect testing method for detection of blood doping.
341:(WADA), such as caffeine. Others are banned as per the WADA (e.g.,
269:
Stimulants improve focus and alertness. Low (therapeutic) doses of
1486:"Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits"
1484:
Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013).
558:
421:
2971:
Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P, Van Thuyne W, Desmet N (December 2002).
2633:"Contemporary blood dopingβPerformance, mechanism, and detection"
1646:
Rattray B, Argus C, Martin K, Northey J, Driller M (March 2015).
787:, caffeine, and mixtures created by the athletic trainers (e.g.,
667:
to produce more red blood cells. Potential side effects include:
637:(rhEPO) is one of the most widely known drugs in this class. The
144:
3846:
2809:
Salamin O, Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Leuenberger N (15 March 2018).
80:
performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like
3535:
Eidelsberg J (June 1946). "Testosterone pellet implantation".
939:
Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK (December 2013).
1756:
Cappelletti S, Daria P, Sani G, Aromatario M (January 2015).
2913:"Genetics and the Elite Athlete: Our Understanding in 2020"
1037: • Increased alertness and attention to task
671:
and an increase in blood viscosity which could result in a
3387:"Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running"
2070:
International
Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
1201:
Ganesan K, Rahman S, Zito PM (2024). "Anabolic
Steroids".
3035:
The
Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
2977:
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
60:. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called
3802:
3296:
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
2637:
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
2195:"Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1): a growth hormone"
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1852:
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
1479:
1477:
1475:
715:
Also known as anabolic steroid precursors, they promote
203:. Potential side effects specifically in males include:
2113:"What Do Athletes Need to Know About Creatine? | USADA"
1227:"Performance Enhancing Anabolic Steroid Abuse in Women"
2750:
Bhoopalan SV, Huang LJ, Weiss MJ (18 September 2020).
2066:"Side effects of creatine supplementation in athletes"
815:. In 1988, the United States Congress established the
719:. Once in the body, these precursors are converted to
2599:""No need for laboratory to test for alcohol" β WADA"
2252:"The Use and Abuse of Human Growth Hormone in Sports"
919:"Effects of Performance-Enhancing Drugs | USADA"
3537:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
1848:"Neurophysiological effects of exercise in the heat"
701:, are not known to currently be in use as of 2020.
239:, and thickening of vocal cords (voice deepening).
1703:"Considerations in the Use of Stimulants in Sport"
587:Sedatives and anxiolytics are used in sports like
223:. Potential side specifically in females include:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2620:
553:. Painkillers used by athletes range from common
1595:
1593:
309:. Potential side effects include: hypertension,
3655:"Performance-Enhancing Drug Use in Adolescence"
1952:Butts J, Jacobs B, Silvis M (23 October 2017).
1572:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
3572:"What is the history of anabolic steroid use?"
3344:Baron DA, Martin DM, Abol Magd S (June 2007).
3254:"Doping in sports in ancient and recent times"
1846:Roelands B, De Pauw K, Meeusen R (June 2015).
1435:
1433:
1431:
3858:
3141:Brown GA, Vukovich M, King DS (August 2006).
2395:"Reflection Paper on the Adaptogenic Concept"
1047:
1045:
8:
992:
990:
988:
986:
3147:Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
934:
932:
930:
928:
135:. Anabolic steroids can be taken through a
3865:
3851:
3843:
2911:John R, Dhillon MS, Dhillon S (May 2020).
2543:Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ (June 2015).
2064:Francaux M, Poortmans JR (December 2006).
679:, and blood samples via indirect markers.
510:capacity or updating) or other aspects of
3730:
3678:
3624:
3503:
3493:
3412:
3402:
3361:
3317:
3307:
3158:
3054:
2944:
2785:
2767:
2726:
2708:
2648:
2503:
2459:
2327:
2283:
2226:
2169:
1985:
1863:
1789:
1673:
1663:
1511:
1501:
1378:
1368:
1289:
1271:
1177:
1077:
966:
956:
3476:Waller CC, McLeod MD (12 October 2016).
1564:Farzam K, Faizy RM, Saadabadi A (2022),
1035: • Increased acceleration
1031: • Improved reaction time
358:athletic-performance-enhancing effects;
1254:Reardon CL, Creado S (14 August 2014).
910:
3755:"Performance-Enhancing Drug Resources"
3659:American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine
3100:Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology
3024:
3022:
2966:
2964:
2686:
2684:
2481:
2479:
2305:
2303:
2138:"Human growth hormone doping in sport"
2131:
2129:
1947:
1945:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1346:
1344:
1315:Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology
1108:(Report). 8 March 2004. Archived from
3700:
3698:
3648:
3646:
3644:
3594:
3592:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3339:
3337:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3143:"Testosterone prohormone supplements"
1490:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
1249:
1247:
289:levels and agonistic activity at the
243:are tested to determine the ratio of
7:
2815:Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
1147:
1145:
1025:Physiologic and performance effects
2250:Siebert DM, Rao AL (October 2018).
2015:Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry
1404:The Sports Medicine Resource Manual
1154:"Pharmacology of anabolic steroids"
3903:Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
3705:Dandoy C, Gereige RS (June 2012).
3570:National Institute on Drug Abuse.
3385:Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT (2018).
3160:10.1249/01.mss.0000228928.69512.2e
2426:Oliynyk S, Oh S (September 2012).
2142:British Journal of Sports Medicine
1701:Reardon CL, Factor RM (May 2016).
1260:Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation
874:Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
772:to overcome injuries and fatigue.
755:. In the Olympic Games of 668 BC,
727:. Examples of prohormones include
293:. Examples of stimulants include:
84:), whereas other substances (like
25:
3803:"U.S. Anti-Doping Agency β USADA"
3219:Growth Hormone & IGF Research
2549:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1774:10.2174/1570159X13666141210215655
1124:"Caffeine and Sports Performance"
1070:10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750
807:In the 1980s, the main PEDs were
3830:
3653:White ND, Noeun J (March 2017).
3617:10.2169/internalmedicine.5579-20
3576:National Institute on Drug Abuse
3455:10.1097/00005392-200102000-00004
3290:Yager Z, O'Dea JA (March 2014).
2691:MairbΓ€url H (12 November 2013).
2444:10.4062/biomolther.2012.20.5.446
1707:Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)
1412:10.1016/B978-141603197-0.10048-5
1126:. Vanderbilt.edu. Archived from
899:Steroid use in American football
884:List of drugs used by militaries
853:United States Anti-Doping Agency
635:Recombinant human erythropoietin
380:Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-methylbutyrate
31:Performance-enhancing substances
3935:Performance-enhancing substance
3807:U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA)
3192:Veterinary and Human Toxicology
2488:"Bromontan, a new doping agent"
2432:Biomolecules & Therapeutics
1158:British Journal of Pharmacology
2917:Indian Journal of Orthopaedics
2769:10.12688/f1000research.26648.1
549:, increasing oxygen supply to
1:
3923:Masculinizing hormone therapy
3707:"Performance-enhancing drugs"
2989:10.1016/s0960-0760(02)00274-1
2505:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)63310-7
879:List of doping cases in sport
737:dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
3717:(6): 265β271, quiz 271β272.
3094:Broeder CE (February 2003).
2111:Perishable (10 March 2021).
2009:Kreider RB (February 2003).
791:tablets made of cocaine and
775:In the late 19th century as
3913:Transgender hormone therapy
3047:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.03.006
2373:10.2174/1389450111314090016
1327:10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.02.001
849:performance-enhancing drugs
639:Athlete Biological Passport
565:) to powerful prescription
35:performance-enhancing drugs
18:Performance enhancing drugs
3987:
3918:Feminizing hormone therapy
3231:10.1016/j.ghir.2009.04.009
2929:10.1007/s43465-020-00056-z
2762:: F1000 Faculty Revβ1153.
1442:Clinics in Sports Medicine
945:Nutrition & Metabolism
857:therapeutic use exemptions
840:
708:
686:
648:
626:
576:
538:
499:
472:
452:
393:Ξ²-hydroxy Ξ²-methylbutyrate
369:
262:
111:
3883:
3482:Drug Testing and Analysis
2870:Drug Testing and Analysis
2827:10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.033
2310:Baumann GP (April 2012).
1920:10.1007/s40279-015-0308-9
1762:Current Neuropharmacology
1719:10.1007/s40279-015-0456-y
1614:10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4
1454:10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007
1370:10.3390/healthcare9010097
1207:. StatPearls Publishing.
1058:Current Neuropharmacology
1011:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009
768:, etc.) were used by the
573:Sedatives and anxiolytics
462:European Medicines Agency
161:high-density lipoproteins
44:Many substances, such as
3781:World Anti-Doping Agency
3671:10.1177/1559827616680593
3404:10.3389/fphys.2018.00634
2710:10.3389/fphys.2013.00332
2268:10.1177/1941738118782688
2193:Laron Z (October 2001).
2154:10.1136/bjsm.2006.027573
1970:10.1177/1941738117737248
1954:"Creatine Use in Sports"
1823:World Anti-Doping Agency
1665:10.3389/fphys.2015.00079
1503:10.3389/fnint.2013.00075
1256:"Drug abuse in athletes"
490:World Anti-Doping Agency
407:can be replenished from
339:World Anti-Doping Agency
245:testosterone glucuronide
3888:Bodybuilding supplement
3391:Frontiers in Physiology
3309:10.1186/1550-2783-11-13
2973:"Prohormones and sport"
2697:Frontiers in Physiology
2027:10.1023/A:1022465203458
1652:Frontiers in Physiology
1152:Kicman AT (June 2008).
958:10.1186/1743-7075-10-71
3908:Growth hormone therapy
3443:The Journal of Urology
2603:www.insidethegames.biz
405:adenosine triphosphate
2082:10.1123/ijspp.1.4.311
1819:"The Prohibited List"
869:Cosmetic pharmacology
753:Ancient Olympic Games
599:are common examples.
409:adenosine diphosphate
205:male pattern baldness
3898:Clitoris enlargement
3839:at Wikimedia Commons
3723:10.1542/pir.33-6-265
3711:Pediatrics in Review
3549:10.1210/jcem-6-6-423
2561:10.1162/jocn_a_00776
2407:on 20 September 2018
2361:Current Drug Targets
2329:10.1210/er.2011-1035
2148:(Suppl 1): i35βi39.
1406:. pp. 598β610.
1170:10.1038/bjp.2008.165
889:Natural bodybuilding
847:In sports, the term
416:Human Growth Hormone
372:Human growth hormone
349:, ephedrine, etc.).
291:adrenergic receptors
253:Anabolic Steroid Act
213:prostate hypertrophy
153:elevated cholesterol
3258:Medicina Nei Secoli
2211:10.1136/mp.54.5.311
2199:Molecular Pathology
1130:on 29 February 2012
1112:on 3 February 2016.
817:Anti-Drug Abuse Act
520:attentional control
275:reuptake inhibitors
249:Anti-Drug Abuse Act
3893:Breast enlargement
3783:. 14 November 2013
1858:(Suppl 1): 65β78.
1273:10.2147/SAR.S53784
725:androgen receptors
673:pulmonary embolism
557:medicines such as
516:inhibitory control
273:stimulants (e.g.,
217:testicular atrophy
177:peliosis hepatitis
141:muscle hypertrophy
3943:
3942:
3930:Penis enlargement
3835:Media related to
3757:. Drug Free Sport
3611:(14): 2337β2340.
3605:Internal Medicine
3252:Conti AA (2010).
2650:10.1111/sms.14243
2498:(9082): 963β964.
2316:Endocrine Reviews
1865:10.1111/sms.12350
1421:978-1-4160-3197-0
813:anabolic steroids
729:norandrostendione
512:cognitive control
333:, addiction, and
169:hepatic carcinoma
108:Anabolic steroids
82:anabolic steroids
46:anabolic steroids
16:(Redirected from
3978:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3844:
3834:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3734:
3702:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3650:
3639:
3638:
3628:
3596:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3507:
3497:
3495:10.1002/dta.2112
3488:(9): 1304β1319.
3473:
3467:
3466:
3438:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3406:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3365:
3350:World Psychiatry
3341:
3332:
3331:
3321:
3311:
3287:
3274:
3273:
3264:(1β3): 181β190.
3249:
3243:
3242:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3162:
3153:(8): 1451β1461.
3138:
3132:
3131:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3058:
3026:
3017:
3016:
2983:(1β5): 245β251.
2968:
2959:
2958:
2948:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2789:
2771:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2730:
2712:
2688:
2679:
2678:
2652:
2643:(1): sms.14243.
2628:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2605:. 5 October 2017
2595:
2589:
2588:
2555:(6): 1069β1089.
2540:
2534:
2533:
2507:
2483:
2474:
2473:
2463:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2406:
2399:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2367:(9): 1079β1092.
2356:
2350:
2349:
2331:
2307:
2298:
2297:
2287:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2230:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2133:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1989:
1949:
1940:
1939:
1903:
1890:
1889:
1867:
1843:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1815:
1804:
1803:
1793:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1677:
1667:
1643:
1634:
1633:
1597:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1515:
1505:
1481:
1470:
1469:
1437:
1426:
1425:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1382:
1372:
1348:
1339:
1338:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1275:
1251:
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1241:
1239:
1237:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1198:
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1191:
1181:
1149:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1081:
1049:
1040:
1039:
994:
981:
980:
970:
960:
936:
923:
922:
915:
894:Neuroenhancement
785:alcoholic drinks
770:Roman Gladiators
595:, nicotine, and
555:over-the-counter
492:'s banned list.
279:releasing agents
181:septic arthritis
114:Anabolic steroid
33:, also known as
21:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3879:
3877:body alteration
3874:Pharmacological
3871:
3827:
3822:
3821:
3811:
3809:
3801:
3800:
3796:
3786:
3784:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3760:
3758:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3704:
3703:
3696:
3652:
3651:
3642:
3598:
3597:
3590:
3580:
3578:
3569:
3568:
3564:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3475:
3474:
3470:
3440:
3439:
3430:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3343:
3342:
3335:
3289:
3288:
3277:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3112:10.1139/h03-009
3093:
3092:
3088:
3028:
3027:
3020:
2970:
2969:
2962:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2882:10.1002/dta.406
2876:(11): 846β853.
2863:
2862:
2858:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2690:
2689:
2682:
2630:
2629:
2618:
2608:
2606:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2583:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2485:
2484:
2477:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2393:
2392:
2388:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2309:
2308:
2301:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2135:
2134:
2127:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1951:
1950:
1943:
1908:Sports Medicine
1905:
1904:
1893:
1845:
1844:
1837:
1827:
1825:
1817:
1816:
1807:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1602:Sports Medicine
1599:
1598:
1591:
1582:
1580:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1483:
1482:
1473:
1439:
1438:
1429:
1422:
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1349:
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1253:
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1235:
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1224:
1220:
1200:
1199:
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1104:
1103:
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1032:
1030:
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1026:
1024:
996:
995:
984:
938:
937:
926:
917:
916:
912:
907:
865:
845:
843:Doping in sport
839:
826:
777:modern medicine
749:
741:Androstenedione
713:
707:
691:
685:
677:electrophoresis
657:red blood cells
653:
647:
631:
625:
585:
577:Main articles:
575:
543:
537:
532:
504:
498:
477:
471:
457:
451:
391:β creatine and
382:
370:Main articles:
368:
355:
303:methylphenidate
267:
261:
229:uterine atrophy
221:prostate cancer
116:
110:
102:
70:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3984:
3982:
3974:
3973:
3971:Ergogenic aids
3968:
3963:
3958:
3956:Drugs in sport
3948:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3910:
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3900:
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3890:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3837:Ergogenic aids
3826:
3825:External links
3823:
3820:
3819:
3794:
3768:
3746:
3694:
3665:(2): 122β124.
3640:
3588:
3562:
3543:(6): 423β425.
3527:
3468:
3449:(2): 371β373.
3428:
3377:
3356:(2): 118β123.
3333:
3275:
3244:
3225:(4): 320β326.
3209:
3182:
3133:
3106:(1): 102β116.
3086:
3041:(1β3): 52β58.
3018:
2960:
2923:(3): 256β263.
2903:
2856:
2801:
2742:
2680:
2616:
2590:
2535:
2475:
2438:(5): 446β456.
2418:
2386:
2351:
2322:(2): 155β186.
2299:
2262:(5): 419β426.
2242:
2205:(5): 311β316.
2185:
2125:
2103:
2076:(4): 311β323.
2056:
2021:(1β2): 89β94.
2001:
1941:
1914:(4): 517β531.
1891:
1835:
1805:
1748:
1713:(5): 611β617.
1693:
1635:
1608:(5): 301β311.
1589:
1556:
1544:ods.od.nih.gov
1531:
1471:
1448:(3): 591β610.
1427:
1420:
1394:
1340:
1321:(1): 117β123.
1305:
1243:
1218:
1193:
1164:(3): 502β521.
1141:
1115:
1097:
1041:
1005:(2): 487β505.
982:
924:
909:
908:
906:
903:
902:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
864:
861:
841:Main article:
838:
837:Usage in sport
835:
825:
822:
748:
745:
733:androstenediol
717:lean body mass
709:Main article:
706:
703:
687:Main article:
684:
681:
651:Erythropoietin
649:Main article:
646:
645:Erythropoietin
643:
627:Main article:
624:
623:Blood boosters
621:
617:urine analysis
574:
571:
547:blood pressure
539:Main article:
536:
533:
531:
528:
524:attention span
508:working memory
500:Main article:
497:
494:
473:Main article:
470:
469:Actoprotectors
467:
453:Main article:
450:
447:
446:
445:
426:cardiomyopathy
412:
396:
367:
364:
354:
353:Ergogenic aids
351:
263:Main article:
260:
257:
237:breast atrophy
121:glucocorticoid
112:Main article:
109:
106:
101:
98:
74:categorization
69:
66:
58:ergogenic aids
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
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3845:
3838:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3808:
3804:
3798:
3795:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3769:
3756:
3750:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3563:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3469:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3198:(2): 97β102.
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2907:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2756:F1000Research
2753:
2746:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2591:
2587:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2419:
2403:
2396:
2390:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2256:Sports Health
2253:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2114:
2107:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1958:Sports Health
1955:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1557:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1129:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
991:
989:
987:
983:
978:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
950:
946:
942:
935:
933:
931:
929:
925:
920:
914:
911:
904:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
866:
862:
860:
858:
854:
850:
844:
836:
834:
830:
823:
821:
818:
814:
810:
805:
802:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
773:
771:
767:
763:
758:
754:
746:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
712:
704:
702:
700:
699:gene transfer
696:
690:
682:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
663:
658:
652:
644:
642:
640:
636:
630:
622:
620:
618:
614:
610:
609:blood testing
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
584:
580:
572:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
542:
534:
529:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
503:
495:
493:
491:
487:
483:
476:
475:Actoprotector
468:
466:
463:
456:
448:
443:
439:
435:
434:renal failure
431:
427:
423:
419:
417:
413:
410:
406:
402:
401:
397:
394:
390:
389:
384:
383:
381:
377:
373:
365:
363:
361:
352:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:catecholamine
284:
283:reaction time
280:
276:
272:
266:
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
241:Urine samples
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
115:
107:
105:
99:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
67:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3934:
3810:. Retrieved
3806:
3797:
3785:. Retrieved
3780:
3777:"Who we are"
3771:
3759:. Retrieved
3749:
3714:
3710:
3662:
3658:
3608:
3604:
3579:. Retrieved
3575:
3565:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3446:
3442:
3394:
3390:
3380:
3353:
3349:
3299:
3295:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3222:
3218:
3212:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3103:
3099:
3089:
3038:
3034:
2980:
2976:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2873:
2869:
2859:
2818:
2814:
2804:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2700:
2696:
2640:
2636:
2607:. Retrieved
2602:
2593:
2580:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2495:
2491:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2409:. Retrieved
2402:the original
2389:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2319:
2315:
2259:
2255:
2245:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2145:
2141:
2116:. Retrieved
2106:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2018:
2014:
2004:
1964:(1): 31β34.
1961:
1957:
1911:
1907:
1885:
1855:
1851:
1826:. Retrieved
1822:
1768:(1): 71β88.
1765:
1761:
1751:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1687:
1655:
1651:
1605:
1601:
1581:, retrieved
1569:
1566:"Stimulants"
1559:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:
1534:
1525:
1493:
1489:
1465:
1445:
1441:
1403:
1397:
1360:
1356:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1263:
1259:
1234:. Retrieved
1231:www.acog.org
1230:
1221:
1203:
1196:
1161:
1157:
1132:. Retrieved
1128:the original
1118:
1110:the original
1100:
1091:
1061:
1057:
1022:
1002:
999:Primary Care
998:
948:
944:
913:
848:
846:
831:
827:
824:Risk factors
806:
801:bodybuilders
797:
781:pharmacology
774:
750:
721:testosterone
714:
695:viral vector
692:
654:
632:
629:Blood doping
586:
551:muscle cells
544:
505:
478:
458:
414:
398:
388:biomolecules
385:
356:
347:amphetamines
271:dopaminergic
268:
209:oligospermia
185:Wilm's tumor
159:, decreased
149:hypertension
117:
103:
71:
57:
43:
38:
34:
30:
29:
3961:Amphetamine
3505:1885/146363
3056:11336/71854
2411:2 September
1064:(1): 5β11.
921:. May 2019.
762:Cola Nitida
705:Prohormones
689:Gene doping
683:Gene doping
669:dehydration
662:bone marrow
597:propranolol
535:Painkillers
319:weight loss
307:amphetamine
173:cholestasis
137:transdermal
125:oxandrolone
3966:Nootropics
3950:Categories
3812:3 November
3787:3 November
2609:13 October
1570:StatPearls
1357:Healthcare
1266:: 95β105.
1204:StatPearls
905:References
799:Images of
789:strychnine
711:Prohormone
697:-mediated
583:Anxiolytic
530:CNS agents
496:Nootropics
486:bromantane
449:Adaptogens
323:arrhythmia
259:Stimulants
233:amenorrhea
201:depression
193:aggression
163:, altered
157:thrombosis
133:nandrolone
129:stanozolol
76:, certain
68:Definition
62:nootropics
3302:(1): 13.
3169:0195-9131
3120:1066-7814
3065:0960-0760
2997:0960-0760
2937:0019-5413
2890:1942-7611
2835:1872-8057
2821:: 75β87.
2778:2046-1402
2719:1664-042X
2675:252898039
2659:0905-7188
2514:0140-6736
2452:1976-9148
2338:1945-7189
2276:1941-0921
2219:1366-8714
2162:0306-3674
2090:1555-0265
2035:0300-8177
1978:1941-7381
1782:1570-159X
1727:1179-2035
1363:(1): 97.
1282:1179-8467
951:(1): 71.
833:the top.
809:cortisone
567:narcotics
563:ibuprofen
561:(such as
541:Analgesic
526:, etc.).
502:Nootropic
455:Adaptogen
438:hepatitis
360:bupropion
315:headaches
299:ephedrine
265:Stimulant
251:and 1990
225:hirsutism
197:addiction
189:psychosis
78:prototype
3761:14 April
3741:22659257
3689:30202322
3635:33583884
3557:20988415
3514:27732767
3463:11176375
3423:29910741
3372:18235871
3328:24670105
3270:21560989
3239:19467612
3204:12678299
3177:16888459
3128:12671199
3081:11815469
3073:16797178
3013:46183096
3005:12650722
2955:32399143
2898:22374784
2843:28119134
2796:32983414
2737:24273518
2667:36229224
2577:15788121
2569:25591060
2530:34909949
2470:24009833
2381:23574283
2346:22368183
2294:29932857
2237:11577173
2180:16799101
2118:12 April
2098:19124889
2051:35050122
2043:12701815
1996:29059531
1936:45124293
1928:25663250
1882:22782401
1874:25943657
1828:12 April
1800:26074744
1743:27551597
1735:26712509
1684:25852568
1630:30392999
1622:23456493
1583:12 April
1578:30969718
1549:12 April
1522:24198770
1462:21658550
1389:33477800
1335:20153798
1300:25187752
1236:12 April
1213:29494025
1188:18500378
1088:26074739
1019:23668655
977:24330705
863:See also
766:Bufotein
613:Cannabis
593:Diazepam
579:Sedative
482:bemethyl
480:such as
430:diabetes
400:Creatine
376:Creatine
366:Examples
311:insomnia
295:Caffeine
94:caffeine
86:vitamins
54:"doping"
50:cheating
3732:4528343
3680:6125030
3626:8355384
3581:5 April
3522:9056906
3414:5992463
3397:: 634.
3363:2219897
3319:3986904
2946:7205921
2851:3441151
2787:7503180
2728:3824146
2703:: 332.
2522:9314900
2461:3762282
2285:6116101
2228:1187088
2171:2657499
1987:5753968
1791:4462044
1675:4362407
1513:3813949
1380:7832337
1291:4140700
1179:2439524
1134:4 March
1079:4462043
968:3878772
757:Charmis
747:History
601:Ethanol
589:archery
514:(e.g.,
343:cocaine
335:strokes
331:anxiety
327:tremors
90:protein
3739:
3729:
3687:
3677:
3633:
3623:
3555:
3520:
3512:
3461:
3421:
3411:
3370:
3360:
3326:
3316:
3268:
3237:
3202:
3175:
3167:
3126:
3118:
3079:
3071:
3063:
3011:
3003:
2995:
2953:
2943:
2935:
2896:
2888:
2849:
2841:
2833:
2794:
2784:
2776:
2735:
2725:
2717:
2673:
2665:
2657:
2575:
2567:
2528:
2520:
2512:
2492:Lancet
2468:
2458:
2450:
2379:
2344:
2336:
2292:
2282:
2274:
2235:
2225:
2217:
2178:
2168:
2160:
2096:
2088:
2049:
2041:
2033:
1994:
1984:
1976:
1934:
1926:
1880:
1872:
1798:
1788:
1780:
1741:
1733:
1725:
1682:
1672:
1658:: 79.
1628:
1620:
1576:
1520:
1510:
1496:: 75.
1460:
1418:
1387:
1377:
1333:
1298:
1288:
1280:
1211:
1186:
1176:
1086:
1076:
1017:
975:
965:
793:brandy
735:, and
605:breath
559:NSAIDs
436:, and
386:Human
378:, and
219:, and
199:, and
165:libido
3518:S2CID
3077:S2CID
3009:S2CID
2847:S2CID
2671:S2CID
2573:S2CID
2526:S2CID
2405:(PDF)
2398:(PDF)
2047:S2CID
1932:S2CID
1878:S2CID
1739:S2CID
1626:S2CID
665:cells
422:IGF-1
418:(hGH)
100:Types
3814:2015
3789:2015
3763:2013
3737:PMID
3685:PMID
3631:PMID
3583:2022
3553:PMID
3510:PMID
3459:PMID
3419:PMID
3368:PMID
3324:PMID
3266:PMID
3235:PMID
3200:PMID
3173:PMID
3165:ISSN
3124:PMID
3116:ISSN
3069:PMID
3061:ISSN
3001:PMID
2993:ISSN
2951:PMID
2933:ISSN
2894:PMID
2886:ISSN
2839:PMID
2831:ISSN
2792:PMID
2774:ISSN
2733:PMID
2715:ISSN
2663:PMID
2655:ISSN
2611:2023
2565:PMID
2518:PMID
2510:ISSN
2466:PMID
2448:ISSN
2413:2018
2377:PMID
2342:PMID
2334:ISSN
2290:PMID
2272:ISSN
2233:PMID
2215:ISSN
2176:PMID
2158:ISSN
2120:2022
2094:PMID
2086:ISSN
2039:PMID
2031:ISSN
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