549:. RM systems have evolved to keep up with the ever-changing bacteria and phage. In general, these RM types differ in the nucleotide sequences that they recognize. However, there is an occasional slip where the endonuclease misses the DNA sequence of the phage and the phage DNA is able to enter the cell anyway, becoming methylated and protected against the endonuclease. This accident is what can spur the evolution of the RM system. Phages can acquire or use the enzyme from the host cell to protect their own DNA, or sometimes they will have proteins that dismantle the enzyme that is meant to restrict the phage DNA. Another option is for the phage to insert different base pairs into its DNA, thereby confusing the enzyme.
556:. This stands for “clustered regularly interspersed palindromic repeats” which means that the immunity to phages by bacteria has been acquired via adding spacers of DNA that are identical to that of the DNA from the phage. Some phages have been found to be immune to this mechanism as well. In some way or another, the phages have managed to get rid of the sequence that would be replicated.
563:. This is a last resort option- when the host cell has already been infected by the phage. This method is not ideal for the host cell, as it still leads to its death. The redeeming feature of this mechanism is the fact that it interferes with the phage processes and prevents it from then moving on to infect other cells.
102:) appear to be highly diverse and there possibly are millions of species. Phage-ecological interactions therefore are quantitatively vast: huge numbers of interactions. Phage-ecological interactions are also qualitatively diverse: There are huge numbers of environment types, bacterial-host types, and also individual
87:
will exceed bacterial densities by a ratio of 10-to-1 or more (VBR or virus-to-bacterium ratio; see for a summary of actual data). As there exist estimates of bacterial numbers on Earth of approximately 10, there consequently is an expectation that 10 or more individual virus (mostly phage)
429:
considers characteristics that are apparent in populations of individuals but either are not apparent or are much less apparent among individuals. These characteristics include so-called intraspecific interactions, that is between individuals making up the same population, and can include
274:
Another way of envisioning phage "organismal" ecology is that it is the study of phage adaptations that contribute to phage survival and transmission to new hosts or environments. Phage "organismal" ecology is the most closely aligned of phage ecology disciplines with the classical
357:
unto themselves). However, the organismal view of phage biology lives on as a foundation of phage ecological understanding. Indeed, it represents a key thread that ties together the ecological thinking on phage ecology with the more "modern" considerations of phage as molecular
298:, and physiological ecology under the heading of phage "organismal" ecology. However, as noted, these subdisciplines are not as well developed as more general considerations of phage "organismal" ecology. Phage growth parameters often evolve over the course of
334:
and single-step growth experiments. Note, though, that for practical reasons much of "organismal" phage study is of their properties in bulk culture (many phage) rather than the properties of individual phage virions or individual infections.
493:. Community ecology thus deals with interspecific interactions. Interspecific interactions, like intraspecific interactions, can range from cooperative to competitive but also to quite antagonistic (as are seen, for example, with
525:
describes this relationship, as the organisms must constantly adapt and evolve in order to survive. This relationship is important to understand as phages are now being used for more practical and medicinal purposes.
71:
meaning that they are able to reproduce only while infecting bacteria. Phages therefore are found only within environments that contain bacteria. Most environments contain bacteria, including our own bodies (called
529:
Bacteria have developed multiple defense mechanisms to fight off the effects of bacteriophages. In experimentation, amount of resistance can be determined by how much of a plate (generally
1428:
Lenski, Richard E.; Levin, Bruce R. (1 January 1985). "Constraints on the
Coevolution of Bacteria and Virulent Phage: A Model, Some Experiments, and Predictions for Natural Communities".
382:), which is approximately equivalent (depending on how it is defined) to the phage period of infection. Single-step growth experiments also are employed to determine a phage's
1194:
Miller, R. V. & S. A. Ripp (2002). "Pseudolysogeny: A bacteriophage strategy for increasing longevity in situ". In Kado, Clarence I. & Syvanen, Michael (eds.).
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is the primary concern of phage community ecologists. Bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent phages from having an effect on them, which has led to this
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the tendency of at least some phage to enter into (and then subsequently leave) a not very well understood state known (inconsistently) as pseudolysogeny
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Beavogui, Angelina; Lacroix, Auriane; Wiart, Nicolas; Poulain, Julie; Delmont, Tom O.; Paoli, Lucas; Wincker, Patrick; Oliveira, Pedro H. (2024-03-08).
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351:
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Phage population ecology considers issues of rates of phage population growth, but also phage-phage interactions as can occur when two or more phage
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studies those characteristics of communities that either are not apparent or which are much less apparent if a community consists of only a single
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The basic experimental toolkit of phage "organismal" ecology consists of the single-step growth (or one-step growth;) experiment and the phage
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816:(forecasted publication date: March, 2008, Cambridge University Press), in order to be cited by that chapter especially as a repository of
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in some manner so that either the loss of not currently infecting (free) phage or the gain of infected bacteria may be measured over time.
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On top of the above mentioned strategies, a growing arsenal of anti-phage immune systems has been described and quantified in bacteria.
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The study of phage ecology reflects established scientific disciplines in ecological studies in scope, the most obvious being general
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bacteria. Phages can also impact abiotic factors via the encoding of exotoxins (a subset of which are capable of solubilizing the
68:
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1969:
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This somewhat whole-organismal view of phage biology saw its heyday during the 1940s and 1950s, before giving way to much more
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330:", in fact it wasn't until the late 1930s through the 1940s that phages were studied, with rigor, as individuals, e.g., by
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812:
This article on phage ecology was expanded from a stub during the writing of the first chapter of the edited monograph,
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with bacteria, infected with phages) ends up being clear. The clearer, the less resistant as more bacteria have been
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analyses of phages, as seen during the 1960s and onward. This shift, paralleled in much of the rest of microbiology
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that recognize specific base pairs within the DNA, while the DNA of the cell is protected from restriction due to
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133:. Phage ecology also may be considered (though mostly less well formally explored) from perspectives of phage
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Summers WC (1991). "From culture as organism to organism as cell: historical origins of bacterial genetics".
442:(as seen especially at lower population densities in resource-rich environments) or in terms of retention of
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2500:
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2292:
2012:
1979:
1954:
353:, represented a retreat from a much more ecological view of phages (first as bacterial killers, and then as
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The
Bacteriophage Ecology Group (BEG): Home of Phage Ecology and Phage Evolutionary Biology (www.phage.org)
1324:"Experimental examination of bacteriophage latent-period evolution as a response to bacterial availability"
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2800:
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76:). Often these bacteria are found in large numbers. As a consequence, phages are found almost everywhere.
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2128:
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730:
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Barksdale L, Arden SB (1974). "Persisting bacteriophage infections, lysogeny, and phage conversions".
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Phages are also capable of interacting with species other than bacteria, e.g., such as phage-encoded
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138:
84:
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components of an environment. Abiotic entities are not alive and so an ecosystem essentially is a
322:) were visibly cleared by phage action. Though from the start there was some sense, especially by
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617:. In practice, the portion of the abiotic environment of most concern to ecosystem ecologists is
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446:(seen especially at higher population densities where individuals are directly competing over
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541:(RM system). In this system, foreign DNA trying to enter the bacterial host is restricted by
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386:, which is the number of phage (on average) that are produced per phage-infected bacterium.
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2785:
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2184:
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645:). Phage ecosystem ecologists are primarily concerned with the phage impact on the global
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154:
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or, if incapable of interbreeding, then are recently derived from a single individual (a
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In the mid 1910s, when phage were first discovered, the concept of phage was very much a
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996:
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397:) attach to bacteria. This is usually done by separating free phage from phage-infected
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1994:
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to phages puts pressure on the phages to develop stronger effects on the bacteria. The
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phenomenon (like much of microbiology), where various types of bacterial cultures (on
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2017:
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A third way that bacteria have managed to escape the effects of bacteriophages is by
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103:
80:
47:
19:
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1275:"Effects of Escherichia coli physiology on growth of phage T7 in vivo and in silico"
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2740:
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1964:
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Phages impact the movement of nutrients and energy within ecosystems primarily by
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1984:
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2004:
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combined with the non-living environment within which that ecosystem exists.
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1989:
1944:
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1064:
1040:"Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored "rare biosphere""
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in terms of the impact of the community on these abiotic entities, and
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114:
99:
31:
723:
The
Dismantling of Bacteriology and a Deconstruction of the Procaryote
389:
The adsorption curve is obtained by measuring the rate at which phage
625:
553:
394:
390:
1654:
An interactive model for an evolving ecology of phages and bacteria
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117:. Accordingly, phage ecology is treated under the following heads—
1496:"Antagonistic Coevolution between a Bacterium and a Bacteriophage"
632:
534:
319:
250:
193:
166:
530:
2410:
1663:
1646:
An online, searchable phage ecology bibliography can be found
374:
curve. Single-step growth is a means of determining the phage
1381:"The phage-host arms race: Shaping the evolution of microbes"
756:
Microbial phylogeny and evolution: concepts and controversies
649:, especially within the context of a phenomenon known as the
1038:
Sogin ML, Morrison HG, Huber JA, et al. (August 2006).
537:. The most common of these defense mechanisms is called the
477:
found within a given environment (more formally, within an
165:, but also from an enormous catalog (90 years) of study of
1102:"Genomic analysis of uncultured marine viral communities"
552:
Another mechanism employed by bacteria is referred to as
185:
Phage "organismal" ecology is primarily the study of the
118:
752:
Sapp, Jan (2004). "Evolving biological organization".
157:. Phage ecology additionally draws (extensively) from
1100:, Salamon P, Andresen B, et al. (October 2002).
497:). An important consequence of these interactions is
16:
Interaction of bacteriophages with their environments
680:
but otherwise can be controversial, as discussed by
3086:
2986:
2911:
2784:
2721:
2581:
2449:
2351:
2230:
2157:
2114:
2036:
2003:
1900:
1812:
1706:
1494:Buckling, Angus; Rainey, Paul B. (1 January 2002).
169:and phage-bacterial interactions in terms of their
581:is an example of applied phage community ecology.
1202:(2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press. pp.
981:"Estimating prokaryotic diversity and its limits"
438:. Competition can be either in terms of rates of
1569:"The defensome of complex bacterial communities"
979:Curtis TP, Sloan WT, Scannell JW (August 2002).
153:, physiological ecology (or ecophysiology), and
91:, making phages the most numerous category of "
1322:Abedon ST, Hyman P, Thomas C (December 2003).
932:"Virioplankton: viruses in aquatic ecosystems"
871:Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe WJ (June 1998).
213:rate of intracellular phage-progeny maturation
27:
2422:
1675:
760:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp.
122:
8:
517:between the phages and their host bacteria.
130:
126:
2643:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2429:
2415:
2407:
1682:
1668:
1660:
818:phage ecology review chapters and articles
83:, many phage biologists expect that phage
1617:"Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online 2005"
1600:
1527:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1404:
1355:
1298:
1135:
1125:
1073:
1063:
1014:
1004:
955:
906:
896:
847:
707:
2541:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
2180:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1268:
1266:
2573:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1273:You L, Suthers PF, Yin J (April 2002).
661:
2381:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
740:
739:
728:
326:, that phage consisted of individual "
28:the most numerous "organisms" on Earth
930:Wommack KE, Colwell RR (March 2000).
780:"Two faces of the prokaryote concept"
7:
2396:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1619:. Libertas Academica. Archived from
817:
199:eclipse period (or simply "eclipse")
2846:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1173:10.1146/annurev.mi.28.100174.001405
672:" is useful to mean the sum of the
481:), particularly when more than one
454:independent and dependent effects.
189:impact of phage growth parameters:
46:is the study of the interaction of
2599:Ecological effects of biodiversity
873:"Prokaryotes: the unseen majority"
473:consists of all of the biological
14:
1935:Generalist and specialist species
1379:Stern, Adi; Sorek, Rotem (2011).
684:"A new biology for a new century"
227:virion decay (inactivation) rates
2658:Occupancy–abundance relationship
1500:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1348:10.1128/AEM.69.12.7499-7506.2003
832:"Ecology of prokaryotic viruses"
244:resistance to abortive infection
69:obligate intracellular parasites
2678:Relative abundance distribution
2391:Plant defense against herbivory
2258:Competitive exclusion principle
1970:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1291:10.1128/JB.184.7.1888-1894.2002
539:restriction-modification system
2263:Consumer–resource interactions
700:10.1128/MMBR.68.2.173-186.2004
509:The interaction of phage with
202:rise period (or simply "rise")
1:
3109:Biological data visualization
2936:Environmental niche modelling
2663:Population viability analysis
1642:The Virus Ecology Group (VEG)
948:10.1128/MMBR.64.1.69-114.2000
300:phage experimental adaptation
290:, we can also consider phage
58:Introduction to phage ecology
3239:Microbial population biology
2594:Density-dependent inhibition
1106:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1044:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
985:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
877:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
849:10.1016/j.femsre.2003.08.001
3063:Liebig's law of the minimum
2898:Resource selection function
1789:Metabolic theory of ecology
450:). Respectively, these are
283:analyses of bacteriophage.
161:, particularly in terms of
3260:
2963:Niche apportionment models
2683:Relative species abundance
1887:Primary nutritional groups
1784:List of feeding behaviours
1585:10.1038/s41467-024-46489-0
1557:issue v62i0004 article 759
505:Relationship with bacteria
495:predator-prey interactions
181:Phage "organismal" ecology
163:environmental microbiology
3212:
3144:Ecosystem based fisheries
2756:Interspecific competition
2648:Minimum viable population
2506:Maximum sustainable yield
2491:Intraspecific competition
2486:Effective population size
2366:Anti-predator adaptations
1877:Photosynthetic efficiency
1484:issue v33i0001 article 43
936:Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev
830:Weinbauer MG (May 2004).
778:Sapp J (September 2006).
750:; see also pp. 103–4 of
688:Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev
461:an individual bacterium.
288:ecological subdisciplines
224:rates of virion diffusion
63:Vastness of phage ecology
3134:Ecological stoichiometry
3099:Alternative stable state
1328:Appl. Environ. Microbiol
1198:Horizontal gene transfer
405:Phage population ecology
286:From the perspective of
149:, mathematical ecology,
2978:Ontogenetic niche shift
2841:Ideal free distribution
2751:Ecological facilitation
2501:Malthusian growth model
2471:Consumer-resource model
2328:Paradox of the plankton
2293:Energy systems language
2013:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1980:Optimal foraging theory
1955:Heterotrophic nutrition
1430:The American Naturalist
1065:10.1073/pnas.0605127103
898:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578
609:naturally differs from
585:Phage ecosystem ecology
465:Phage community ecology
417:which either do or can
187:evolutionary ecological
173:and, especially, their
3124:Ecological forecasting
3068:Marginal value theorem
2866:Landscape epidemiology
2801:Cross-boundary subsidy
2736:Biological interaction
2086:Microbial intelligence
1774:Green world hypothesis
1650:(>6000 references).
1512:10.1098/rspb.2001.1945
1397:10.1002/bies.201000071
1127:10.1073/pnas.202488399
1006:10.1073/pnas.142680199
682:Woese CR (June 2004).
515:evolutionary arms race
256:rates of reduction to
253:properties, including
109:Studying phage ecology
3129:Ecological humanities
3028:Ecological energetics
2973:Niche differentiation
2836:Habitat fragmentation
2604:Ecological extinction
2551:Small population size
2303:Feed conversion ratio
2283:Ecological succession
2215:San Francisco Estuary
2129:Ecological efficiency
2071:Microbial cooperation
1573:Nature Communications
814:Bacteriophage Ecology
593:consists of both the
98:Bacteria (along with
3154:Evolutionary ecology
3119:Ecological footprint
3114:Ecological economics
3038:Ecological threshold
3033:Ecological indicator
2903:Source–sink dynamics
2856:Land change modeling
2851:Insular biogeography
2703:Species distribution
2442:Modelling ecosystems
2101:Microbial metabolism
1940:Intraguild predation
1729:Biogeochemical cycle
1695:Modelling ecosystems
1161:Annu. Rev. Microbiol
523:Red Queen hypothesis
519:Bacterial resistance
348:molecular biological
139:evolutionary ecology
119:"organismal" ecology
85:population densities
38:(more generally, of
3204:Theoretical ecology
3179:Natural environment
3043:Ecosystem diversity
3013:Ecological collapse
3003:Bateman's principle
2958:Limiting similarity
2871:Landscape limnology
2693:Species homogeneity
2531:Population modeling
2526:Population dynamics
2343:Trophic state index
1340:2003ApEnM..69.7499A
1118:2002PNAS...9914250B
1056:2006PNAS..10312115S
997:2002PNAS...9910494C
889:1998PNAS...95.6578W
836:FEMS Microbiol. Rev
803:provides a history.
332:electron microscopy
306:Historical overview
3215:Outline of ecology
3164:Industrial ecology
3159:Functional ecology
3023:Ecological deficit
2968:Niche construction
2931:Ecosystem engineer
2708:Species–area curve
2629:Introduced species
2444:: Other components
2376:Deimatic behaviour
2278:Ecological network
2210:North Pacific Gyre
2195:hydrothermal vents
2134:Ecological pyramid
2081:Microbial food web
1892:Primary production
1837:Foundation species
1241:10.1007/bf00209428
637:biological tissues
561:abortive infection
452:population-density
427:Population ecology
296:functional ecology
292:behavioral ecology
143:functional ecology
135:behavioral ecology
123:population ecology
3221:
3220:
3104:Balance of nature
2861:Landscape ecology
2746:Community ecology
2688:Species diversity
2624:Indicator species
2619:Gradient analysis
2496:Logistic function
2404:
2403:
2361:Animal coloration
2338:Trophic mutualism
2076:Microbial ecology
1867:Photoheterotrophs
1852:Myco-heterotrophy
1764:Ecosystem ecology
1749:Carrying capacity
1714:Abiotic component
1506:(1494): 931–936.
1213:978-0-12-680126-2
771:978-0-19-516877-8
738:External link in
611:community ecology
607:Ecosystem ecology
573:interaction with
487:Community ecology
448:limited resources
440:population growth
423:clonal population
344:molecular genetic
281:molecular genetic
264:lysogen induction
175:molecular biology
151:molecular ecology
147:landscape ecology
131:ecosystem ecology
127:community ecology
95:" on our planet.
3251:
2921:Ecological niche
2893:selection theory
2713:Umbrella species
2698:Species richness
2634:Invasive species
2614:Flagship species
2521:Population cycle
2516:Overexploitation
2481:Ecological yield
2431:
2424:
2417:
2408:
2313:Mesotrophic soil
2253:Climax community
2185:Marine food webs
2124:Biomagnification
1925:Chemoorganotroph
1779:Keystone species
1739:Biotic component
1684:
1677:
1670:
1661:
1625:
1624:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1564:
1558:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1531:
1491:
1485:
1475:
1462:
1461:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1408:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1359:
1334:(12): 7499–506.
1319:
1313:
1312:
1302:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1201:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1129:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1077:
1067:
1050:(32): 12115–20.
1035:
1029:
1028:
1018:
1008:
976:
970:
969:
959:
927:
921:
920:
910:
900:
868:
862:
861:
851:
827:
821:
810:
804:
802:
784:
775:
759:
749:
743:
742:
736:
734:
726:
711:
666:
444:population sizes
395:Virion#Structure
88:particles exist
3259:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3208:
3194:Systems ecology
3082:
3053:Extinction debt
3018:Ecological debt
3008:Bioluminescence
2989:
2982:
2951:marine habitats
2926:Ecological trap
2907:
2787:
2780:
2723:
2717:
2673:Rapoport's rule
2668:Priority effect
2609:Endemic species
2577:
2536:Population size
2452:
2445:
2435:
2405:
2400:
2353:
2347:
2333:Trophic cascade
2243:Bioaccumulation
2226:
2153:
2110:
2032:
1999:
1896:
1808:
1769:Ecosystem model
1702:
1688:
1633:
1628:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1549:
1545:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1476:
1465:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1272:
1271:
1264:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1112:(22): 14250–5.
1096:
1095:
1091:
1037:
1036:
1032:
991:(16): 10494–9.
978:
977:
973:
929:
928:
924:
883:(12): 6578–83.
870:
869:
865:
829:
828:
824:
811:
807:
782:
777:
776:
772:
751:
737:
727:
681:
667:
663:
659:
587:
507:
467:
407:
393:particles (see
368:
324:FÄ—lix d'HÄ—relle
308:
251:temperate-phage
221:constant, plus
183:
155:spatial ecology
111:
65:
60:
26:), potentially
17:
12:
11:
5:
3257:
3255:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3234:Bacteriophages
3226:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3174:Microecosystem
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3073:Thorson's rule
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2998:Assembly rules
2994:
2992:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2883:
2881:Patch dynamics
2878:
2876:Metapopulation
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2771:Storage effect
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2727:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2653:Neutral theory
2650:
2645:
2640:
2638:Native species
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2511:Overpopulation
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2455:
2447:
2446:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2426:
2419:
2411:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2318:Nutrient cycle
2315:
2310:
2308:Feeding frenzy
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2288:Energy quality
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2248:Cascade effect
2245:
2240:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2091:Microbial loop
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2056:Lithoautotroph
2053:
2048:
2042:
2040:
2038:Microorganisms
2034:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1995:Prey switching
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1872:Photosynthesis
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1827:Chemosynthesis
1824:
1818:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1719:Abiotic stress
1716:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1644:
1639:
1632:
1631:External links
1629:
1627:
1626:
1623:on 2006-05-26.
1608:
1559:
1543:
1486:
1463:
1442:10.1086/284364
1436:(4): 585–602.
1420:
1371:
1314:
1285:(7): 1888–94.
1262:
1219:
1212:
1186:
1151:
1089:
1030:
971:
922:
863:
822:
805:
787:Int. Microbiol
770:
660:
658:
655:
651:microbial loop
586:
583:
506:
503:
466:
463:
413:is a group of
406:
403:
367:
364:
307:
304:
272:
271:
268:
267:
266:
260:
247:
246:
245:
242:
238:resistance to
230:
229:
228:
225:
216:
215:
214:
205:
204:
203:
200:
182:
179:
110:
107:
64:
61:
59:
56:
48:bacteriophages
20:Bacteriophages
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3256:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3199:Urban ecology
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3058:Kleiber's law
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:Foster's rule
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2720:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2150:
2149:Trophic level
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2106:Phage ecology
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2096:Microbial mat
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2051:Bacteriophage
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:Decomposition
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1965:Mesopredators
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Apex predator
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1744:Biotic stress
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1666:
1665:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:(2): 171–90.
1234:
1230:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1199:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
975:
972:
967:
963:
958:
953:
949:
945:
942:(1): 69–114.
941:
937:
933:
926:
923:
918:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
867:
864:
859:
855:
850:
845:
842:(2): 127–81.
841:
837:
833:
826:
823:
819:
815:
809:
806:
800:
796:
793:(3): 163–72.
792:
788:
781:
773:
767:
763:
758:
757:
747:
732:
725:
724:
719:
715:
710:
705:
701:
697:
694:(2): 173–86.
693:
689:
685:
679:
675:
671:
665:
662:
656:
654:
652:
648:
644:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
584:
582:
580:
579:Phage therapy
576:
572:
567:
564:
562:
557:
555:
550:
548:
544:
543:endonucleases
540:
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3184:Regime shift
3169:Macroecology
2890:
2886:
2826:Edge effects
2796:Biogeography
2741:Commensalism
2589:Biodiversity
2466:Allee effect
2205:kelp forests
2158:Example webs
2105:
2023:Detritivores
1862:Organotrophs
1842:Kinetotrophs
1794:Productivity
1621:the original
1611:
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1391:(1): 43–51.
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1278:
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159:microbiology
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74:normal flora
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52:environments
43:
18:
2821:Disturbance
2724:interaction
2546:Recruitment
2476:Depensation
2268:Copiotrophs
2139:Energy flow
2061:Lithotrophy
2005:Decomposers
1985:Planktivore
1960:Insectivore
1950:Heterotroph
1915:Bacterivore
1882:Phototrophs
1832:Chemotrophs
1804:Restoration
1754:Competition
1229:J Hist Biol
1098:Breitbart M
670:prokaryotes
499:coevolution
475:individuals
436:cooperation
434:as well as
432:competition
415:individuals
340:biochemical
316:solid media
240:restriction
104:phage types
67:Phages are
50:with their
40:prokaryotes
3228:Categories
3189:Sexecology
2766:Parasitism
2731:Antibiosis
2566:Resistance
2561:Resilience
2451:Population
2371:Camouflage
2323:Oligotroph
2238:Ascendency
2200:intertidal
2190:cold seeps
2144:Food chain
1945:Herbivores
1920:Carnivores
1847:Mixotrophs
1822:Autotrophs
1701:components
1167:: 265–99.
668:The term "
639:of living
615:vice versa
491:population
419:interbreed
411:population
384:burst size
372:adsorption
233:host range
219:adsorption
208:burst size
171:physiology
30:, are the
3094:Allometry
3048:Emergence
2776:Symbiosis
2761:Mutualism
2556:Stability
2461:Abundance
2273:Dominance
2231:Processes
2220:tide pool
2116:Food webs
1990:Predation
1975:Omnivores
1902:Consumers
1857:Mycotroph
1814:Producers
1759:Ecosystem
1724:Behaviour
1593:2041-1723
1555:0092-8240
1482:0265-9247
1385:BioEssays
622:nutrients
619:inorganic
603:community
591:ecosystem
547:methylase
479:ecosystem
471:community
355:organisms
328:organisms
302:studies.
277:molecular
262:rates of
93:organisms
3149:Endolith
3078:Xerosere
2990:networks
2806:Ecocline
2352:Defense,
2028:Detritus
1930:Foraging
1799:Resource
1602:10924106
1538:12028776
1458:82562085
1415:20979102
1366:14660403
1309:11889095
1257:36544748
1249:11612551
1146:12384570
1084:16880384
1025:12097644
966:10704475
858:15109783
799:17061206
718:15187180
674:bacteria
571:exotoxin
511:bacteria
399:bacteria
258:lysogeny
249:various
36:bacteria
3244:Ecology
3139:Ecopath
2946:Habitat
2816:Ecotype
2811:Ecotone
2788:ecology
2786:Spatial
2722:Species
2582:Species
2453:ecology
2438:Ecology
2386:Mimicry
2354:counter
2298:f-ratio
2046:Archaea
1734:Biomass
1707:General
1699:Trophic
1691:Ecology
1529:1690980
1520:3067783
1450:2461275
1406:3274958
1336:Bibcode
1181:4215366
1114:Bibcode
1075:1524930
1052:Bibcode
993:Bibcode
917:9618454
885:Bibcode
678:archaea
641:animals
599:abiotic
575:animals
483:species
380:example
366:Methods
235:, plus
210:, plus
196:, plus
115:ecology
100:archaea
32:viruses
2170:Rivers
2066:Marine
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1413:
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764:–118.
716:
709:419918
706:
633:lysing
626:energy
595:biotic
554:CRISPR
459:adsorb
391:virion
346:, and
129:, and
24:phages
3087:Other
2988:Other
2941:Guild
2913:Niche
2165:Lakes
1579:(1).
1516:JSTOR
1454:S2CID
1446:JSTOR
1253:S2CID
1206:–91.
957:98987
908:33863
783:(PDF)
657:Notes
535:lysed
320:broth
318:, in
167:phage
79:As a
2175:Soil
1648:here
1589:ISSN
1551:ISSN
1534:PMID
1478:ISSN
1411:PMID
1362:PMID
1305:PMID
1245:PMID
1208:ISBN
1177:PMID
1142:PMID
1080:PMID
1021:PMID
962:PMID
913:PMID
854:PMID
795:PMID
766:ISBN
746:help
714:PMID
676:and
624:and
597:and
531:agar
279:and
1597:PMC
1581:doi
1524:PMC
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1438:doi
1434:125
1401:PMC
1393:doi
1352:PMC
1344:doi
1295:PMC
1287:doi
1283:184
1237:doi
1169:doi
1132:PMC
1122:doi
1070:PMC
1060:doi
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1011:PMC
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