73:
852:
500:. It was created in the nineteenth century by European language teachers and linguists. It soon developed beyond its original purpose as a tool of foreign language pedagogy and is now also used extensively as a practical alphabet of phoneticians and linguists. It is found in many dictionaries, where it is used to indicate the pronunciation of words, but most American dictionaries for native English-speakers, e.g.,
269:) are often not modified to take account of such changes, and do not accurately represent the pronunciation. Words borrowed from other languages may retain the spelling from the original language, which may have a different system of correspondences between written symbols and speech sounds. Pronunciation can also vary greatly among dialects of a language. Standard orthography in some languages, such as
485:
32:
135:
901:(1943). Pike's system, which is part of a larger goal of scientific description of phonetics, is particularly interesting in its challenge against the descriptive method of the phoneticians who created alphabetic systems like the IPA. An example of Pike's system can be demonstrated by the following. A
656:
Strictly speaking, it is not possible to have a distinction between "broad" and "narrow" within phonemic transcription, since the symbols chosen represent only sounds that have been shown to be distinctive. However, the symbols themselves may be more or less explicit about their phonetic realization.
454:
that may be unfamiliar to nonspecialists. Broad transcription usually allows statements to be made which apply across accents and dialects, and is thus more appropriate for the pronunciation data in ordinary dictionaries, which may discuss phonetic details in the preface but rarely give them for each
320:
A basic principle of phonetic transcription is that it should be applicable to all languages, and its symbols should denote the same phonetic properties whatever the language being transcribed. It follows that a transcription devised for one individual language or group of languages is not a phonetic
889:
to denote the composition of chemical compounds. Although more descriptive than alphabetic notation, analphabetic notation is less practical for many purposes (e.g. for descriptive linguists doing fieldwork or for speech pathologists transcribing their impressions of speech disorders). As a result,
884:
phonetic notation. Instead of both the alphabetic and iconic notational types' general principle of using one symbol per sound, analphabetic notation uses long sequences of symbols to precisely describe the component features of an articulatory gesture (MacMahon 1996:842–844). This type of notation
316:
For most languages, phonetic transcription makes it possible to show pronunciation with something much nearer to a one-to-one relationship between sound and symbol than is possible with the language's orthography. Phonetic transcription allows one to step outside orthography, examine differences in
345:
is a particularly broad transcription that disregards all allophonic differences (for example the differences between individual speakers or even whole dialects of the same language). Phonemic transcription provides a representation only of a language's abstract word-distinguishing units of sound
362:
The advantage of narrower transcription is that it can help learners to produce exactly the right sound and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation. The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription is rarely representative of all dialects or speakers of a language. Most
637:
in a narrow transcription would be , which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broad transcription is , which indicates only some of the features that are easier to hear. A yet broader transcription would be in which every symbol
863:
phonetic notation, the shapes of the phonetic characters are designed so that they visually represent the position of articulators in the vocal tract. This is unlike alphabetic notation, where the correspondence between character shape and articulator position is arbitrary. This notation is
559:
phonetic alphabet despite having been widely used for languages outside the
Americas. The principal difference between these alphabets and the IPA is that the specially created characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of already existing typewriter characters with diacritics (e.g. many
438:
is also possible that ignores all the above specifics of these aforementioned dialects; this can be useful in situations where minor details are not important to distinguish or where the emphasis is on overarching patterns. For example, one typical phonemic transcription for the word
638:
represents an unambiguous speech sound but without going into any unnecessary detail. None of those transcriptions makes any claims about the phonemic status of the sounds. Instead, they represent certain ways in which it is possible to produce the sounds that make up the word.
732:
in
English, they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, a native English speaker would recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If the plural ending is thought to be essentially an
657:
A frequently cited example is the symbol chosen for the
English consonant at the beginning of the words 'rue', 'rye', 'red': this is frequently transcribed as /r/, despite the symbol suggesting an association with the IPA symbol which is used for a tongue-tip
463:
Most phonetic transcription is based on the assumption that linguistic sounds are segmentable into discrete units that can be represented by symbols. Many different types of transcription, or "notation", have been tried out: these may be divided into
669:; this is the more common realization for English pronunciation in America and England. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the
354:
focuses on more exact articulatory or acoustic details, whether in a broader or narrower way. A transcription which includes some allophonic detail but is still closely linked to the phonemic structure of an utterance is called an
1622:. International Journal of American Linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
619:"/ /" instead. If one is unsure, it is best to use brackets since by setting off a transcription with slashes, one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol phonemically contrasts for the language being transcribed.
1561:
572:. In the days before it was possible to create phonetic fonts for computer printers and computerized typesetting, this system allowed material to be typed on existing typewriters to create printable material.
622:
For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a
426:
can be represented as something like in many
American, Canadian, and Australian accents but in a southern England accent. Furthermore, in Australian accents especially, the first-syllable vowel of
434:
than in North
America, leading to the possibility of employing an even narrower phonetic transcription to indicate this, such as . On the other hand, a broad phonemic transcription of
689:, which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be backed up by an explanation of their use and meaning, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as
626:; in some cases, it may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a
1653:
The
Principles of the International Phonetic Association, Being a Description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the Manner of Using It, Illustrated by Texts in 51 Languages
341:
in the utterance. The difference between broad and narrow is a continuum, but the difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription is usually treated as a binary distinction.
337:. Broad transcription indicates only the most noticeable phonetic features of an utterance, whereas narrow transcription encodes more information about the phonetic details of the
791:, then a diaphonemic transcription that accommodates for variety A and variety B at the same time would transcribe the three lexical sets in three different ways, for instance
502:
447:, as is common in both British and American English dictionaries. (Slashes, rather than square brackets, are used to indicate phonemic rather than phonetic representations.)
641:
There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe the word phonemically, but here, the differences are generally of not precision but analysis. For example,
468:(which are based on the same principle as that which governs ordinary alphabetic writing, namely that of using one single simple symbol to represent each sound) and
510:
506:
864:
potentially more flexible than alphabetic notation in showing more shades of pronunciation (MacMahon 1996:838–841). An example of iconic phonetic notation is the
497:
839:. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English
653:. The latter transcription suggests that there are two vowels in the word even if they cannot both be heard, but the former suggests that there is only one.
377:
156:
143:
823:
To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the
English word
45:
2010:
1985:
1930:
1809:
1784:
1737:
1711:
1667:
1635:
1514:
521:
329:
Phonetic transcription may be used to transcribe the phones of a language. In all systems of transcription there is a distinction between
94:
600:
1859:
1834:
181:
116:
59:
1556:
768:
transcription. Diaphonemic transcriptions accommodate for the variation between the phonemic systems of different varieties or
493:
250:
220:
202:
630:. They are not binary choices but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets.
20:
317:
pronunciation between dialects within a given language and identify changes in pronunciation that may take place over time.
1541:
556:
527:
Another commonly encountered alphabetic tradition was originally created by
American linguists for the transcription of
455:
entry. Most linguists use a narrow transcription only when necessary, and at all other times use a broad transcription.
413:
2062:
1551:
51:
87:
81:
1499:
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between orthography and pronunciation, while a few languages may claim to have a fully phonemic spelling system (a
148:
1488:
528:
350:), and thus is not really a phonetic transcription at all (though at times it may coincide with one). Instead, a
98:
1595:
816:
would mean ‘pronounced in variety A and in variety B.’ Other ways to mark diaphonemic transcriptions include
701:
548:
1660:
Handbook of the
International Phonetic Association: a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet
869:
277:, is often irregular and makes it difficult to predict pronunciation from spelling. For example, the words
1519:
813:
809:
802:
795:
761:
754:
750:
742:
738:
725:
721:
717:
713:
690:
686:
682:
662:
650:
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444:
407:
383:
364:
216:
212:
1722:
Phonetics: A Critical
Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds
1583:
1576:
561:
476:
alphabetic) which represent each sound by a composite symbol made up of a number of signs put together.
1694:
Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic Transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.),
297:
do not rhyme in English even though their spellings might suggest otherwise. Other languages, such as
1757:. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and Language Learning 28. London: Oxford University Press.
666:
520:
systems based on the English alphabet, with diacritical marks over the vowels and stress marks. (See
411:
391:
375:
310:
1702:
MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). "Phonetic Notation". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.).
712:
could be transcribed phonetically as and (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as
616:
552:
1896:
1684:
536:
450:
A further disadvantage of narrow transcription is that it involves a large number of symbols and
306:
2006:
1981:
1926:
1855:
1830:
1805:
1780:
1733:
1707:
1663:
1631:
1504:
1002:
In Pike's notation there are 5 main components (which are indicated using the example above):
851:
540:
496:(IPA) is the most widely used and well-known of present-day phonetic alphabets and has a long
274:
241:
1648:(Parts 1 & 5). London: Philological Society by Asher & Co.; London: Trübner & Co.
905:
886:
817:
584:
544:
532:
403:
302:
298:
270:
1880:
1589:
1529:
840:
658:
1601:
908:
894:
865:
419:
372:
249:. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the
1683:
Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 Alphabet: An Episode of Phonotypy. In R. E. Asher &
2056:
1628:
A handbook of phonetics: "natural" phonetics: articulatory, auditory & functional
262:
1875:
1524:
898:
880:
Another type of phonetic notation that is more precise than alphabetic notation is
697:
399:
393:
1118:
The components of the notational hierarchy of this consonant are explained below:
1606:
1493:
773:
266:
1678:
The Articulations of Speech Sounds Represented by Means of Analphabetic Symbols
390:(often represented as ), but speakers in southern England pronounce the /t/ as
1496:, deliberately nonstandard spelling to demonstrate pronunciation in literature
765:
516:
451:
431:
1509:
769:
604:
484:
338:
685:, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as
661:. It is equally possible within a phonemic transcription to use the symbol
363:
American, Canadian, and Australian speakers of English would pronounce the
265:
of words in all languages changes over time. However, their written forms (
134:
1755:
The Indispensable Foundation: A Selection from the Writings of Henry Sweet
902:
208:
1571:
1546:
828:
729:
612:
608:
576:
347:
246:
772:
of a language. For example, if a speaker of variety A pronounces the
387:
1562:
Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet
1620:
The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its Background and Development
531:
and European languages and is still commonly used by linguists of
1566:
850:
737:, as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed
674:
670:
483:
19:
This article is about phonetic transcription. For other uses, see
580:
560:
characters are borrowed from Eastern European orthographies) or
2005:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–101.
1899:". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers, 2023.
128:
66:
25:
783:, whereas a speaker of variety B pronounces the lexical set
1630:. LINCOM textbooks in linguistics. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
575:
There are also extended versions of the IPA, for example:
1925:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 118.
1804:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 160.
893:
Two examples of this type were developed by the Danish
564:. Examples of this transcription may be seen in Pike's
1655:. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
503:
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
239:) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or
207:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
611:"". A transcription that specifically denotes only
514:, avoid phonetic transcription and instead employ
1728:Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William A. (1986).
696:Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in
1980:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 128–129.
1120:
221:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
1923:Dictionaries: the art and craft of lexicography
1698:(Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
633:For example, in some dialects the English word
507:Random House Dictionary of the English Language
568:and in many of the papers reprinted in Joos's
1779:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 21–40.
1706:. Oxford University Press. pp. 821–846.
325:Narrow versus broad; phonemic versus phonetic
305:have a more consistent (but still imperfect)
8:
1696:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
1651:International Phonetic Association. (1949).
511:Webster's Third New International Dictionary
1908:
1829:. Cambridge University Press. p. 550.
1746:Sweet, Henry. (1880–1881). Sound Notation.
60:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2045:. Cambridge University Press. p. 551.
1724:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
2030:(9th ed.). Heffer. pp. 335–336.
1691:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.|
700:("| |"). This goes beyond phonology into
673:symbols of a typical keyboard, as in the
182:Learn how and when to remove this message
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
1748:Transactions of the Philological Society
1732:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
868:system, created by Scottish phonetician
827:is not read as "yet". This is done with
677:alphabet. For example, the English word
422:). Thus, on the one hand, phonetically,
159:of all important aspects of the article.
80:This article includes a list of general
1767:
885:is reminiscent of the notation used in
1802:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
1172:I = degree of air-stream interruption
155:Please consider expanding the lead to
16:Visual representation of speech sounds
7:
1850:Ball, Martin; Rahilly, Joan (1999).
1662:. Cambridge University Press. 2021.
1515:Pronunciation respelling for English
607:transcription should be enclosed in
522:Pronunciation respelling for English
211:. For the distinction between ,
1467:S = of the segment in the syllable
1167:e = subvalvate esophageal stricture
890:this type of notation is uncommon.
595:Aspects of alphabetic transcription
1026:description of stricture (i.e., AP
911:consonant ( in IPA) is notated as
665:, which in IPA usage refers to an
601:International Phonetic Association
321:transcription but an orthography.
86:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
1644:Ellis, Alexander J. (1869–1889).
1586:, (Revista de Filología Española)
704:analysis. For example, the words
41:This article has multiple issues.
1852:Phonetics: the Science of Speech
1143:D = direction of the air stream
133:
71:
30:
2028:An Outline of English Phonetics
2003:English Phonetics and Phonology
1557:International Phonetic Alphabet
1019:– manner of controlling (i.e.,
820:("! !") or pipes ("| |").
787:with an as in the lexical set
779:with an as in the lexical set
764:") is sometimes used to mark a
494:International Phonetic Alphabet
251:International Phonetic Alphabet
203:International Phonetic Alphabet
147:may be too short to adequately
49:or discuss these issues on the
1881:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1689:Towards a History of Phonetics
1646:On Early English Pronunciation
1009:– manner of production (i.e.,
157:provide an accessible overview
21:Transcription (disambiguation)
1:
1978:Elements of General Phonetics
1775:Shariatmadari, David (2019).
1542:Americanist phonetic notation
1412:a = of articulating movement
1270:a = of articulating movement
615:contrasts may be enclosed in
1618:Albright, Robert W. (1958).
555:. This is often labeled the
1976:Abercrombie, David (1967).
1704:The world's writing systems
1592:to represent sign languages
1552:Cyrillic phonetic alphabets
1420:s = of acoustic impression
1278:s = of acoustic impression
1110:– phonetic function (i.e.,
459:Types of notational systems
2081:
1921:Landau, Sidney I. (2001).
1854:. Arnold. pp. 142–3.
1626:Canepari, Luciano (2005).
1500:Orthographic transcription
1444:
1196:
1175:p = partial (continuants)
1123:
18:
1963:Readings in Linguistics 1
1950:. University of Michigan.
1720:Pike, Kenneth L. (1943).
1676:Jespersen, Otto. (1889).
1489:English Phonetic Alphabet
1368:= degree of articulation
1240:= degree of articulation
1132:a = air-stream mechanism
745:. If it is essentially a
570:Readings in Linguistics 1
1965:. University of Chicago.
1596:Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
1464:= function phonetically
1382:v = with cavity friction
1346:= point of articulation
1317:= point of articulation
1218:= point of articulation
1158:= controlling mechanism
549:Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
524:for a generic version.)
357:allophonic transcription
2043:Principles of Phonetics
1827:Principles of Phonetics
1800:Crystal, David (1997).
1433:= shape of articulator
1390:= type of articulation
1339:(Features of stricture)
1310:(Features of stricture)
1291:= shape of articulator
1256:= type of articulation
1211:(Features of stricture)
1129:= productive mechanism
870:Alexander Melville Bell
199:phonetic transcriptions
101:more precise citations.
2026:Jones, Daniel (1967).
1961:Joos, M., ed. (1957).
1946:Pike, Kenneth (1947).
1753:Sweet, Henry. (1971).
1520:Pronunciation spelling
1161:V = valvate stricture
1100:– segment type (i.e.,
856:
681:may be transcribed as
489:
410:as a vowel resembling
352:phonetic transcription
343:Phonemic transcription
229:Phonetic transcription
196:This article contains
2001:Roach, Peter (2009).
1730:Phonetic symbol guide
1584:RFE Phonetic Alphabet
1577:IPA chart for English
854:
487:
472:(notations which are
2041:Laver, John (1994).
1825:Laver, John (1994).
1777:Don't Believe a Word
1470:s = syllabic contoid
1409:= relative strength
1267:= relative strength
897:(1889) and American
667:alveolar approximant
628:narrow transcription
335:narrow transcription
311:phonemic orthography
1911:, pp. 111–112.
1399:v = vibratory trill
1302:(Rank of stricture)
1200:(Rank of stricture)
837:⟨jet⟩
624:broad transcription
553:Caucasian languages
547:(here known as the
331:broad transcription
2063:Phonetic alphabets
1884:. Merriam-Webster.
1685:E. J. A. Henderson
1680:. Marburg: Elwert.
1536:Notational systems
1184:n = resonant nasal
1164:o = oral stricture
857:
603:recommends that a
490:
257:Versus orthography
2012:978-0-521-71740-3
1987:978-0-85224-028-1
1932:978-0-521-78512-9
1811:978-0-521-55050-5
1786:978-1-4746-0843-5
1739:978-0-226-68531-1
1713:978-0-19-507993-7
1669:978-0-521-65236-0
1637:978-3-89586-480-3
1505:Phonetic spelling
1480:
1479:
1450:= segmental type
1178:v = nonfrictional
887:chemical formulas
872:(Ellis 1869:15).
818:exclamation marks
760:A double slash ("
749:, these would be
406:) and the second
237:phonetic notation
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744:
743:|bɛds|
740:
739:|pɛts|
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1360:g = vocal folds
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841:transliteration
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1456:p = perceptual
1454:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1393:i = iterative
1385:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1357:= articulator
1352:
1351:
1350:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1328:= articulator
1323:
1322:
1321:
1312:
1306:S = secondary
1304:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1251:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1232:t = tongue tip
1229:= articulator
1224:
1223:
1222:
1213:
1205:
1202:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1179:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1135:I = initiator
1116:
1115:
1105:
1095:
1024:
1014:
1000:
999:
909:alveolar nasal
895:Otto Jespersen
877:
874:
866:Visible Speech
855:Visible Speech
848:
845:
829:angle brackets
596:
593:
481:
478:
460:
457:
420:L-vocalization
326:
323:
258:
255:
245:) by means of
219:⟩, see
195:
194:
193:
190:
189:
172:
171:
151:the key points
141:
139:
132:
125:
124:
79:
77:
70:
65:
39:
38:
36:
29:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2076:
2075:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1861:0-340-70010-6
1857:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1836:0-521-45655-X
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1807:
1803:
1796:
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1778:
1771:
1768:
1761:
1756:
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1715:
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1700:
1697:
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1665:
1661:
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1597:
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1518:
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1498:
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1398:
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1356:
1353:
1348:
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1330:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1319:
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1316:
1313:
1311:
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1303:
1300:
1293:
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1287:
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1263:
1258:
1257:
1255:
1252:
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1236:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
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1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1146:e = egressive
1145:
1144:
1142:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
914:
913:
912:
910:
907:
904:
900:
896:
891:
888:
883:
875:
873:
871:
867:
862:
853:
846:
844:
842:
834:
830:
826:
821:
819:
775:
771:
767:
758:
748:
736:
731:
728:are separate
711:
707:
703:
702:morphological
699:
694:
680:
676:
672:
668:
660:
654:
644:
639:
636:
631:
629:
625:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
594:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
573:
571:
567:
563:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
523:
519:
518:
513:
512:
508:
504:
499:
495:
486:
479:
477:
475:
471:
467:
458:
456:
453:
448:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
415:
405:
401:
395:
389:
379:
374:
370:
360:
358:
353:
349:
344:
340:
336:
332:
324:
322:
318:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:pronunciation
256:
254:
252:
248:
244:
243:
238:
234:
230:
222:
210:
206:
204:
200:
186:
183:
168:
165:December 2019
158:
152:
150:
145:
140:
136:
131:
130:
121:
118:
110:
100:
96:
90:
89:
83:
78:
69:
68:
63:
61:
54:
53:
48:
47:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
2042:
2036:
2027:
2021:
2002:
1996:
1977:
1971:
1962:
1956:
1947:
1941:
1922:
1916:
1904:
1891:
1879:
1870:
1851:
1845:
1826:
1820:
1801:
1795:
1776:
1770:
1754:
1747:
1729:
1721:
1703:
1695:
1688:
1677:
1659:
1652:
1645:
1627:
1619:
1613:Bibliography
1525:Romanization
1461:
1447:
1430:
1406:
1387:
1371:t = in time
1365:
1354:
1343:
1338:
1325:
1314:
1309:
1301:
1288:
1264:
1253:
1243:t = in time
1237:
1226:
1221:a = alveolar
1215:
1210:
1207:P = primary
1199:
1155:
1126:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1006:
1001:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
899:Kenneth Pike
892:
882:analphabetic
881:
879:
876:Analphabetic
860:
858:
832:
824:
822:
812:, where the
759:
746:
734:
709:
705:
695:
678:
655:
642:
640:
634:
632:
627:
623:
621:
598:
588:
574:
569:
565:
526:
515:
501:
491:
473:
470:Analphabetic
469:
465:
462:
449:
440:
435:
430:tends to be
427:
423:
400:glottal stop
368:
367:in the word
361:
356:
351:
342:
334:
330:
328:
319:
315:
307:relationship
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
260:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:
215:and ⟨
198:
197:
178:
162:
146:
144:lead section
113:
104:
85:
57:
50:
44:
43:Please help
40:
1607:Teuthonista
1494:Eye dialect
1349:g = glottal
774:lexical set
766:diaphonemic
651:/ˈprɛts.əl/
647:/ˈprɛts.l̩/
557:Americanist
267:orthography
99:introducing
1762:References
1750:, 177–235.
1423:n = normal
1415:n = normal
1281:n = normal
1273:n = normal
1259:n = normal
1181:n = nasal
922:VoeIpvnnAP
770:diasystems
720:. Because
517:respelling
480:Alphabetic
466:Alphabetic
452:diacritics
339:allophones
82:references
46:improve it
1948:Phonemics
1510:Phonetics
1396:t = trill
1331:v = velic
1320:v = velic
1023:VoeIpvnn)
645:could be
566:Phonemics
149:summarize
107:June 2018
52:talk page
2057:Category
1876:"little"
1687:(Eds.),
1483:See also
1453:r = real
1436:f = flat
1379:w = wide
1374:l = long
1294:f = flat
1246:l = long
1204:A = acme
903:syllabic
833:chevrons
730:phonemes
683:/tʃɝːtʃ/
613:phonemic
605:phonetic
562:digraphs
445:/ˈlɪtᵊl/
348:phonemes
213:/ /
209:Help:IPA
1572:X-SAMPA
1547:ARPABET
1046:ansnsfS
942:ansnsfS
643:pretzel
635:pretzel
617:slashes
577:Ext-IPA
541:Semitic
498:history
303:Italian
299:Spanish
295:through
275:Tibetan
271:English
247:symbols
201:in the
95:improve
2009:
1984:
1929:
1897:Little
1858:
1833:
1808:
1783:
1736:
1710:
1666:
1634:
1013:aIlDe)
906:voiced
861:iconic
847:Iconic
805:, and
803:⫽træp⫽
796:⫽pɑːm⫽
718:/bɛdz/
714:/pɛts/
679:church
583:, and
551:) and
545:Uralic
533:Slavic
441:little
436:little
432:higher
428:little
424:little
402:; see
388:dark L
369:little
291:though
242:phones
217:
84:, but
1598:(UPA)
1567:SAMPA
918:aIlDe
810:⫽baθ⫽
698:pipes
691:/crc/
687:/crc/
675:SAMPA
671:ASCII
659:trill
537:Indic
416:]
412:[
396:]
392:[
386:as a
380:]
376:[
371:as a
287:cough
283:tough
279:bough
205:(IPA)
2007:ISBN
1982:ISBN
1927:ISBN
1856:ISBN
1831:ISBN
1806:ISBN
1781:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1708:ISBN
1664:ISBN
1632:ISBN
1090:ansn
1082:tlwv
1066:anss
986:ansn
978:tlwv
962:anss
807:BATH
800:TRAP
793:PALM
789:TRAP
785:BATH
781:PALM
777:BATH
753:and
741:and
724:and
716:and
710:beds
708:and
706:pets
599:The
581:VoQS
492:The
333:and
301:and
293:and
273:and
261:The
1114:Ss)
1104:rp)
1086:itv
1058:tlv
982:itv
954:tlv
859:In
831:or
825:jet
814:⫽a⫽
726:/z/
722:/s/
663:/ɹ/
649:or
589:IPA
587:'s
488:IPA
474:not
443:is
408:/l/
398:(a
384:/l/
373:tap
365:/t/
313:).
235:or
2059::
1878:.
1094:f)
1070:fT
1038:tl
998:Ss
994:rp
966:fT
934:tl
843:.
835::
798:,
762:⫽⫽
757:.
693:.
591:.
579:,
543:,
539:,
535:,
509:,
505:,
359:.
289:,
285:,
281:,
253:.
55:.
2015:.
1990:.
1935:.
1895:"
1886:.
1864:.
1839:.
1814:.
1789:.
1742:.
1716:.
1672:.
1640:.
1462:F
1448:S
1431:s
1407:r
1388:t
1366:d
1355:a
1344:p
1326:a
1315:p
1289:s
1265:r
1254:t
1238:d
1227:a
1216:p
1156:C
1127:M
1112:F
1108:F
1102:S
1098:S
1092:s
1088:r
1084:t
1080:d
1078:g
1076:a
1074:g
1072:p
1068:s
1064:r
1062:n
1060:t
1056:d
1054:v
1052:a
1050:v
1048:p
1044:r
1042:n
1040:t
1036:d
1034:t
1032:a
1030:a
1028:p
1021:C
1017:C
1011:M
1007:M
996:F
992:S
990:f
988:s
984:r
980:t
976:d
974:g
972:a
970:g
968:p
964:s
960:r
958:n
956:t
952:d
950:v
948:a
946:v
944:p
940:r
938:n
936:t
932:d
930:t
928:a
926:a
924:p
920:C
916:M
747:z
735:s
418:(
414:o
394:ʔ
378:ɾ
346:(
223:.
185:)
179:(
167:)
163:(
153:.
120:)
114:(
109:)
105:(
91:.
62:)
58:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
