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unlike between printed words, no spaces occur between spoken words. Thus if an infant hears the sound sequence “thisisacup,” they have to learn to segment this stream into the distinct units “this”, “is”, “a”, and “cup.” Once "cup" is able to be extracted from the speech stream, the child has to assign a meaning to this word. Furthermore, the child has to be able to distinguish the sequence “cup” from “cub” in order to learn that these are two distinct words with different meanings. Finally, the child has to learn to produce these words. The acquisition of native language
885:. The infant's tongue fills the entire mouth, thus reducing the range of movement. As the facial skeleton grows, the range for movement increases, which probably contributes to the increased variety of sounds infants start to produce. Development of muscles and sensory receptors also gives infants more control over sound production. The limited movement possible by the infant jaw and mouth might be responsible for the typical consonant-vowel (CV) alternation in
161:
sounds in a language (such as prevoiced /d/ in
Spanish) occur often and infants can learn them from mere exposure to them in the speech they hear. All of this occurs before infants are aware of the meaning of any of the words they are exposed to, and therefore the phenomenon of statistical learning has been used to argue for the fact that infants can learn sound contrasts without meaning being attached to them.
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525:”. At 20 months of age, when presented with three familiar objects (e.g., a ball, a bottle and a cup) and one unfamiliar object (e.g., an egg piercer), children are able to conclude that in the request “Can I have the zib,” zib must refer to the unfamiliar object, i.e., the egg piercer, even if they have never heard that
599:/fol/ and /fir/ would be liked by a puppet whose favorite sound is /f/. 4-year-olds are less successful at this task if the onset of the syllable contains a consonant cluster, such as /fr/ or /fl/. Liberman et al. found that no 4-year-olds and only 17% of 5-year-olds were able to tap out the number of
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to the first word children also produce “protowords”, i.e., invented words that are used consistently to express specific meanings, but that are not real words in the children's target language. Around 12–14 months of age children produce their first word. Infants close to one year of age are able to
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These results show that at the age of 6 months infants are sensitive to how often certain sounds occur in the language they are exposed to and they can learn which cues are important to pay attention to from these differences in frequency of occurrence. In natural language exposure this means typical
85:
Infants up to 10–12 months can distinguish not only native sounds but also nonnative contrasts. Older children and adults lose the ability to discriminate some nonnative contrasts. Thus, it seems that exposure to one's native language causes the perceptual system to be restructured. The restructuring
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Of course, the reason why children need to learn the sound distinctions of their language is because then they also have to learn the meaning associated with those different sounds. Young children have a remarkable ability to learn meanings for the words they extract from the speech they are exposed
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With increasing exposure to the ambient language, infants learn not to pay attention to sound distinctions that are not meaningful in their native language, e.g., two acoustically different versions of the vowel /i/ that simply differ because of inter-speaker variability. By 6 months of age infants
840:
A study by
Gathercole and Baddeley (1989) showed the importance of sound for early word meaning. They tested the phonological memory of 4- and 5-year-old children, i.e., how well these children were able to remember a sequence of unfamiliar sounds. They found that children with better phonological
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placement, such as ‘HOT dog’ vs. ‘hot DOG’ until around 12 years of age. Children in a study by Vogel and Raimy (2002) were asked to show which of two pictures (i.e., a dog or a sausage) was being named. Children younger than 12 years generally preferred the compound reading (i.e., the sausage) to
29:
Sound is at the beginning of language learning. Children have to learn to distinguish different sounds and to segment the speech stream they are exposed to into units – eventually meaningful units – in order to acquire words and sentences. One reason that speech segmentation is challenging is that
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until school age. Another explanation is that individual sounds do not easily translate into beats, which makes clapping individual phonemes a much more difficult task than clapping syllables. One reason why phoneme awareness gets much better once children start school is because learning to read
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in their native language. Their perceptual system has been tuned to the contrasts relevant in their native language. As for word comprehension, Fenson et al. (1994) tested 10-11-month-old children's comprehension vocabulary size and found a range from 11 words to 154 words. At this age, children
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pattern, which is the most common stress pattern in the
English language, but they were not able to segment out words that follow a weak-strong pattern. In the sequence ‘guitar is’ these infants thus heard ‘taris’ as the word-unit because it follows a strong-weak pattern. The process that allows
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The size of the production vocabulary ranges from about 50 to 550 words at the age of 2 years. Influences on the rate of word learning, and thus on the wide range of vocabulary sizes of children of the same age, include the amount of speech children are exposed to by their caregivers as well as
69:
of speech). For example, the sounds /b/ and /p/ differ in the amount of breathiness that follows the opening of the lips. Using a computer generated continuum in breathiness between /b/ and /p/, Eimas et al. (1971) showed that
English-learning infants paid more attention to differences near the
832:
differences in how rich the vocabulary in the speech a child hears is. Children also seem to build up their vocabulary faster if the speech they hear is related to their focus of attention more often. This would be the case if a caregiver talks about a ball the child is currently looking at.
503:
like these already soon after birth, only now are they able to distinguish them if they are presented to them as meaningful words rather than just a sequence of sounds. Children are also able to detect mispronunciations such as ‘vaby’ for ‘baby’. Recognition has been found to be poorer for
469:
Children are able to distinguish newly learned ‘words’ associated with objects if they are not similar-sounding, such as ‘lif’ and ‘neem’. They cannot distinguish similar-sounding newly learned words such as ‘bih’ and ‘dih’, however. So, while children at this age are able to distinguish
451:
At the age of 1, children only just begin to speak, and their utterances are not adult-like yet at all. Children's perceptual abilities are still developing, too. In fact, both production and perception abilities continue to develop well into the school years, with the perception of some
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begin to function. The limbic system is known to be involved in the expression of emotion, and cooing in infants is associated with a feeling of contentedness. Further development of the limbic system might be responsible for the onset of laughter around 16 weeks of age. The
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begins in the womb and isn't completely adult-like until the teenage years. Perceptual abilities (such as being able to segment “thisisacup” into four individual word units) usually precede production and thus aid the development of speech production.
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the phrasal reading (the dog). The authors concluded from this that children start out with a lexical bias, i.e., they prefer to interpret phrases like these as single words, and the ability to override this bias develops until late in childhood.
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Even though children do not produce their first words until they are approximately 12 months old, the ability to produce speech sounds starts to develop at a much younger age. Stark (1980) distinguishes five stages of early speech development:
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at a purely phonological level, if the discrimination task is paired with word meaning, the additional cognitive load required by learning the word meanings leaves them unable to spend the extra effort on distinguishing the similar phonology.
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before. Children as young as 15 months can complete this task successfully if the experiment is conducted with fewer objects. This task shows that children aged 15 to 20 months can assign meaning to a new word after only a single exposure.
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Children's production vocabulary size at this age is typically around 50 words, although there is great variation in vocabulary size among children in the same age group, with a range between 0 and 160 words for the majority of children.
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Babies prefer to hear their own name to similar-sounding words. It is possible that they have associated the meaning “me” with their name, although it is also possible that they simply recognize the form because of its high frequency.
285:
486:
Children's comprehension vocabulary size ranges from about 92 to 321 words. The production vocabulary size at this age is typically around 50 words. This shows that comprehension vocabulary grows faster than production vocabulary.
372:(e.g., ). At this stage, infants’ productions resemble speech much more closely in timing and vocal behaviors than at earlier stages. Starting around 6 months babies also show an influence of the ambient language in their
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Children's productions become more consistent around the age of 18 months. When their words differ from adult forms, these differences are more systematic than before. These systematic transformations are referred to as
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boundary between /b/ and /p/ than to equal-sized differences within the /b/-category or within the /p/-category. Their measure, monitoring infant sucking-rate, became a major experimental method for studying infant
534:
is a necessary ability for children to acquire the number of words they have to learn during the first few years of life: Children acquire an average of nine words per day between 18 months and 6 years of age.
153:/t/ continuum (similar to the /d/ - /t/ distinction in Spanish) with the majority of the tokens occurring near the endpoints of the continuum, i.e., showing extreme prevoicing versus long voice onset times (
551:. Phonological awareness does continue to develop until the first years of school. For example, only about half of the 4- and 5-year-olds tested by Liberman et al. (1974) were able to tap out the number of
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memory also had larger vocabularies at both ages. Moreover, phonological memory at age 4 predicted the children's vocabulary at age 5, even with earlier vocabulary and nonverbal intelligence factored out.
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and it has even been suggested that the predominance of CV syllables in the languages of the world might evolutionarily have been caused by this limited range of movements of the human vocal organs.
603:(individual sounds) in a word. 70% of 6-year-olds were able to do so. This might mean that children are aware of syllables as units of speech early on, while they don't show awareness of individual
924:. Neurological development of higher brain structures coincides with certain developments in infants’ vocalizations. For example, the onset of cooing at 6 to 8 weeks happens as some areas of the
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Children do not utter their first words until they are about 1 year old, but already at birth they can tell some utterances in their native language from utterances in languages with different
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Infants are able to extract meaningful distinctions in the language they are exposed to from statistical properties of that language. For example, if
English-learning infants are exposed to a
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to adult-directed speech. Whereas 1-month-olds only exhibit this preference if the full speech signal is played to them, 4-month-old infants prefer infant-directed speech even when just the
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is made up of the vowel and all following consonants. For example, the onset in the word ‘dog’ is /d/ and the rime is /og/. Children at 3–4 years of age were able to tell that the
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While children generally don't understand the meaning of most single words yet, they understand the meaning of certain phrases they hear a lot, such as “Stop it,” or “Come here.”
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Fig. 1. Sucking rate for 20 ms VOT change across category boundary (left), 20 ms VOT change within category (middle), without VOT change (right). After Eimas et al.(1971).
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features of the ambient language to break the speech stream they are exposed to into meaningful units, e.g., they are better able to distinguish sounds that occur in
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that get put together online when uttering them. This is suggested by the fact that infants at this age may produce the same sounds differently in different words.
321:, with the first back consonants (e.g., , ) being produced around 2–3 months, and front consonants (e.g., , , ) starting to appear around 6 months of age. As for
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The developmental changes in infants’ vocalizations over the first year of life are influenced by physical developments during that time. Physical growth of the
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information in the speech directed at them. By 4 months, finally, infants have learned which features they have to pay attention to at the suprasegmental level.
1778:
Werker, J. F.; C. T. Fennel, K. M. Corcoran, C. L. Stager (2002). "Infants' ability to learn phonetically similar words: Effects of age and vocabulary size".
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Infants usually produce their first word around 12 –14 months of age. First words are simple in structure and contain the same sounds that were used in late
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Infants produce cooing sounds when they are content. Cooing is often triggered by social interaction with caregivers and resembles the production of vowels.
137:
869:, brain development, and development of neurological structures responsible for vocalization are factors for the development of infants’ vocal productions.
157:) they are better at discriminating these sounds than infants who are exposed primarily to tokens from the center of the continuum (unimodal distribution).
2302:
Gathercole, S. E.; A. D. Baddeley (1989). "Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study".
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normally have not yet begun to speak and thus have no production vocabulary. So clearly, comprehension vocabulary develops before production vocabulary.
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sounds different depending on which languages they hear. For example, French learning 9-10 month-olds have been found to produce a bigger proportion of
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to, i.e., to map meaning onto the sounds. Often children already associate a meaning with a new word after only one exposure. This is referred to as “
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Jusczyk, P. W.; A. D. Friederici, J. M. I. Wessels, V. Y. Svenkerud (1993). "Infants' sensitivity to the soundpatterns of native language words".
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These earliest vocalizations include crying and vegetative sounds such as breathing, sucking or sneezing. For these vegetative sounds, infants’
1573:
Stark, R. E. (1980). "Stages of speech development in the first year of life". In Yeni-Komshian, G. H.; J. F. Kavanagh, C. A. Ferguson (eds.).
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Mehler, J.; P. Jusczyk, G. Lambertz, N. Halsted, J. Bertoncini, C. Amiel-Tison (1988). "A precursor of language acquisition in young infants".
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Werker, J. F.; R. C. Tees (1984). "Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life".
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length or tension at the end of the vocalization, or both. At 3 to 9 months infants don't seem to be able to control these movements yet.
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MacNeilage, P. F.; B. L. Davis (2001). "Motor mechanisms in speech ontogeny: phylogenetic, neurobiological and linguistic implications".
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Werker, J F; R C Tees (1984). "Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life".
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in early infant utterances, infants between 3 and 9 months of age produce primarily flat, falling and rising-falling contours. Rising
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Infants produce a variety of vowel- and consonant-like sounds that they combine into increasingly longer sequences. The production of
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Fenson, L.; P. S. Dale; J. S. Reznick; E. Bates; D. J. Thal; S. J. Pethick (1994). "Variability in early communicative development".
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vibrate and air passes through their vocal apparatus, thus familiarizing infants with processes involved in later speech production.
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2011:
Liberman, I. Y.; D. Shankweiler, F. W. Fischer, B. Carter (1974). "Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child".
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Fig. 3. Infant vocal tract: H = hard palate, S = soft palate, T = tongue, J = jaw, E = epiglottis, G = glottis; After Vihman (1996)
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Fig. 4. Adult vocal tract: H = hard palate, S = soft palate, T = tongue, J = jaw, E = epiglottis, G = glottis; After Vihman (1996)
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Maye, J.; J. F. Werker, L. Gerken (2002). "Infant sensitivity to distributional information can affect phonetic discrimination".
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At 7.5 months
English-learning infants have been shown to be able to segment words from speech that show a strong-weak (i.e.,
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The differences between the vocal tract of infants and adults can be seen in figure 3 (infants) and figure 4 (adults) below.
2225:
Walley, A. C. (1993). "The role of vocabulary development in children's spoken word recognition and segmentation ability".
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in multisyllabic words, but 90% of the 6-year-olds were able to do so. Most 3- to 4-year-olds are able to break simple
1950:
Markman, E. M.; J. L. Wasow, M. B. Hansen (2003). "Use of the mutual exclusivity assumption by young word learners".
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mispronounced than for correctly pronounced words. This suggests that infants’ representations of familiar words are
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in adult
Jamaican Creole: “yellow yellow” = “very yellow” ). Some common phonological processes are listed below.
2154:
Vogel, I.; E. Raimy (2002). "The acquisition of compound vs. phrasal stress: the role of prosodic constituents".
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Bryant, P. E.; L. Bradley, M. Maclean, J. Crossland (1989). "Nursery rhymes, phonological skills and reading".
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Swingley, D.; R. N. Asley (2000). "Spoken word recognition and lexical representation in very young children".
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128:, such as an /i/ spoken by a male versus a female speaker, as members of the same phonological category /i/.
2020:
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Kent, R. D.; A. D. Murray (1982). "Acoustic features of infant vocalic utterances at 3, 6, and 9 months".
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499:’, even if they are phonologically similar, e.g. ‘bih’ and ‘dih’. While infants are able to distinguish
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230:
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165:
103:
49:
1647:
Oller, D. K. (1986). "Metaphonology and infant vocalizations". In
Lindblom, B.; R. Zetterstrom (eds.).
757:: production of two identical syllables based on one of the target word syllables, e.g., for ‘bottle’
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Infants now can no longer discriminate most nonnative sound contrasts that fall within the same sound
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Karzon, R. G. (1985). "Discrimination of polysyllabic sequences by one- to four-month-old infants".
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933:, finally, which develops later than the abovementioned structures may be necessary for canonical
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very precise. This result has also been taken to suggest that infants move from a word-based to a
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patterns in the speech they are exposed and they have learned that these patterns are meaningful.
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1975:
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Carey, S. (1978). "The child as a word learner". In Halle, M.; J. Bresnan, G. A. Miller (eds.).
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Mervis, C. B.; J. Bertrand (1994). "Acquisition of the novel name-nameless category principle".
766:: a target word consonant takes on features of another target word consonant, e.g., for ‘duck’
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Eimas, P. D.; E. R. Siqueland, P. Jusczyk, J. Vigorito (1971). "Speech perception in infants".
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have learned to treat acoustically different sounds that are representations of the same sound
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Kuhl, P. K. (1983). "Perception of auditory equivalence classes for speech in early infancy".
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684:. The lexical items they produce are probably stored as whole words rather than as individual
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Treiman, R. (1985). "Onsets and rimes as units of spoken syllables: Evidence from children".
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patterns in their native language at 7–8 months, they are not able to reliably distinguish
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are played. This shows that between 1 and 4 months of age, infants improve in tracking the
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Infants as young as 1 month perceive some speech sounds as speech categories (they display
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921:
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1198:; P. K. Kuhl (1987). "Acoustic determinants of infant preference for motherese speech".
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cues in speech input to learn about language structure has been termed “prosodic
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Dollaghan, C. (1985). "Child meets word: "Fast mapping" in preschool children".
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processes”, and often resemble processes that are typically common in the adult
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provides a visual aid as how to break up words into their smaller constituents.
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being influenced by the language being acquired has been called babbling drift.
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Hoff, E.; L. Naigles (2002). "How children use input to acquire a lexicon".
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Signal to Syntax: Bootstrapping from Speech to
Grammar in Early Acquisition
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refers to how children learn to organize sounds into meaning or language (
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773:: omission of a consonant in a target word cluster, e.g., for ‘cracker’
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Infants can distinguish native from nonnative language input using
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than
English learning infants of the same age. This phenomenon of
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sounds (already in the first 2 months) precedes the production of
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in addition to flat, falling, and rising-falling pitch contours.
176:. This means that at 6 months infants have some knowledge of the
1381:"The beginning of word segmentation in English-learning infants"
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are smaller, and initially also shaped differently from adults’
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awareness, i.e., they are interested in word play, rhyming, and
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features not being fully developed until about 12 years of age.
77:
1227:"Infants' recognition of the sound patterns of their own names"
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10-14 months: Nonreduplicated babbling (or variegated babbling)
292:
A 14-week-old infant cooing as she interacts with a caregiver (
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Phonological Development. The Origins of Language in the Child
1664:"VOT in the babbling of French- and English-learning infants"
2256:. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, PhD Dissertation.
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The Phonology and Phonetics of Jamaican Creole Reduplication
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Segment substitution processes (into the early school years)
1454:
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
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6-10 months: Reduplicated babbling (or canonical babbling)
2329:
Sander, E. K. (1972). "When are speech sounds learned?".
1002:"Babies learn words before birth | Humans | Science News"
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reflects the system of contrasts in the native language.
2006:
2004:
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words continues to improve throughout middle childhood.
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cues. They seem to have learned their native language's
853:. Their ability to produce complex sound sequences and
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At 18–20 months infants can distinguish newly learned ‘
1662:
Whalen, D. H.; A. G. Levitt, L. M. Goldstein (2007).
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Biological foundations of infants’ speech development
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strings. At this stage, infants also produce various
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that are repeated in reduplicated series of the same
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654:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
512:-based phonological system around 18 months of age.
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Language and Context: The Acquisition of Pragmatics
1225:Mandel, D. R.; P. W. Jusczyk, D. B. Pisoni (1995).
916:Crying and vegetative sounds are controlled by the
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1747:
1711:Brown, R. (1958). "How shall a thing be called?".
1379:Jusczyk, P. W.; D. M. Houston, M. Newsome (1999).
447:Development once speech sets in (1 year and older)
164:At 6 months, infants are also able to make use of
387:(which exist in French but not English) in their
668:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
333:pressure during the vocalization or to increase
1651:. New York, NY: Stockton Press. pp. 21–35.
1577:. New York, NY: Academic Press. pp. 73–92.
434:patterns. During this transitional period from
16:Acquisition of language skills during childhood
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1997:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 264–293.
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138:Statistical learning in language acquisition
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972:. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.
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39:Prelinguistic development (birth – 1 year)
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748:in the target word, e.g., for ‘because’
2064:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
2013:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
1346:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
737:in the target word, e.g., for ‘banana’
543:At 2 years, infants show first signs of
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722:Whole word processes (until age 3 or 4)
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1874:Journal of Speech and Hearing Research
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259:Stages of pre-speech vocal development
1575:Child Phonology. Volume 1: Production
7:
658:. For the distinction between ,
94:At four months infants still prefer
849:Children produce mostly adult-like
329:would require the infants to raise
1243:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1995.tb00517.x
268:0-6 weeks: Reflexive vocalizations
14:
1428:Morgan, J. L.; K. Demuth (1996).
920:, which matures earlier than the
26:) during their stages of growth.
1754:. New York, NY: Academic Press.
2366:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1538:Infant Behavior and Development
1460:(5): 1–173, discussion 174–85.
1276:Infant Behavior and Development
1200:Infant Behavior and Development
1160:Infant Behavior and Development
650:International Phonetic Alphabet
301:6-16 weeks: Cooing and laughter
2304:Journal of Memory and Language
1842:11858/00-001M-0000-000E-E627-8
1497:Journal of Memory and Language
1114:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-0DB3-1
714:of the world's languages (cf.
414:Infants now combine different
360:contains consonant-vowel (CV)
1:
2378:10.1016/S0959-4388(01)00271-9
1964:10.1016/S0010-0285(03)00034-3
1833:10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00081-0
1560:10.1016/S0163-6383(84)80022-3
1315:10.1016/S0010-0277(01)00157-3
1288:10.1016/S0163-6383(83)80036-8
1182:10.1016/S0163-6383(84)80022-3
2316:10.1016/0749-596X(89)90044-2
2076:10.1016/0022-0965(85)90034-7
2035:10.1016/0022-0965(74)90101-5
1358:10.1016/0022-0965(85)90044-X
1212:10.1016/0163-6383(87)90017-8
1105:10.1126/science.171.3968.303
1037:10.1016/0010-0277(88)90035-2
567:up into their constituents (
771:Consonant cluster reduction
616:Although children perceive
2434:
1680:10.1016/j.wocn.2006.10.001
1649:Precursors of Early Speech
135:
2168:10.1017/S0305000902005020
2156:Journal of Child Language
2111:10.1017/S0305000900010485
2099:Journal of Child Language
1792:10.1207/s15327078in0301_1
587:preceding the syllable's
2214:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
793:sound, e.g., for ‘key’
744:: omission of the final
742:Final consonant deletion
20:Phonological development
2281:10.1111/1467-8624.00415
1432:. Mahwah, NJ: Earlbaum.
646:phonetic transcriptions
309:16-30 weeks: Vocal play
2239:10.1006/drev.1993.1015
2206:Vihman, M. M. (1996).
1509:10.1006/jmla.1993.1022
1398:10.1006/cogp.1999.0716
908:
900:
823:, e.g., for ‘rabbit’
728:Weak syllable deletion
643:This section contains
297:
96:infant-directed speech
82:
67:categorical perception
61:Categorical perception
1886:10.1044/jshr.2803.454
1231:Psychological Science
906:
898:
291:
80:
2418:Language acquisition
2343:10.1044/jshd.3701.55
2227:Developmental Review
1952:Cognitive Psychology
1713:Psychological Review
1668:Journal of Phonetics
1385:Cognitive Psychology
970:Language development
873:Infants’ vocal tract
628:that differ only in
583:consists of all the
155:bimodal distribution
132:Statistical learning
2252:Gooden, S. (2003).
1607:1982ASAJ...72..353K
1097:1971Sci...171..303E
1006:www.sciencenews.org
968:Erika Hoff (2009).
808:, e.g., for ‘sea’
1746:Bates, E. (1976).
912:The nervous system
909:
901:
298:
83:
2269:Child Development
1909:Child Development
1091:(3968): 303–306.
979:978-0-495-50171-8
819:is replaced by a
804:is replaced by a
789:is replaced by a
763:Consonant harmony
730:: omission of an
563:-consonant (CVC)
289:
72:speech perception
2425:
2398:
2397:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2203:
2188:
2187:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2138:
2130:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2046:
2038:
2028:
2008:
1999:
1998:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1915:(6): 1646–1662.
1904:
1898:
1897:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1844:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1803:
1795:
1775:
1766:
1765:
1753:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1725:10.1037/h0041727
1708:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1615:10.1121/1.388089
1588:
1579:
1578:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1553:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1520:
1512:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1449:
1434:
1433:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1400:
1391:(3–4): 159–207.
1376:
1370:
1369:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1282:(2–3): 263–285.
1271:
1265:
1264:
1254:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1134:
1116:
1080:
1071:
1070:
1064:
1056:
1020:
1014:
1013:
1008:. Archived from
998:
992:
991:
965:
665:
661:
411:
410:
406:
376:, i.e., babies’
353:
352:
348:
290:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2205:
2204:
2191:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2131:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2039:
2026:10.1.1.602.5825
2010:
2009:
2002:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1921:10.2307/1131285
1906:
1905:
1901:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1796:
1777:
1776:
1769:
1762:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1646:
1645:
1638:
1590:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1551:10.1.1.537.6695
1535:
1534:
1530:
1513:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1466:10.2307/1166093
1451:
1450:
1437:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1173:10.1.1.537.6695
1157:
1156:
1152:
1135:
1082:
1081:
1074:
1057:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1000:
999:
995:
980:
967:
966:
947:
943:
914:
875:
863:
847:
838:
829:
779:
724:
703:
694:
678:
673:
672:
671:
639:
614:
541:
518:
493:
484:
467:
462:
449:
439:produce rising
412:
408:
404:
402:
401:
354:
350:
346:
344:
343:
311:
303:
279:
270:
261:
256:
243:
219:
211:
197:infants to use
186:
172:vs. unstressed
140:
134:
121:
112:
92:
63:
58:
46:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2431:
2429:
2421:
2420:
2415:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2372:(6): 696–700.
2356:
2321:
2310:(2): 200–213.
2294:
2275:(2): 418–433.
2259:
2244:
2233:(3): 286–350.
2217:
2189:
2162:(2): 225–250.
2146:
2105:(2): 407–428.
2089:
2070:(1): 181–191.
2054:
2019:(2): 201–212.
2000:
1985:
1958:(3): 241–275.
1942:
1899:
1880:(3): 449–454.
1864:
1827:(2): 147–166.
1811:
1767:
1760:
1738:
1703:
1674:(3): 341–352.
1654:
1636:
1601:(2): 353–363.
1580:
1565:
1528:
1503:(3): 402–420.
1487:
1435:
1420:
1371:
1352:(2): 326–342.
1336:
1309:(3): 101–111.
1293:
1266:
1237:(5): 314–317.
1217:
1206:(3): 279–293.
1187:
1150:
1072:
1031:(2): 143–178.
1015:
1012:on 2013-08-26.
993:
978:
944:
942:
939:
913:
910:
874:
871:
862:
859:
846:
843:
837:
834:
828:
825:
783:Velar fronting
778:
775:
723:
720:
702:
699:
693:
690:
677:
674:
666:⟩, see
642:
641:
640:
638:
635:
613:
610:
540:
537:
517:
514:
492:
489:
483:
480:
466:
463:
461:
458:
448:
445:
441:pitch contours
400:
397:
342:
339:
327:pitch contours
323:pitch contours
310:
307:
302:
299:
269:
266:
260:
257:
255:
252:
242:
239:
218:
215:
210:
207:
185:
182:
136:Main article:
133:
130:
120:
117:
111:
108:
104:suprasegmental
100:pitch contours
91:
88:
62:
59:
57:
54:
45:
42:
40:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2430:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2357:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2050:
2044:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1761:9780120815500
1757:
1752:
1751:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1704:
1699:
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1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1491:
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1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1421:
1416:
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1408:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
997:
994:
989:
985:
981:
975:
971:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
946:
940:
938:
936:
932:
927:
926:limbic system
923:
919:
911:
905:
897:
893:
890:
888:
884:
880:
872:
870:
868:
860:
858:
856:
855:multisyllabic
852:
844:
842:
835:
833:
826:
824:
822:
818:
814:
809:
807:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
776:
774:
772:
767:
765:
764:
758:
756:
755:
754:Reduplication
749:
747:
743:
738:
736:
733:
729:
721:
719:
717:
716:reduplication
713:
709:
700:
698:
691:
689:
687:
683:
675:
669:
657:
653:
651:
647:
636:
634:
631:
627:
623:
619:
611:
609:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
549:alliterations
546:
538:
536:
533:
528:
524:
515:
513:
511:
507:
502:
498:
490:
488:
481:
479:
476:
475:minimal pairs
473:
464:
459:
457:
455:
446:
444:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
407:
398:
396:
394:
390:
386:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
356:Reduplicated
349:
340:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
308:
306:
300:
295:
277:
275:
267:
265:
258:
253:
251:
248:
240:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
216:
214:
208:
206:
204:
203:bootstrapping
200:
195:
191:
183:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
162:
158:
156:
152:
149:
145:
139:
131:
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127:
118:
116:
109:
107:
105:
101:
97:
89:
87:
79:
75:
73:
68:
60:
55:
53:
51:
43:
38:
36:
33:
27:
25:
21:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2337:(1): 55–63.
2334:
2330:
2324:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2253:
2247:
2230:
2226:
2220:
2209:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2135:cite journal
2102:
2098:
2092:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2043:cite journal
2016:
2012:
1994:
1988:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1800:cite journal
1783:
1779:
1749:
1741:
1719:(1): 14–21.
1716:
1712:
1706:
1671:
1667:
1657:
1648:
1598:
1592:
1574:
1568:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1517:cite journal
1500:
1496:
1490:
1457:
1453:
1429:
1423:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1306:
1302:
1296:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1203:
1199:
1190:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1139:cite journal
1088:
1084:
1061:cite journal
1028:
1024:
1018:
1010:the original
1005:
996:
969:
931:motor cortex
915:
891:
883:vocal tracts
879:vocal tracts
876:
864:
848:
839:
830:
812:
810:
797:
795:
782:
780:
770:
768:
761:
759:
752:
750:
741:
739:
727:
725:
708:phonological
704:
695:
679:
676:12-14 months
662:and ⟨
644:
615:
545:phonological
542:
532:Fast mapping
523:fast mapping
519:
516:Fast-mapping
506:phonetically
494:
491:18-20 months
485:
472:monosyllabic
468:
450:
413:
355:
312:
304:
293:
271:
262:
244:
241:10-12 months
235:phonotactics
220:
212:
187:
163:
159:
141:
122:
113:
93:
84:
64:
47:
28:
19:
18:
1196:Fernald, A.
867:vocal tract
712:phonologies
274:vocal cords
227:phonotactic
151:unaspirated
2407:Categories
941:References
918:brain stem
732:unstressed
637:Production
624:words and
591:, and the
585:consonants
527:pseudoword
460:Perception
432:intonation
420:consonants
335:vocal fold
331:subglottal
319:consonants
294:51 seconds
254:Production
52:features.
44:Perception
2413:Phonology
2021:CiteSeerX
1821:Cognition
1546:CiteSeerX
1544:: 49–63.
1303:Cognition
1168:CiteSeerX
1166:: 49–63.
1025:Cognition
988:759925056
802:fricative
746:consonant
701:18 months
692:16 months
565:syllables
557:consonant
553:syllables
539:2–6 years
501:syllables
482:16 months
465:14 months
382:prevoiced
366:consonant
362:syllables
174:syllables
148:voiceless
144:prevoiced
32:phonology
24:phonology
2394:34697879
2386:11741020
2289:11949900
2176:12109370
2127:28419790
1980:42489580
1972:14559217
1851:10856741
1786:: 1–30.
1733:13505978
1698:19641636
1631:12186661
1415:12097435
1407:10631011
1323:11747867
1261:25152566
1131:15554065
1053:43126875
935:babbling
887:babbling
877:Infants
851:segments
798:Stopping
735:syllable
686:segments
682:babbling
660:/ /
656:Help:IPA
622:compound
618:rhythmic
612:12 years
605:phonemes
601:phonemes
597:nonwords
581:syllable
454:prosodic
436:babbling
424:syllable
393:babbling
389:babbling
378:babbling
374:babbling
358:babbling
247:category
231:prosodic
223:phonetic
217:9 months
209:8 months
199:prosodic
190:trochaic
184:7 months
170:stressed
166:prosodic
126:category
119:6 months
110:5 months
90:4 months
50:prosodic
2351:5053945
2184:9588933
2119:2760133
2084:3989458
1937:7859547
1929:1131285
1894:4046586
1859:6324150
1780:Infancy
1689:2717044
1623:7119278
1603:Bibcode
1482:7845413
1474:1166093
1366:3989467
1252:4140581
1123:5538846
1093:Bibcode
1085:Science
1045:3168420
845:7 years
836:4 years
827:2 years
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1925:JSTOR
1855:S2CID
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1470:JSTOR
1411:S2CID
1327:S2CID
1127:S2CID
1049:S2CID
821:glide
787:velar
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589:vowel
579:of a
577:onset
569:onset
561:vowel
497:words
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385:stops
370:vowel
315:vowel
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2172:PMID
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1968:PMID
1933:PMID
1890:PMID
1847:PMID
1806:link
1756:ISBN
1729:PMID
1694:PMID
1619:PMID
1523:link
1478:PMID
1403:PMID
1362:PMID
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1257:PMID
1145:link
1119:PMID
1067:link
1041:PMID
984:OCLC
974:ISBN
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593:rime
573:rime
571:and
430:and
418:and
405:edit
368:and
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225:and
2374:doi
2339:doi
2312:doi
2277:doi
2235:doi
2164:doi
2107:doi
2072:doi
2031:doi
1960:doi
1917:doi
1882:doi
1837:hdl
1829:doi
1788:doi
1721:doi
1684:PMC
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1505:doi
1462:doi
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