58:
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348:, and usually a posteroventral organ for attaching to the host animal (which may be an invertebrate or a vertebrate). Astigmatans often live in patchy and ephemeral habitats such as fungal fruiting bodies, dung, carrion, animal nests, tree sap flows and decaying wood. Phoresis allows these mites to quickly leave a depleted habitat and travel to a new one. A specific example is deutonymphs of
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in a single hive, and remains genetically independent of any specific host lineage by travelling to a new hive. This is accomplished by travelling on a foraging bee to a flower and detaching, and waiting for and attaching to another bee which may be from another hive, and infesting the new hive.
200:
advantage from the death of a host (e.g. nutrition). Mutualistic relationships could also develop if the phoront begins to confer a benefit to the host (e.g. predator defense). The evolutionary plasticity of phoretic relationships allow them to potentially add to the complexity and diversity of
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relationships. Phoretic relationships can become parasitic if a cost is inflicted upon the host, such as if the number of mites on a host begins impeding its movement. Parasitic relationships could also be selected from phoretic ones if the phoront gains a
143:(thief). The term, originally defined in 1896 as a relationship in which the host acts as a vehicle for its passenger, clashed with other terminology being developed at the time, so constraints on the length of time, feeding, and
888:
Sabagh, Leandro T.; Dias, Roberto Júnio P.; Branco, Christina W. C.; Rocha, Carlos F. D. (2011-04-28). "News records of phoresy and hyperphoresy among treefrogs, ostracods, and ciliates in bromeliad of
Atlantic forest".
284:
Larvae attach to the attracted males when they visit the false source of pheromones, and then subsequently to any female the male mates with. The blister beetle larvae then infest and parasitize the female bee’s nest.
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to the ostracods, and phoresis allows them to disperse over a wider area than would be available to them otherwise. The term for a phoretic organism riding on another phoretic organism is
212:
prey upon the same species that act as their phoretic host. The behaviours are completely separate however, since the pseudoscorpion utilizes anatomical features used specifically for
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or preys upon the host organism after travel are still considered phoresis, as long as the travel behaviour and the feeding or parasitizing behaviour are separate. Similarly, some
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have a stage of their life cycle (the deutonymph or hypopus) that is modified specifically for phoresis. This stage has reduced mouthparts, a well-sclerotised body that resists
688:
Zeh, David W.; Zeh, Jeanne A. (1992). "On the
Function of Harlequin Beetle-Riding in the Pseudoscorpion, Cordylochernes scorpioides (Pseudoscorpionida: Chernetidae)".
1449:
1134:"A transitional fossil mite (Astigmata: Levantoglyphidae fam. n.) from the early Cretaceous suggests gradual evolution of phoresy-related metamorphosis"
1132:
Klimov, Pavel B.; Vorontsov, Dmitry D.; Azar, Dany; Sidorchuk, Ekaterina A.; Braig, Henk R.; Khaustov, Alexander A.; Tolstikov, Andrey V. (2021-07-23).
384:
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These mites can survive on flowers for up to 24 hours, and have shown a preference for opened flowers, where they would be most likely to find a host.
1352:"Generalist and specialist strategies in macrochelid mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) phoretically associated with dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)"
57:
460:. Evidence suggested, however, that the pseudoscorpions were using beetles to travel from tree to tree, where they preyed upon other beetle larvae.
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1191:"Lardoglyphus zacheri (Acari: Lardoglyphidae), a Pest of Museum Dermestid Colonies, with Observations on Its Natural Ecology and Distribution"
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in the droppings of sloths, which the larvae feed on, and the newly hatched moths move into the forest canopy in search of a new sloth host.
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relationship when an organism (a phoront or phoretic) attaches itself to a host organism solely for travel. It has been seen in
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1021:""An OSU scientist braves an uncharted rainforest in a search for rare and endangered species" in "Expedition to the Edge""
37:
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Liu, Sai; Li, Jianling; Guo, Kun; Qiao, Haili; Xu, Rong; Chen, Jianmin; Xu, Changqing; Chen, Jun (2016-05-06).
79:
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Sabagh, Leandro T.; Rocha, Carlos F. D. (2014-05-06). "Bromeliad treefrogs as phoretic hosts of ostracods".
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Schwarz, H.H.; Huck, K. (1997-11-01). "Phoretic mites use flowers to transfer between foraging bumblebees".
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Houck, M A; OConnor, B M (1991). "Ecological and
Evolutionary Significance of Phoresy in the Astigmata".
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Niogret, Jérôme; Lumaret, Jean-Pierre; Bertrand, Michel (2010). Sabelis, Maurice W.; Bruin, Jan (eds.).
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The strict definition of phoresis excludes cases in which the relationship is permanent (e.g. that of a
156:
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Rau, P (1941). "Observations on certain lepidopterous and hymenopterous parasites of
Polistes wasps".
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when treating the host as prey, but employs anatomical features used for phoresis when travelling.
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with seeds that disperse by attaching themselves to animals are also considered to be phoretic.
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can opportunistically use phoresis to hitch a ride on a fly, and attempt to find a new host.
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were found on the beetles: by accident, to forage for mites inhabiting the beetle, or as an
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715:
Binns, E. S. (1982). "Phoresy as migration--some functional aspects of phoresy in mites ".
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since the 18th century, and in fossils 320 million years old. It is not restricted to
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179:), or those in which the phoront gains any kind of advantage from the host organism (e.g.
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Ecology and
Evolution of Transmission in Feather-feeding Lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)
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820:"Phoretic Nest Parasites Use Sexual Deception to Obtain Transport to Their Host's Nest"
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435:) use the beetles to reach these rich resources, where they themselves reproduce.
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Iverson, Kurt; Oconnor, Barry M.; Ochoa, Ronald; Heckmann, Richard (1996-07-01).
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Dung and carrion are ephemeral habitats that are frequently visited by beetles (
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Poinar Jr., George O.; Curcic, Bozidar P. M.; Cokendolpher, James C. (1998).
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The largest mammalian example of phoresis is human beings directly riding on
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to reach new habitats (both phoront and host feed on animal materials).
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1293:"Phoretic Poecilochirus mites specialize on their burying beetle hosts"
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752:"Seasonal phoresy as an overwintering strategy of a phytophagous mite"
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or other animals, or using them to pull vehicles with humans in them.
452:). Initially, there were a number of alternate hypothesis for why the
980:"Arthropod Phoresy Involving Pseudoscorpions in the Past and Present"
505:"The fossil history of pseudoscorpions (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones)"
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256:. The sloth provides transport for the moths, the females of which
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White, P. Signe; Morran, Levi; de Roode, Jacobus (June 19, 2017).
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attaching to sharks for transportation and food). Phoresis is a
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Nehring, Volker; Müller, Josef K.; Steinmetz, Nadine (2017).
1230:"Fitness costs of phoretic nematodes in the burying beetle,
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Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
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need to find the nests of their host, the solitary bee (
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are now considered. Phoresis is used as a strategy for
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Saul-Gershenz, Leslie S.; Millar, Jocelyn G. (2006).
1195:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
1048:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
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1360:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands: 343–347.
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167:Mutualism, parasitism, and predation
27:Temporary commensalism for transport
617:10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.003143
354:dispersing on beetles in the genus
729:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1982.tb00374.x
657:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00205-8
220:Examples of phoretic relationships
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503:Harms, D.; Dunlop, J. A. (2017).
94:A pseudoscorpion on the leg of a
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163:and complexity of an ecosystem.
370:that parasitizes bumble bees (
263:Larvae of the blister beetle (
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891:Biodiversity and Conservation
224:Examples may be found in the
135:is rooted in the Greek words
1366:10.1007/978-90-481-9837-5_55
605:Annual Review of Entomology
444:is frequently found riding
204:Cases in which the phoront
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1534:Behavior-altering parasite
1150:10.1038/s41598-021-94367-2
690:The Journal of Arachnology
643:Houck, Marilyn A. (2009),
441:Cordylochernes scorpioides
311:sp.), which in turn carry
280:of the female solitary bee
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1544:Host–parasite coevolution
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1095:10.1007/s00114-014-1178-y
1027:. Oregon State University
903:10.1007/s10531-011-0050-z
563:10.1016/j.cub.2017.03.073
86:hitching a ride on a fly.
53:specimen in Baltic amber.
43:Pseudogarypus synchrotron
1232:Nicrophorus vespilloides
1469:biological interactions
845:10.1073/pnas.0603901103
649:Encyclopedia of Insects
524:10.5194/fr-20-215-2017
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1298:Ecology and Evolution
1239:Ecology and Evolution
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949:10.1007/s000400050051
651:, Elsevier: 772–774,
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378:inbreeding depression
239:Bradipodicola hahneli
236:sloth moths, such as
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67:with phoretic mites.
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1559:Parasitic castration
1499:Deception in animals
1431:at Wikimedia Commons
463:If their host dies,
450:Acrocinus longimanus
366:Parasitellus fucorum
161:ecological diversity
30:For other uses, see
1357:Trends in Acarology
1305:(24): 10743–10751.
1087:2014NW....101..493S
1075:Naturwissenschaften
997:10.2476/asjaa.47.79
836:2006PNAS..10314039S
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438:The pseudoscorpion
413:(Rhabditoides) and
363:A specialist mite (
1598:Cleaning symbiosis
1398:. pp. 83–87.
1390:University of Utah
1138:Scientific Reports
1054:(2): 355–366(12).
1025:Terra, Spring 2008
984:Acta Arachnologica
756:Scientific Reports
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327:ecological islands
297:Scinax perpusillus
266:Meloe franciscanus
245:Cryptoses choloepi
153:seasonal migration
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1311:10.1002/ece3.3591
1252:10.1002/ece3.4570
776:10.1038/srep25483
557:(12): R578–R580.
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273:Habropoda pallida
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97:
92:
85:
81:
74:
70:
66:
65:
59:
50:
45:
44:
39:
33:
19:
1489:Commensalism
1394:
1384:
1355:
1345:
1302:
1296:
1286:
1246:(1): 26–35.
1243:
1237:
1231:
1223:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1144:(1): 15113.
1141:
1137:
1127:
1078:
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1068:
1051:
1047:
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1029:. Retrieved
1024:
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990:(2): 79–96.
987:
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940:
936:
894:
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827:
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762:(1): 25483.
759:
755:
745:
720:
716:
710:
696:(1): 47–51.
693:
689:
670:, retrieved
648:
608:
604:
554:
550:
514:
508:
498:
469:
462:
449:
439:
437:
430:
424:
418:
409:). Phoretic
403:dung beetles
400:
392:
371:
364:
362:
355:
351:Lardoglyphus
349:
335:
316:
306:
295:
289:
287:
281:
271:
264:
262:
243:
237:
234:Coprophagous
223:
203:
201:ecosystems.
170:
140:
136:
132:
131:
106:
102:
101:
62:
48:
41:
1524:Synnecrosis
1504:Inquilinism
1494:Competition
1031:14 February
432:Uroobovella
420:Macrocheles
346:desiccation
342:Astigmatina
318:Lagenophrys
206:parasitizes
189:mutualistic
47:Henderickx
1623:Categories
1605:Mycorrhiza
1584:Intraguild
1564:Parasitoid
1529:Parasitism
1519:Neutralism
1484:Amensalism
672:2018-10-14
517:(2): 223.
490:References
278:pheromones
226:arthropods
119:arthropods
1629:Symbiosis
1592:Symbiosis
1577:Carnivore
1571:Predation
1514:Mutualism
1319:2045-7758
1260:2045-7758
1215:1938-2901
1158:2045-2322
1103:0028-1042
1006:0001-5202
957:0020-1812
911:0960-3115
784:2045-2322
645:"Phoresy"
625:0066-4170
547:"Phoresy"
411:nematodes
357:Dermestes
323:bromeliad
303:ostracods
214:predation
193:parasitic
185:commensal
149:dispersal
96:crane fly
69:Botevgrad
32:-phoresis
1429:Phoresis
1392:(2008).
1337:29299254
1278:30680093
1176:34301989
1111:24796544
965:36137431
919:12658034
872:16966608
854:30051982
802:27150196
737:84639744
581:28633022
478:See also
313:ciliates
308:Elpidium
258:oviposit
173:barnacle
145:ontogeny
133:Phoresis
103:Phoresis
73:Bulgaria
1509:Mimicry
1473:ecology
1328:5743630
1269:6342123
1167:8302706
1119:7825145
1083:Bibcode
863:1599908
832:Bibcode
793:4858688
764:Bibcode
702:3705790
572:5749251
250:central
198:fitness
181:remoras
123:animals
107:phoresy
18:Phoresy
1402:
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1335:
1325:
1317:
1276:
1266:
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663:
623:
579:
569:
472:horses
373:Bombus
301:carry
230:sloths
137:phoras
127:plants
51:. 2012
1115:S2CID
961:S2CID
915:S2CID
850:JSTOR
733:S2CID
698:JSTOR
415:mites
397:mites
391:with
338:mites
336:Some
177:whale
61:Male
49:et al
1400:ISBN
1370:ISBN
1333:PMID
1315:ISSN
1274:PMID
1256:ISSN
1211:ISSN
1172:PMID
1154:ISSN
1107:PMID
1099:ISSN
1033:2011
1002:ISSN
953:ISSN
907:ISSN
868:PMID
798:PMID
780:ISSN
661:ISBN
621:ISSN
577:PMID
465:lice
294:and
252:and
242:and
141:phor
1471:in
1362:doi
1323:PMC
1307:doi
1264:PMC
1248:doi
1203:doi
1162:PMC
1146:doi
1091:doi
1079:101
1056:doi
992:doi
945:doi
899:doi
858:PMC
840:doi
828:103
788:PMC
772:doi
725:doi
653:doi
613:doi
567:PMC
559:doi
519:doi
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