Weathering - Knowledge (XXG)

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4 megapascals (580 psi). This makes frost wedging, in which pore water freezes and its volumetric expansion fractures the enclosing rock, appear to be a plausible mechanism for frost weathering. Ice will simply expand out of a straight open fracture before it can generate significant pressure. Thus, frost wedging can only take place in small tortuous fractures. The rock must also be almost completely saturated with water, or the ice will simply expand into the air spaces in the unsaturated rock without generating much pressure. These conditions are unusual enough that frost wedging is unlikely to be the dominant process of frost weathering. Frost wedging is most effective where there are daily cycles of melting and freezing of water-saturated rock, so it is unlikely to be significant in the tropics, in polar regions or in arid climates.

696:, is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical change. Physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments through processes such as expansion and contraction, mainly due to temperature changes. Two types of physical breakdown are freeze-thaw weathering and thermal fracturing. Pressure release can also cause weathering without temperature change. It is usually much less important than chemical weathering, but can be significant in subarctic or alpine environments. Furthermore, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks extended by physical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action, thus amplifying the rate of disintegration. 1680:

break into H+ that bonds to exposed anions (usually oxygen) and OH- that bonds to exposed cations. This further disrupts the surface, making it susceptible to various hydrolysis reactions. Additional protons replace cations exposed on the surface, freeing the cations as solutes. As cations are removed, silicon-oxygen and silicon-aluminium bonds become more susceptible to hydrolysis, freeing silicic acid and aluminium hydroxides to be leached away or to form clay minerals. Laboratory experiments show that weathering of feldspar crystals begins at dislocations or other defects on the surface of the crystal, and that the weathering layer is only a few atoms thick. Diffusion within the mineral grain does not appear to be significant.

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inorganic nutrients. A large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect has been demonstrated. The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules.

1582: 1034: 1977: 1806: 4080: 4229: 542: 84: 4842: 1006:. In effect, chemical weathering changes the original set of minerals in the rock into a new set of minerals that is in closer equilibrium with surface conditions. True equilibrium is rarely reached, because weathering is a slow process, and leaching carries away solutes produced by weathering reactions before they can accumulate to equilibrium levels. This is particularly true in tropical environments. 800:(which reduces nucleation of fractures), and were not buttressed. These small samples were thus able to expand freely in all directions when heated in experimental ovens, which failed to produce the kinds of stress likely in natural settings. The experiments were also more sensitive to thermal shock than thermal fatigue, but thermal fatigue is likely the more important mechanism in nature. 1684: 1899:(over 2.5 billion years in age). They are difficult to recognize in the geologic record. Indications that a sedimentary bed is a paleosol include a gradational lower boundary and sharp upper boundary, the presence of much clay, poor sorting with few sedimentary structures, rip-up clasts in overlying beds, and desiccation cracks containing material from higher beds. 46: 1327:, in which protons (hydrogen ions), which are present in acidic water, attack chemical bonds in mineral crystals. The bonds between different cations and oxygen ions in minerals differ in strength, and the weakest will be attacked first. The result is that minerals in igneous rock weather in roughly the same order in which they were originally formed ( 1246: 709: 874: 1725: 1598: 1856:

are destroyed. All are converted into a mixture of clay minerals and iron oxides. The resulting soil is depleted in calcium, sodium, and ferrous iron compared with the bedrock, and magnesium is reduced by 40% and silicon by 15%. At the same time, the soil is enriched in aluminium and potassium, by at

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grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvironment. The attachment of these organisms to the rock surface enhances physical as well as chemical breakdown of the surface microlayer of the rock. Lichens have been observed to pry mineral grains loose from bare shale

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When water freezes, its volume increases by 9.2%. This expansion can theoretically generate pressures greater than 200 megapascals (29,000 psi), though a more realistic upper limit is 14 megapascals (2,000 psi). This is still much greater than the tensile strength of granite, which is about

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associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree nutrition. It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of

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at different stages of chemical weathering, from very high at shallow depths (bottom) to very low at greater depths (top). Slightly weathered limestone shows brownish stains, while highly weathered limestone loses much of its carbonate mineral content, leaving behind clay. Limestone drill core taken

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remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering. Chelating compounds, mostly low molecular weight organic acids, are capable of removing metal ions from bare rock surfaces, with aluminium and silicon being particularly susceptible. The

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Bulk hydration of minerals is secondary in importance to dissolution, hydrolysis, and oxidation, but hydration of the crystal surface is the crucial first step in hydrolysis. A fresh surface of a mineral crystal exposes ions whose electrical charge attracts water molecules. Some of these molecules

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Weathering of basaltic oceanic crust differs in important respects from weathering in the atmosphere. Weathering is relatively slow, with basalt becoming less dense, at a rate of about 15% per 100 million years. The basalt becomes hydrated, and is enriched in total and ferric iron, magnesium, and

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because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock surface to

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The importance of thermal stress weathering has long been discounted by geologists, based on experiments in the early 20th century that seemed to show that its effects were unimportant. These experiments have since been criticized as unrealistic, since the rock samples were small, were polished

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Weathering processes are either physical or chemical. The former involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through such mechanical effects as heat, water, ice and wind. The latter covers reactions to water, atmospheric gases and biologically produced chemicals with rocks and soils. Water is the

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Accelerated building weathering may be a threat to the environment and occupant safety. Design strategies can moderate the impact of environmental effects, such as using of pressure-moderated rain screening, ensuring that the HVAC system is able to effectively control humidity accumulation and

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behind. As with ice segregation, the surfaces of the salt grains draw in additional dissolved salts through capillary action, causing the growth of salt lenses that exert high pressure on the surrounding rock. Sodium and magnesium salts are the most effective at producing salt weathering. Salt

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Most rock forms at elevated temperature and pressure, and the minerals making up the rock are often chemically unstable in the relatively cool, wet, and oxidizing conditions typical of the Earth's surface. Chemical weathering takes place when water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other chemical

781:. Thermal shock takes place when the stresses are so great that the rock cracks immediately, but this is uncommon. More typical is thermal fatigue, in which the stresses are not great enough to cause immediate rock failure, but repeated cycles of stress and release gradually weaken the rock. 753:

from warmer parts of the rock. This results in growth of the ice grain that puts considerable pressure on the surrounding rock, up to ten times greater than is likely with frost wedging. This mechanism is most effective in rock whose temperature averages just below the freezing point, −4 to

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Basaltic rock is more easily weathered than granitic rock, due to its formation at higher temperatures and drier conditions. The fine grain size and presence of volcanic glass also hasten weathering. In tropical settings, it rapidly weathers to clay minerals, aluminium hydroxides, and

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on rocks are among the most effective biological agents of chemical weathering. For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, US, demonstrated a 3x – 4x increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.

796:, but this is misleading. Thermal stress weathering can be caused by any large change of temperature, and not just intense solar heating. It is likely as important in cold climates as in hot, arid climates. Wildfires can also be a significant cause of rapid thermal stress weathering. 744:

Ice segregation is a less well characterized mechanism of physical weathering. It takes place because ice grains always have a surface layer, often just a few molecules thick, that resembles liquid water more than solid ice, even at temperatures well below the freezing point. This

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Frost weathering is the most important form of physical weathering. Next in importance is wedging by plant roots, which sometimes enter cracks in rocks and pry them apart. The burrowing of worms or other animals may also help disintegrate rock, as can "plucking" by lichens.

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As with thermal weathering, pressure release is most effective in buttressed rock. Here the differential stress directed toward the unbuttressed surface can be as high as 35 megapascals (5,100 psi), easily enough to shatter rock. This mechanism is also responsible for

737:, which results from the expansion of pore water when it freezes. A growing body of theoretical and experimental work suggests that ice segregation, whereby supercooled water migrates to lenses of ice forming within the rock, is the more important mechanism. 769:

results from the expansion and contraction of rock due to temperature changes. Thermal stress weathering is most effective when the heated portion of the rock is buttressed by surrounding rock, so that it is free to expand in only one direction.

1629:. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, as does sulfur during the weathering of 2064: 1439:

Carbon dioxide that dissolves in water to form carbonic acid is the most important source of protons, but organic acids are also important natural sources of acidity. Acid hydrolysis from dissolved carbon dioxide is sometimes described as

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The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of Ca and other ions into surface waters.

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principal agent behind both kinds, though atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide and the activities of biological organisms are also important. Biological chemical weathering is also called biological weathering.

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is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of water molecules or H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. No significant dissolution takes place. For example,

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occurs when gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0.

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ability to break down bare rock allows lichens to be among the first colonizers of dry land. The accumulation of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to

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of Wyoming contains over 1,000 paleosol layers in a 770 meters (2,530 ft) section representing 3.5 million years of geologic time. Paleosols have been identified in formations as old as

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Mineral weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Soil organisms make up about 10 mg/cm of typical soils, and laboratory experiments have demonstrated that

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Zambell, C.B.; Adams, J.M.; Gorring, M.L.; Schwartzman, D.W. (2012). "Effect of lichen colonization on chemical weathering of hornblende granite as estimated by aqueous elemental flux".

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Lundström, U. S.; van Breemen, N.; Bain, D. C.; van Hees, P. A. W.; Giesler, R.; Gustafsson, J. P.; Ilvesniemi, H.; Karltun, E.; Melkerud, P. -A.; Olsson, M.; Riise, G. (2000-02-01).

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is the collective name for those forms of physical weathering that are caused by the formation of ice within rock outcrops. It was long believed that the most important of these is

1273:) is a form of chemical weathering in which only part of a mineral is taken into solution. The rest of the mineral is transformed into a new solid material, such as a 453: 1081: 3094:

Berner, Robert A. (31 December 1995). White, Arthur F; Brantley, Susan L (eds.). "Chapter 13. CHEMICAL WEATHERING AND ITS EFFECT ON ATMOSPHERIC CO2 AND CLIMATE".

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Water is the principal agent of chemical weathering, converting many primary minerals to clay minerals or hydrated oxides via reactions collectively described as

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Nichols, M.E.; Gerlock, J.L.; Smith, C.A.; Darr, C.A. (August 1999). "The effects of weathering on the mechanical performance of automotive paint systems".

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Shtober-Zisu, Nurit; Wittenberg, Lea (March 2021). "Long-term effects of wildfire on rock weathering and soil stoniness in the Mediterranean landscapes".

1873:, the principal ore of aluminium. Where rainfall is intense but seasonal, as in monsoon climates, the final weathering product is iron- and titanium-rich 1064:) is the process in which a mineral dissolves completely without producing any new solid substance. Rainwater easily dissolves soluble minerals, such as 3365:"Advances in understanding the podzolization process resulting from a multidisciplinary study of three coniferous forest soils in the Nordic Countries" 2036: 572: 4054: 2021: 1751:) and of carbon dioxide and organic acids by plants. Roots can build up the carbon dioxide level to 30% of all soil gases, aided by adsorption of CO 1150:, this process is thermodynamically favored at low temperature, because colder water holds more dissolved carbon dioxide gas (due to the retrograde 242: 1857:

least 50%; by titanium, whose abundance triples; and by ferric iron, whose abundance increases by an order of magnitude compared with the bedrock.

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Retreat of an overlying glacier can also lead to exfoliation due to pressure release. This can be enhanced by other physical wearing mechanisms.

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containing highly soluble cations, such as sodium or potassium ions, will release the cations as dissolved bicarbonates during acid hydrolysis:

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radiation from sunlight. This induces photochemical reactions that degrade its surface. These also significantly weather paint and plastics.

1820:, monuments and ornamental stonework can be badly damaged by natural weathering processes. This is accelerated in areas severely affected by 4817: 3855: 2745:

Fry, E. Jennie (July 1927). "The Mechanical Action of Crustaceous Lichens on Substrata of Shale, Schist, Gneiss, Limestone, and Obsidian".

458: 3244: 1976: 1444:, and can result in weathering of the primary minerals to secondary carbonate minerals. For example, weathering of forsterite can produce 4039: 227: 2271: 2820: 4006: 3810: 3755: 3598: 3423: 3323: 3111: 2575: 2229: 1942:

Wood can be physically and chemically weathered by hydrolysis and other processes relevant to minerals and is highly susceptible to

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Uroz, S.; Calvaruso, C.; Turpault, M.-P.; Frey-Klett, P. (2009). "Mineral weathering by bacteria: ecology, actors and mechanisms".

1877:. Conversion of kaolinite to bauxite occurs only with intense leaching, as ordinary river water is in equilibrium with kaolinite. 1861:

titanium-enriched iron oxides. Because most basalt is relatively poor in potassium, the basalt weathers directly to potassium-poor

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climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and along coasts. Salt weathering is likely important in the formation of

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Granitic rock, which is the most abundant crystalline rock exposed at the Earth's surface, begins weathering with destruction of

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Dash, J. G.; Rempel, A. W.; Wettlaufer, J. S. (12 July 2006). "The physics of premelted ice and its geophysical consequences".

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Buildings made of any stone, brick or concrete are susceptible to the same weathering agents as any exposed rock surface. Also

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Plan, Lukas (June 2005). "Factors controlling carbonate dissolution rates quantified in a field test in the Austrian alps".

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A freshly broken rock shows differential chemical weathering (probably mostly oxidation) progressing inward. This piece of

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Physical weathering of the pavements of Azad University Science and Research Branch, which is located in the heights of

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Berner, Robert A.; Holdren, George R. (1 June 1977). "Mechanism of feldspar weathering: Some observational evidence".

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Turkington, Alice V.; Paradise, Thomas R. (April 2005). "Sandstone weathering: a century of research and innovation".

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Murton, J. B.; Peterson, R.; Ozouf, J.-C. (17 November 2006). "Bedrock Fracture by Ice Segregation in Cold Regions".

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temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. As a result, thermal stress weathering is sometimes called

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Salt crystallization can take place wherever salts are concentrated by evaporation. It is thus most common in

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Paradise, T. R. (2005). "Petra revisited: An examination of sandstone weathering research in Petra, Jordan".

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Matsuoka, Norikazu; Murton, Julian (April 2008). "Frost weathering: recent advances and future directions".

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minerals, remove other substances as solutes, and leave the most stable minerals as a chemically unchanged

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and landscapes are the result of weathering, erosion and redeposition. Weathering is a crucial part of the

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form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as

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have begun to reemphasize the importance of thermal stress weathering, particularly in cold climates.

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Charlson, R. J.; Rodhe, H. (February 1982). "Factors controlling the acidity of natural rainwater".

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Hall, Kevin (1999), "The role of thermal stress fatigue in the breakdown of rock in cold regions",

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selecting concrete mixes with reduced water content to minimize the impact of freeze-thaw cycles.

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substances react with rock to change its composition. These reactions convert some of the original

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within fractures in the rock and parallel to the rock surface, which gradually pry the rock apart.

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requires between 100 and 1,000 years, a very brief interval in geologic time. As a result, some

1869:. Where leaching is continuous and intense, as in rain forests, the final weathering product is 3283: 4891: 4822: 4804: 4708: 4675: 4204: 4181: 4113: 3893: 3806: 3751: 3594: 3552: 3517: 3460: 3419: 3392: 3319: 3107: 3074: 2841: 2816: 2624: 2616: 2571: 2392: 2298: 2250: 2225: 2093: 2013: 1657: 1147: 1123: 956:

Living organisms may contribute to mechanical weathering, as well as chemical weathering (see

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A particularly important form of dissolution is carbonate dissolution, in which atmospheric

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of gases). Carbonate dissolution is therefore an important feature of glacial weathering.

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This article is about weathering of rocks and minerals. For weathering of polymers, see

4845: 4763: 4753: 4617: 4612: 4371: 4361: 4251: 4233: 4161: 4123: 4103: 4098: 3960: 3512: 3479: 3415: 2754: 2114: – Process in which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter 1987: 1880: 1665: 1226: 1119: 589: 546: 422: 147: 3784: 3456: 3388: 2545: 1237:

within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls.

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The materials left after the rock breaks down combine with organic material to create

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Carbonate dissolution on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected

754:−15 °C (25 to 5 °F). Ice segregation results in growth of ice needles and 4827: 4778: 4768: 4758: 4698: 4479: 4333: 4323: 4228: 4214: 4138: 4031: 2986: 2912: 2731: 2144: 2075: 1634: 1274: 1112: 1040: 541: 510: 286: 217: 151: 83: 50: 17: 3229: 1613:

of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe (

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many minerals, as is carbon dioxide, whose weathering reactions are described as

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sodium at the expense of silica, titanium, aluminum, ferrous iron, and calcium.

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This table is only a rough guide to order of weathering. Some minerals, such as

1214:. This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them. 1018: 674: 339: 2132: – Granite skin peeling like an onion (desquamation) because of weathering 920:

solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt

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Nicholls, G. D. (1963). "Environmental Studies in Sedimentary Geochemistry".

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enhances solution weathering. Carbonate dissolution affects rocks containing

4597: 4542: 4527: 4499: 4469: 4396: 4338: 4090: 3980: 3965: 3950: 2840:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 7. 2388: 2043: 1983: 1866: 1821: 1810: 1764: 1744: 1713: 1688: 1669: 1610: 1569: 1445: 1222: 1139: 1127: 1037: 639: 505: 381: 301: 3556: 3521: 3464: 2628: 2396: 2202: – Steel alloys designed so that surface rust inhibits further rusting 1743:

The most common forms of biological weathering result from the release of

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forsterite + carbon dioxide + water ⇌ magnesite + silicic acid in solution

3955: 2347: 2345: 2224:(2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 4. 2028: 1888: 1874: 1737: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1494: 1490: 1260: 921: 917: 862:

in mines and quarries, and for the formation of joints in rock outcrops.

859: 841:, are formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. They are under tremendous 755: 658: 609: 167: 2934:. UK and Ireland Biodiversity Action Plan Steering Group. Archived from 2877: 2249:(2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 245–246. 2222:

Sedimentology and sedimentary basins : from turbulence to tectonics

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has unusual properties, including a strong tendency to draw in water by

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Exfoliated granite sheets in Texas, possibly caused by pressure release

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produced by erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz (

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Weathering of plastics : testing to mirror real life performance

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Deterioration of rocks and minerals through exposure to the elements

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Chapin III, F. Stuart; Pamela A. Matson; Harold A. Mooney (2002).

1968: 1804: 1723: 1682: 1596: 1580: 1244: 1142:, which dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone) and forms soluble 1131: 1032: 1014: 984: 872: 817: 707: 623: 44: 2801:, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC 833:

is a form of physical weathering seen when deeply buried rock is

4794: 4414: 2190: – Form of chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrock 2079: 1964: 1768: 1614: 1590: 989:

Comparison of unweathered (left) and weathered (right) limestone

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Special Paper 390: Stone Decay in the Architectural Environment

1617:) by oxygen and water to form Fe oxides and hydroxides such as 1597: 1501:. This is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO 618:(on-site, with little or no movement), and so is distinct from 627: 1221:

of rainwater due to dissolved carbon dioxide is around 5.6.

4078: 1331:). Relative bond strength is shown in the following table: 3888: 2058:

Weathering effect on a sandstone statue in Dresden, Germany

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The degree of weathering of a soil can be expressed as the

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Landeweert, R.; Hoffland, E.; Finlay, R.D.; Kuyper, T.W.;

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Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980).

2196: – Controlled polymer and polymer coating degradation 1072:, but can also dissolve highly resistant minerals such as 3245:"Interlamellar Adsorption of Carbon Dioxide by Smectites" 2168: – Weathered rock that is not transported by erosion 973:(rootlike attachment structures), a process described as 4243: 3195:

10.1130/0091-7613(1977)5<369:MOFWSO>2.0.CO;2

850:. Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as 3746:

Williams, R.S. (2005). "7". In Rowell, Roger M. (ed.).

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Calvaruso, C.; Turpault, M.-P.; Frey-Klett, P. (2006).

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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on clay minerals and the very slow diffusion rate of CO

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carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium bicarbonate

894:"Salt wedging" redirects here. Not to be confused with 784:

Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in

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and artificial materials) through contact with water,

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Petrology : igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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Carbonate dissolution involves the following steps:

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Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types,

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1963:Salt weathering of building stone on the island of 1716:weather twice as fast in live versus sterile soil. 948:, a class of cavernous rock weathering structures. 669:, the product of weathered rock, covers 66% of the 3073:(2d ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 303–344. 2362: 2360: 1086:The overall reaction for dissolution of quartz is 3318:( ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 54–55. 1323:Most hydrolysis during weathering of minerals is 3695: 3676: 3657: 3638: 1589:cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving 454:Lists of geological features of the Solar System 929:in sedimentary rock is chemically weathered to 3748:Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites 3615:"Design Discussion Primer - Chronic Stressors" 3096:Chemical Weathering Rates of Silicate Minerals 720:possibly by frost weathering or thermal stress 4259: 4007: 3849: 2153: – Terrestrial alteration of a meteorite 1747:compounds (such as certain organic acids and 1044:from the carbonate West Congolian deposit in 566: 8: 2838:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 1609:Within the weathering environment, chemical 3731:sfn error: no target: CITEREFLeeder201111 ( 3315:Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology 1319:forsterite + water ⇌ brucite + silicic acid 4266: 4252: 4244: 4014: 4000: 3992: 3878: 3856: 3842: 3834: 3714: 3338: 2795:, in A. Jorgenson and C. Cleveland (eds.) 2108: – Rock surface weathering phenomenon 1505:in the atmosphere and can affect climate. 957: 573: 559: 60: 3511: 2694: 937:, which then crystallize as salt lenses. 4055:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 3726: 3146:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBoggs1996 ( 2293:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). 2012:, United States, weathered into a small 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1333: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 243:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 3412:Geography : an integrated approach 2212: 1953: 1111:The dissolved quartz takes the form of 72: 4065:Principle of inclusions and components 3484:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 3160: 3011: 2664: 2426: 2336: 2126: – End product of rock weathering 2096: – Processes due to wind activity 1179:carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid 1013:. Oxygen is also important, acting to 916:) causes disintegration of rocks when 612:, and biological organisms. It occurs 253:Principle of inclusions and components 3591:Weathering of Natural Building Stones 3141: 3129: 2999: 1891:(fossil soil) beds. For example, the 1448:instead of brucite via the reaction: 38:. For the public health concept, see 7: 4818:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 2441:Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 2027:Weathering on a sandstone pillar in 925:weathering can also take place when 459:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 4040:Principle of original horizontality 2679:"Exfoliation Joints and Ice Action" 2138: – photo-oxidation of polymers 837:. Intrusive igneous rocks, such as 716:, Sweden, fractured along existing 228:Principle of original horizontality 3829:Weathering and Its Different Types 3570:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1960 3414:(3rd ed.). Gloucester, U.K.: 3351:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 3300:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 3057:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 3042:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 3027:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 2780:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 2768:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 2755:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a090084 2653:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 2352:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 2325:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980 1763:and organic acids help break down 25: 3865:Types and processes of weathering 3445:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2562:. Vol. 390. pp. 39–49. 2159: – Process of soil formation 4841: 4840: 4227: 2593:Science of the Total Environment 2063: 2051: 2035: 2020: 1998: 1975: 1956: 1217:In unpolluted environments, the 1079: 540: 82: 4548:Human impact on the environment 4050:Principle of lateral continuity 3504:10.1128/AEM.72.2.1258-1266.2006 2932:Limestone Pavement Conservation 2613:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143125 238:Principle of lateral continuity 4377:Climate variability and change 4060:Principle of faunal succession 3898: 3069:Thornbury, William D. (1969). 2913:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.014 2732:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.09.028 1493:weathering, resulting in more 248:Principle of faunal succession 1: 4813:Evolution of the Solar System 3976:Factors of polymer weathering 3803:Society of Plastics Engineers 3785:10.1016/S0300-9440(98)00060-5 3696:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 3677:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 3658:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 3639:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 3457:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02122-X 3389:10.1016/S0016-7061(99)00077-4 3230:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.10.009 2546:10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00072-0 2136:Factors of polymer weathering 2102: – Soil formation theory 4553:Evolutionary history of life 3773:Progress in Organic Coatings 2811:Birkeland, Peter W. (1999). 1904:chemical index of alteration 1289:and dissolved silicic acid: 1050:Democratic Republic of Congo 3071:Principles of geomorphology 2928:"Geology and geomorphology" 2247:Origin of sedimentary rocks 2194:Weather testing of polymers 1285:) is hydrolyzed into solid 884:, Sonoma County, California 358:Geological history of Earth 36:Weather testing of polymers 4918: 2184: – Type of weathering 1241:Hydrolysis and carbonation 952:Biomechanical relationship 893: 887: 811: 723: 210:Laws, principles, theories 89:Science of the solid Earth 29: 4836: 4281: 4223: 4076: 3549:10.1016/j.tim.2009.05.004 3272:10.1346/CCMN.1974.0220105 3104:10.1515/9781501509650-015 2866:Science Progress (1933- ) 2791:Hogan, C. Michael (2010) 2696:10.3189/S002214300002462X 2504:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.695 2484:Reviews of Modern Physics 2276:Georgia Perimeter College 1728:Biological weathering of 1497:solutions because of the 1056:Dissolution (also called 788:, where there is a large 767:Thermal stress weathering 4823:Location in the Universe 4754:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 4453:List of sovereign states 4149:Geomorphologic processes 4032:Stratigraphic principles 4025:principles and processes 3589:Schaffer, R. J. (2016). 2568:10.1130/0-8137-2390-6.39 2177:Soil production function 998:minerals in the rock to 588:is the deterioration of 218:Stratigraphic principles 3252:Clays and Clay Minerals 3243:Fripiat, J. J. (1974). 2813:Soils and geomorphology 2677:Harland, W. B. (1957). 2389:10.1126/science.1132127 2106:Case hardening of rocks 1938:Wood, paint and plastic 1759:out of the soil. The CO 1329:Bowen's Reaction Series 1271:incongruent dissolution 958:§ Biological weathering 4215:Mass wasting processes 4083: 3715:Blatt & Tracy 1996 3593:. Taylor and Francis. 3339:Blatt & Tracy 1996 2749:. os-41 (3): 437–460. 2220:Leeder, M. R. (2011). 1813: 1740: 1700: 1606: 1594: 1263: 1053: 990: 896:Salt wedge (hydrology) 885: 823: 747:premelted liquid layer 721: 58: 4533:Biogeochemical cycles 4458:dependent territories 4091:Petrologic principles 4082: 3727:Leeder, 2011 & 11 3410:Waugh, David (2000). 2798:Encyclopedia of Earth 2683:Journal of Glaciology 2188:Spheroidal weathering 2118:Environmental chamber 2042:Weathering effect of 1808: 1727: 1686: 1668:and the hydration of 1600: 1584: 1248: 1062:congruent dissolution 1036: 988: 882:Salt Point State Park 876: 821: 814:Erosion and tectonics 794:insolation weathering 711: 690:mechanical weathering 48: 40:Weathering hypothesis 4872:Geological processes 4581:Computer cartography 4314:Prebiotic atmosphere 4177:Marine transgression 4045:Law of superposition 2151:Meteorite weathering 2008:sandstone wall near 1809:Concrete damaged by 902:Salt crystallization 869:Salt-crystal growth 233:Law of superposition 4724:Geologic time scale 4445:Culture and society 4309:Atmosphere of Earth 3908:Physical weathering 3872:Chemical weathering 3496:2006ApEnM..72.1258C 3381:2000Geode..94..335L 3353:, pp. 250–251. 3264:1974CCM....22...23F 3222:2012ChGeo.291..166Z 3187:1977Geo.....5..369B 3163:, pp. 653–655. 2971:1982Natur.295..683C 2905:2005Geomo..68..201P 2836:Boggs, Sam (2006). 2770:, pp. 245–246. 2724:2005Geomo..67..229T 2605:2021ScTEn.76243125S 2538:1999Geomo..31...47H 2496:2006RvMP...78..695D 2453:2008PPPr...19..195M 2381:2006Sci...314.1127M 2375:(5802): 1127–1129. 2354:, pp. 249–250. 2270:Gore, Pamela J. W. 2130:Exfoliating granite 1982:Salt weathering of 1434:silicon–oxygen bond 1335: 1146:. Despite a slower 1144:calcium bicarbonate 686:Physical weathering 377:Branches of geology 316:Landform structures 197:Geologic time scale 32:Polymer degradation 18:Physical weathering 4719:Geological history 4593:Geodetic astronomy 4234:Geology portal 4192:Sediment transport 4084: 2172:Reverse weathering 2166:Residuum (geology) 1893:Willwood Formation 1814: 1741: 1701: 1697:Angelica, New York 1607: 1595: 1342:Relative strength 1334: 1264: 1212:limestone pavement 1054: 991: 886: 824: 722: 671:Earth's continents 657:. Many of Earth's 547:Geology portal 467:By planet and body 335:Structural Geology 307:Structure of Earth 59: 4854: 4853: 4805:Planetary science 4788:Natural satellite 4709:Extremes on Earth 4676:Signal processing 4241: 4240: 4210:Glacial processes 4205:Aeolian processes 4200:Fluvial processes 4182:Marine regression 3989: 3988: 3894:Mineral hydration 2965:(5851): 683–685. 2094:Aeolian processes 1844:then weathers to 1785:mycorrhizal fungi 1664:are converted to 1658:Mineral hydration 1593:particles behind. 1426: 1425: 1148:reaction kinetics 1124:calcium carbonate 606:atmospheric gases 583: 582: 447:Planetary geology 399:Geological survey 16:(Redirected from 4909: 4844: 4843: 4736:History of Earth 4387:Paleoclimatology 4268: 4261: 4254: 4245: 4232: 4231: 4016: 4009: 4002: 3993: 3971:Space weathering 3915:Frost weathering 3858: 3851: 3844: 3835: 3817: 3816: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3779:(1–4): 153–159. 3768: 3762: 3761: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3619: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3537:Trends Microbiol 3532: 3526: 3525: 3515: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3282:. Archived from 3249: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3210:Chemical Geology 3205: 3199: 3198: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3118: 3117: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3045: 3039: 3030: 3024: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2979:10.1038/295683a0 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2938:on 7 August 2011 2923: 2917: 2916: 2899:(3–4): 201–212. 2888: 2882: 2881: 2861: 2852: 2851: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2808: 2802: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2747:Annals of Botany 2742: 2736: 2735: 2718:(1–2): 229–253. 2707: 2701: 2700: 2698: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2641: 2640: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2521: 2508: 2507: 2479: 2473: 2472: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2409: 2408: 2364: 2355: 2349: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2309: 2308: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2278:. Archived from 2267: 2261: 2260: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2217: 2200:Weathering steel 2182:Space weathering 2162: 2141: 2067: 2055: 2039: 2024: 2002: 1979: 1960: 1933: 1643:copper hydroxide 1631:sulfide minerals 1509:Aluminosilicates 1336: 1107: 1083: 931:iron(II) sulfate 827:Pressure release 808:Pressure release 802:Geomorphologists 751:capillary action 731:Frost weathering 726:Frost weathering 673:and much of the 667:sedimentary rock 575: 568: 561: 545: 544: 349:Geologic history 86: 61: 21: 4917: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4907: 4906: 4882:Climate forcing 4857: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4832: 4799: 4783: 4740: 4731:Geologic record 4685: 4671:Plate tectonics 4661:Mineral physics 4641:Earth structure 4627: 4562: 4509: 4439: 4391: 4348: 4295: 4277: 4272: 4242: 4237: 4226: 4219: 4186: 4167:Tectonic uplift 4157:Plate tectonics 4143: 4085: 4074: 4026: 4020: 3990: 3985: 3934: 3925:Thermal fatigue 3903: 3867: 3862: 3825: 3820: 3813: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3758: 3745: 3744: 3740: 3730: 3725: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3680: 3675: 3671: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3534: 3533: 3529: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3441:van Breemen, N. 3438: 3437: 3433: 3426: 3418:. p. 272. 3409: 3408: 3404: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3302:, pp. 251. 3298: 3294: 3289:on Jun 3, 2018. 3286: 3247: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3128: 3121: 3114: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3055: 3048: 3040: 3033: 3025: 3018: 3010: 3006: 3002:, pp. 7–8. 2998: 2994: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2925: 2924: 2920: 2890: 2889: 2885: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2848: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2790: 2786: 2782:, pp. 246. 2778: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2744: 2743: 2739: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2663: 2659: 2651: 2644: 2590: 2589: 2585: 2578: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2523: 2522: 2511: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2461:10.1002/ppp.620 2438: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2412: 2366: 2365: 2358: 2350: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2312: 2305: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2219: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2160: 2139: 2089: 2082: 2068: 2059: 2056: 2047: 2040: 2031: 2025: 2016: 2010:Sedona, Arizona 2003: 1994: 1980: 1971: 1961: 1952: 1940: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1863:montmorillonite 1834: 1803: 1794: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1706: 1666:iron hydroxides 1655: 1640: 1579: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1504: 1489:is consumed by 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1325:acid hydrolysis 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1277:. For example, 1243: 1232: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1058:simple solution 1031: 983: 954: 906:salt weathering 904:(also known as 899: 892: 871: 816: 810: 779:thermal fatigue 764: 728: 706: 683: 579: 539: 532: 531: 530: 471: 463: 449: 439: 438: 437: 412: 404: 403: 390: 372: 364: 363: 362: 353: 345: 344: 320: 312: 311: 282: 274: 272: 264: 263: 262: 223: 213: 211: 203: 202: 201: 177:Plate tectonics 172: 137: 129: 91: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4915: 4913: 4905: 4904: 4902:Earth sciences 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4859: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4848: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4809: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4791: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4764:Atlantic Ocean 4761: 4756: 4750: 4748: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4726: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4695: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4646:Fluid dynamics 4643: 4637: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4618:Geopositioning 4615: 4613:Remote Sensing 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4572: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4519: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4449: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4372:Climate change 4369: 4367:Energy balance 4364: 4362:Climate system 4358: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4305: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4271: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4196: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4162:Salt tectonics 4159: 4153: 4151: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4124:Soil formation 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4095: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4036: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4018: 4011: 4004: 3996: 3987: 3986: 3984: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3942: 3940: 3939:Related topics 3936: 3935: 3933: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3824: 3823:External links 3821: 3819: 3818: 3811: 3790: 3763: 3756: 3738: 3719: 3717:, p. 236. 3707: 3698:, p. 233. 3688: 3679:, p. 262. 3669: 3660:, p. 254. 3650: 3641:, p. 253. 3631: 3606: 3599: 3581: 3572:, p. 256. 3562: 3527: 3490:(2): 1258–66. 3470: 3451:(5): 248–254. 3431: 3424: 3416:Nelson Thornes 3402: 3375:(2): 335–353. 3355: 3343: 3341:, p. 233. 3331: 3324: 3304: 3292: 3235: 3200: 3181:(6): 369–372. 3165: 3153: 3134: 3119: 3112: 3086: 3079: 3061: 3059:, p. 250. 3046: 3044:, p. 258. 3031: 3029:, p. 252. 3016: 3004: 2992: 2949: 2918: 2883: 2872:(201): 12–31. 2853: 2846: 2828: 2822:978-0195078862 2821: 2803: 2784: 2772: 2760: 2737: 2702: 2669: 2657: 2655:, p. 249. 2642: 2583: 2576: 2550: 2532:(1–4): 47–63, 2509: 2490:(3): 695–741. 2474: 2447:(2): 195–210. 2431: 2410: 2356: 2341: 2329: 2327:, p. 247. 2310: 2303: 2285: 2282:on 2013-05-10. 2262: 2255: 2237: 2230: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2163: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2069: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2050: 2048: 2041: 2034: 2032: 2026: 2019: 2017: 2004: 1997: 1995: 1981: 1974: 1972: 1962: 1955: 1951: 1948: 1939: 1936: 1887:show numerous 1881:Soil formation 1848:, and finally 1833: 1830: 1802: 1799: 1793: 1790: 1783:The symbiotic 1760: 1756: 1752: 1705: 1702: 1654: 1651: 1638: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1563: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1502: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1388: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1340: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1252:weathering to 1242: 1239: 1230: 1227:Sulfur dioxide 1208: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1120:carbon dioxide 1109: 1108: 1030: 1027: 982: 979: 953: 950: 888:Main article: 870: 867: 809: 806: 763: 762:Thermal stress 760: 724:Main article: 705: 702: 694:disaggregation 688:, also called 682: 679: 581: 580: 578: 577: 570: 563: 555: 552: 551: 550: 549: 534: 533: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 472: 470: 469: 462: 461: 456: 450: 445: 444: 441: 440: 436: 435: 430: 425: 420: 414: 413: 410: 409: 406: 405: 402: 401: 396: 389: 388: 379: 373: 370: 369: 366: 365: 361: 360: 354: 352: 351: 343: 342: 337: 332: 327: 321: 319: 318: 310: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 283: 281: 280: 273: 270: 269: 266: 265: 261: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 224: 222: 221: 212: 209: 208: 205: 204: 200: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 173: 171: 170: 165: 159: 154: 145: 139: 138: 136:Key components 135: 134: 131: 130: 128: 127: 117: 112: 107: 102: 96: 93: 92: 87: 79: 78: 70: 69: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4914: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4897:Geomorphology 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4847: 4839: 4838: 4835: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4802: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4774:Pacific Ocean 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4704:Earth science 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4656:Magnetosphere 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4624: 4623:Virtual globe 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4588:Earth's orbit 4586: 4582: 4579: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4565: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4495:World history 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4485:World economy 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4435:South America 4433: 4431: 4430:North America 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4264: 4262: 4257: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4246: 4236: 4235: 4230: 4222: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4189: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4146: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4081: 4071: 4070:Walther's law 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4024: 4017: 4012: 4010: 4005: 4003: 3998: 3997: 3994: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3931: 3930:Thermal shock 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3859: 3854: 3852: 3847: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3836: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3822: 3814: 3812:9781884207754 3808: 3804: 3800: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3764: 3759: 3757:9780203492437 3753: 3749: 3742: 3739: 3734: 3728: 3723: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3692: 3689: 3684: 3678: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3659: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3640: 3635: 3632: 3616: 3610: 3607: 3602: 3600:9781317742524 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3571: 3566: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3543:(8): 378–87. 3542: 3538: 3531: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3432: 3427: 3425:9780174447061 3421: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3325:9780387954431 3321: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3239: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3169: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3143: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3113:9781501509650 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3090: 3087: 3082: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2950: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2922: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2893:Geomorphology 2887: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2824: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2712:Geomorphology 2706: 2703: 2697: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2673: 2670: 2667:, p. 19. 2666: 2661: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2584: 2579: 2577:0-8137-2390-6 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2526:Geomorphology 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2432: 2429:, p. 18. 2428: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2231:9781405177832 2227: 2223: 2216: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2112:Decomposition 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2100:Biorhexistasy 2098: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2066: 2061: 2054: 2049: 2045: 2038: 2033: 2030: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1996: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1978: 1973: 1970: 1966: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1937: 1935: 1906:, defined as 1905: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1812: 1807: 1800: 1798: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1778:podsolisation 1774: 1770: 1766: 1750: 1746: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1726: 1722: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1693:glacial drift 1691:was found in 1690: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1641:oxidizing to 1636: 1635:chalcopyrites 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1599: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1559:+ 2 K + 2 HCO 1514: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1487:Carbonic acid 1481: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1318: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1269:(also called 1268: 1262: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1235:sulfuric acid 1228: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1205: 1183: 1182: 1178: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1136:carbonic acid 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1039: 1035: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1005: 1001: 997: 987: 980: 978: 976: 972: 967: 963: 959: 951: 949: 947: 943: 938: 936: 932: 928: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 897: 891: 883: 879: 875: 868: 866: 863: 861: 855: 853: 849: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 820: 815: 807: 805: 803: 797: 795: 791: 787: 782: 780: 776: 775:thermal shock 771: 768: 761: 759: 757: 752: 748: 742: 738: 736: 735:frost wedging 732: 727: 719: 715: 710: 703: 701: 697: 695: 691: 687: 680: 678: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 651: 647: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 576: 571: 569: 564: 562: 557: 556: 554: 553: 548: 543: 538: 537: 536: 535: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 473: 468: 465: 464: 460: 457: 455: 452: 451: 448: 443: 442: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 415: 408: 407: 400: 397: 395: 392: 391: 387: 383: 380: 378: 375: 374: 368: 367: 359: 356: 355: 350: 347: 346: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 325:Geomorphology 323: 322: 317: 314: 313: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 297:Sedimentology 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 284: 279: 276: 275: 268: 267: 259: 258:Walther's law 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 225: 220: 219: 215: 214: 207: 206: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 169: 166: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 149: 146: 144: 141: 140: 133: 132: 125: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 97: 95: 94: 90: 85: 81: 80: 77: 76: 71: 67: 63: 62: 56: 52: 47: 41: 37: 33: 19: 4828:Solar System 4779:Oceanography 4769:Indian Ocean 4759:Arctic Ocean 4699:Age of Earth 4651:Geomagnetism 4334:Thermosphere 4324:Stratosphere 4225: 4139:Metamorphism 4118: 3864: 3798: 3793: 3776: 3772: 3766: 3747: 3741: 3722: 3710: 3691: 3672: 3653: 3634: 3622:. Retrieved 3620:. BC Housing 3609: 3590: 3584: 3565: 3540: 3536: 3530: 3487: 3483: 3473: 3448: 3444: 3434: 3411: 3405: 3372: 3368: 3358: 3346: 3334: 3314: 3307: 3295: 3284:the original 3258:(1): 23–30. 3255: 3251: 3238: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3178: 3174: 3168: 3156: 3144:, p. 8. 3137: 3132:, p. 9. 3095: 3089: 3070: 3064: 3014:, p. 4. 3007: 2995: 2962: 2958: 2952: 2940:. Retrieved 2936:the original 2931: 2921: 2896: 2892: 2886: 2869: 2865: 2837: 2831: 2812: 2806: 2796: 2787: 2775: 2763: 2746: 2740: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2689:(21): 8–10. 2686: 2682: 2672: 2660: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2559: 2553: 2529: 2525: 2487: 2483: 2477: 2444: 2440: 2434: 2372: 2368: 2339:, p. 3. 2332: 2294: 2288: 2280:the original 2275: 2272:"Weathering" 2265: 2246: 2240: 2221: 2215: 2145:Metasomatism 1941: 1903: 1901: 1879: 1859: 1835: 1826: 1815: 1795: 1782: 1749:siderophores 1742: 1707: 1678: 1656: 1608: 1507: 1485: 1441: 1438: 1427: 1324: 1322: 1305:O ⇌ 2 Mg(OH) 1275:clay mineral 1270: 1265: 1216: 1209: 1156: 1117: 1113:silicic acid 1110: 1085: 1078: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1041:core samples 1023: 1008: 1003: 999: 995: 992: 974: 955: 939: 910:salt wedging 909: 905: 901: 900: 864: 856: 851: 830: 826: 825: 798: 793: 783: 772: 766: 765: 746: 743: 739: 734: 730: 729: 698: 693: 689: 685: 684: 652: 648: 613: 600:(as well as 585: 584: 466: 411:Applications 393: 348: 315: 287:Geochemistry 277: 216: 186: 88: 73: 51:natural arch 4887:Climatology 4576:Cartography 4515:Environment 4382:Climatology 4319:Troposphere 4114:Exfoliation 3884:Carbonation 3216:: 166–174. 3161:Leeder 2011 3098:: 565–584. 3012:Leeder 2011 2665:Leeder 2011 2427:Leeder 2011 2337:Leeder 2011 2157:Pedogenesis 1944:ultraviolet 1846:vermiculite 1792:Ocean floor 1662:iron oxides 1647:iron oxides 1499:bicarbonate 1442:carbonation 1411:Na–O 1403:Ca–O 1395:Mn–O 1387:Fe–O 1379:Mg–O 1371:Fe–O 1363:Al–O 1355:Ti–O 1347:Si–O 1281:(magnesium 1029:Dissolution 1019:carbonation 969:with their 848:exfoliation 675:ocean floor 418:Engineering 340:Volcanology 278:Composition 162:Metamorphic 157:Sedimentary 4867:Weathering 4861:Categories 4681:Tomography 4666:Seismology 4633:Geophysics 4608:Navigation 4500:Time zones 4465:In culture 4410:Antarctica 4397:Continents 4329:Mesosphere 4301:Atmosphere 4172:Subsidence 4134:Compaction 4129:Diagenesis 4119:Weathering 3920:Haloclasty 3889:Hydrolysis 3879:Biological 3142:Boggs 1996 3130:Boggs 2006 3080:0471861979 3000:Boggs 2006 2847:0131547283 2599:: 143125. 2304:0716724383 2256:0136427103 2208:References 2046:on statues 1992:Azerbaijan 1924:+ CaO + Na 1885:formations 1865:, then to 1854:microcline 1850:oligoclase 1838:hornblende 1780:of soils. 1704:Biological 1566:orthoclase 1468:O ⇌ 2 MgCO 1419:K–O 1279:forsterite 1267:Hydrolysis 1254:iddingsite 1152:solubility 1126:, such as 1011:hydrolysis 914:haloclasty 890:Haloclasty 812:See also: 756:ice lenses 712:A rock in 663:rock cycle 586:Weathering 330:Glaciology 292:Mineralogy 187:Weathering 4598:Geomatics 4543:Ecosystem 4528:Biosphere 4490:Etymology 4470:Earth Day 4420:Australia 4339:Exosphere 4104:Extrusive 4099:Intrusive 3981:Taphonomy 3966:Saprolite 3951:Etchplain 3899:Oxidation 3397:0016-7061 2793:"Calcium" 2637:225117000 2621:0048-9697 2469:131395533 2044:acid rain 1984:sandstone 1867:kaolinite 1822:acid rain 1811:acid rain 1801:Buildings 1765:aluminium 1745:chelating 1714:muscovite 1689:sandstone 1670:anhydrite 1653:Hydration 1611:oxidation 1601:Oxidized 1577:Oxidation 1570:kaolinite 1446:magnesite 1256:within a 1223:Acid rain 1140:weak acid 1128:limestone 1038:Limestone 1004:resistate 1000:secondary 831:unloading 659:landforms 428:Forensics 382:Geologist 302:Petrology 4892:Pedology 4846:Category 4109:Volcanic 4023:Geologic 3956:Fracture 3805:. 1999. 3557:19660952 3522:16461674 3465:11301154 3369:Geoderma 3280:53610319 2878:43418626 2629:33172645 2405:37639112 2397:17110573 2087:See also 2029:Bayreuth 1988:Qobustan 1889:paleosol 1875:laterite 1773:Decaying 1738:La Palma 1637:or CuFeS 1633:such as 1627:hematite 1623:limonite 1619:goethite 1495:alkaline 1491:silicate 1261:xenolith 1196:→ Ca(HCO 981:Chemical 975:plucking 960:below). 922:crystals 860:spalling 852:sheeting 843:pressure 681:Physical 610:sunlight 598:minerals 433:Military 371:Research 168:Sediment 143:Minerals 124:Timeline 115:Glossary 110:Category 66:a series 64:Part of 4691:Geology 4603:Gravity 4568:Geodesy 4538:Ecology 4354:Climate 4344:Weather 4291:History 4286:Outline 3946:Erosion 3624:13 July 3513:1392890 3492:Bibcode 3377:Bibcode 3260:Bibcode 3218:Bibcode 3183:Bibcode 3175:Geology 2987:4368102 2967:Bibcode 2901:Bibcode 2720:Bibcode 2601:Bibcode 2534:Bibcode 2492:Bibcode 2449:Bibcode 2377:Bibcode 2369:Science 2124:Eluvium 2076:capital 2006:Permian 1950:Gallery 1897:Archean 1871:bauxite 1842:Biotite 1818:statues 1718:Lichens 1515:2 KAlSi 1287:brucite 1283:olivine 1250:Olivine 1099:O → H 1046:Kimpese 1015:oxidize 996:primary 962:Lichens 839:granite 835:exhumed 790:diurnal 786:deserts 644:gravity 620:erosion 615:in situ 476:Mercury 394:Methods 192:Erosion 152:Igneous 120:History 105:Outline 75:Geology 4746:Oceans 4714:Future 4558:Nature 4480:Symbol 4425:Europe 4405:Africa 3809: 3754: 3597: 3555: 3520: 3510: 3463: 3422: 3395: 3322: 3278: 3110: 3077: 2985: 2959:Nature 2942:30 May 2926:Anon. 2876: 2844: 2819: 2635: 2627: 2619: 2574: 2467: 2403: 2395: 2301: 2253: 2228: 2074:, the 2072:Tehran 2014:alcove 1908:100 Al 1767:- and 1734:lichen 1730:basalt 1710:albite 1674:gypsum 1672:forms 1625:, and 1603:pyrite 1587:pyrite 1535:O ⇌ Al 1460:+ 2 CO 1430:illite 1258:mantle 1192:+ CaCO 1074:quartz 1070:gypsum 1066:halite 971:hyphae 966:mosses 946:tafoni 935:gypsum 927:pyrite 918:saline 878:Tafoni 718:joints 714:Abisko 526:Charon 516:Triton 423:Mining 271:Topics 182:Strata 55:Jordan 4523:Biome 4505:World 4275:Earth 3618:(PDF) 3287:(PDF) 3276:S2CID 3248:(PDF) 2983:S2CID 2874:JSTOR 2633:S2CID 2465:S2CID 2401:S2CID 1986:near 1969:Malta 1928:O + K 1695:near 1605:cubes 1551:+ 4 H 1531:+ 9 H 1523:+ 2 H 1464:+ 2 H 1422:0.25 1414:0.35 1390:0.85 1366:1.65 1339:Bond 1301:+ 4 H 1169:O → H 1132:chalk 1095:+ 2 H 704:Frost 640:waves 624:water 594:soils 590:rocks 521:Pluto 511:Titan 501:Ceres 496:Vesta 481:Venus 386:List) 100:Index 4877:Soil 4795:Moon 4475:Flag 4415:Asia 3961:Rock 3807:ISBN 3801:. : 3752:ISBN 3733:help 3702:help 3683:help 3664:help 3645:help 3626:2021 3595:ISBN 3576:help 3553:PMID 3518:PMID 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