1116:. The tuning lever is used to turn and 'set' the tuning pins, increasing or decreasing the tension of the string. Mutes are used to silence strings that are not being tuned. While tuning the temperament octave, a felt strip is typically placed within the temperament (middle) section of the piano; it is inserted between each note's trichord, muting its outer two strings so that only the middle string is free to vibrate. A Papps mute performs the same function in an upright piano and is placed through the piano action to mute either the 2 left strings (of a trichord), or the 2 right strings similarly. After the center strings are all tuned (or right if a Papps mute is used) the felt strip can be removed note by note, tuning the outer strings to the center strings. Wedge-shaped mutes are inserted between two strings to mute them, and the Papps mute is commonly used for tuning the high notes in upright pianos because it slides more easily between hammer shanks.
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row and column with that number) in the temperament octave. Slower beat rates can be carefully timed with a metronome, or other such device. For the thirds in the temperament octave, it is difficult to tune so many beats per second, but after setting the temperament and duplicating it one octave below, all of these beat frequencies are present at half the indicated rate in this lower octave, which are excellent for verification that the temperament is correct. One of the easiest tests of equal temperament is to play a succession of major thirds, each one a semitone higher than the last. If equal temperament has been achieved, the beat rate of these thirds should increase evenly in the temperament region.
1084:, affect the tuner's ability to achieve a temperament. Among physical factors are inharmonic effects due to soundboard resonance in the bass strings, poorly manufactured strings, or peculiarities that can cause "false beats" (false because they are unrelated to the manipulation of beats during tuning). The principal psychoacoustic factor is that the human ear tends to perceive the higher notes as being flat when compared to those in the midrange. Stretching the tuning to account for string inharmonicity is often not sufficient to overcome this phenomenon, so piano tuners may stretch the top octave or so of the piano even more.
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274:, and when a piano hammer strikes a string it excites multiple harmonics at the same time. The first harmonic (or fundamental frequency) is usually the loudest, and determines the pitch that is perceived. In theory the higher harmonics (also called overtones or partials) vibrate at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. (e.g. a string with a fundamental frequency of 100 Hz would have overtones at 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, etc.) In reality, the frequencies of the overtones are shifted up slightly, due to
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would double each ascending octave. At the top of the keyboard, then, the theoretically (and ideally) pure fifth would be beating more than eight times per second. Modern western ears easily tolerate fast beating in non-just intervals (seconds and sevenths, thirds and sixths), but not in perfect octaves or fifths. Happily for pianists, the string stretch that accommodates inharmonicity on a concert grand also nearly exactly mitigates the accumulation of dissonance in the perfect fifth.
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to limit the stretch. In large pianos like concert grands, less inharmonicity allows for a more complete string stretch without negatively affecting close octaves and other intervals. So while it may be true that the smaller piano receives a greater stretch relative to the fundamental pitch, only the concert grand's octaves can be fully widened so that triple octaves are beatless. This contributes to the response, brilliance, and "singing" quality that concert grands offer.
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363:, (or commonly a C523.23 tuning fork) to tune a beginning pitch, and then tunes the other notes in the "temperament" using tempered interval relationships. During tuning it is common to assess perfect fifths and fourths, major and minor thirds, and major and minor sixths, often playing the intervals in an ascending or descending pattern to hear whether an even progression of beat rates has been achieved.
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344:, two strings that are close to a simple harmonic ratio such as a perfect fifth beat at higher pitches (at their coincident harmonics), because of the difference in pitch between their coincident harmonics. Where these frequencies can be calculated, a temperament may be tuned aurally by timing the beatings of tempered intervals.
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199:, which were much easier to tune, and which the musicians generally tuned themselves. Early piano tuners were trained and employed in piano factories, and often underwent an apprenticeship of about 5–7 years. Early tuners faced challenges related to a large variety of new and changing pianos and non-standardized pitches.
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A benefit of stretching octaves is the correction of dissonance that equal temperament imparts to the perfect fifth. Without octave stretching, the slow, nearly imperceptible beating of fifths in the temperament region (ranging from little more than one beat every two seconds to about one per second)
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In small pianos the inharmonicity is so extreme that establishing a stretch based on a triple octave makes the single octaves beat noticeably, and the wide, fast beating intervals in the upper treble beat wildly – especially major 17ths (two octaves + a major 3rd). By necessity the tuner will attempt
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The following table lists theoretical beat frequencies between notes in an equal temperament octave. The top row indicates absolute frequencies of the pitches; usually only A440 is determined from an external reference. Every other number indicates the beat rate between any two tones (which share the
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that was adopted during the early 20th century in response to widely varying standards. Previously the pitch standards had gradually risen from about A415 during the late 18th century and early 19th century to A435 during the late 19th century. Though A440 is generally the standard, some orchestras,
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between the two sound waves. Likewise, if a string tuned to 220 Hz (with a harmonic at 440 Hz) is played together with a string tuned at 442 Hz, the same 2 Hz beat is heard. Because pianos typically have multiple strings for each piano key, these strings must be tuned to the same
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the octaves as one tunes above (and to an extent below) the temperament region. When octaves are stretched, they are not tuned to the lowest coincidental overtone (second partial) of the note below, but instead to a higher overtone (often the 4th partial). This widens all intervals equally, thereby
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gradually stretch and wooden parts compress, causing the piano to go flat, while in older pianos the tuning pins (that hold the strings in tune) can become loose and not hold the piano in tune as well. Frequent and hard playing can also cause a piano to go out of tune. For these reasons, many piano
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In an aural tuning a tuning fork is used to tune the first note (generally A4) of the piano, and then a temperament octave is tuned between F3 and F4 using a variety of intervals and checks, until the tuner is satisfied that all the notes in the octave are correctly tuned. The rest of the piano is
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All western music, but western classical literature in particular, requires this deviation from the theoretical equal temperament because the music is rarely played within a single octave. A pianist constantly plays notes spread over three and four octaves, at least, so it is critical that the mid
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The next table indicates the pitch at which the strongest beating should occur for useful intervals. As described above, when tuning a perfect fifth, for instance, the beating can be heard not at either of the fundamental pitches of the keys played, but rather an octave and fifth (perfect twelfth)
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Electronic piano tuning devices are also commonly used. They are designed to adjust the same tonal complexities that the aural tuner encounters. The devices use sophisticated algorithms to continuously test the harmonic makeup of each string as it is sounded, and apply the derived information to
135:. The sum (blue) of two waves (red, green) is shown as one of the waves increases in frequency. The two waves are initially identical, then the frequency of the green wave is gradually increased by 25%. Constructive and destructive interference results in a beating pattern in the resulting wave.
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overtones of lower registers. Since the stretch of octaves is perceived and not measured, the tuner determines which octave needs more or less octave stretching "by ear". Good tuning requires compromise between tonal brilliance, accurate intonation, and an awareness of gradation of
64:. Fine piano tuning requires an assessment of the vibration interaction among notes, which is different for every piano, thus in practice requiring slightly different pitches from any theoretical standard. Pianos are usually tuned to a modified version of the system called
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The tuning described by the above beating plan provides a good approximation of equal temperament across the range of the temperament octave. If extended further, however, the actual tuning of the instrument becomes increasingly inaccurate because of
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Having established the 12 notes of the chromatic scale, the technician then replicates the temperament throughout the piano by tuning octaves and cross-checking with other intervals, to align each note with others that have already been tuned.
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Piano tuning is done by a wide range of independent piano technicians, piano rebuilders, piano-store technical personnel, and hobbyists. Professional training and certification is available from organizations or guilds, such as the
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above the lower of the two keys, which is the lowest pitch at which their harmonic series overlap. Once the beating can be heard, the tuner must temper the interval either wide or narrow from a tuning that has no beatings.
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in either the strings' core wires or any overwinding used to modify the wire's weight. The overwindings are normally made from a denser, heavier, but less "springy" metal than the steel used for the core. Imperfect
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A common method of tuning the piano begins with tuning all the notes in the "temperament" octave in the lower middle range of the piano, usually F3 to F4. A tuner starts by using an external reference, usually an
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with 3:2, etc.) because the harmonics of these intervals coincide and beat when they are out of tune. (For a perfect fifth, the 3rd harmonic of the lower note coincides with the 2nd harmonic of the top note.)
230:) were avoided, the sizes of intervals were still not consistent between keys, and so each key still had its own distinctive character. During the 1800s this variation led to an increase in the use of quasi-
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to swell, stretching the strings and causing the pitch to go sharp, while low humidity has the opposite effect. Changes in temperature can also affect the overall pitch of a piano. In newer pianos the
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sound it produces. This fluctuation in the sound intensity is a result of two (or more) tones of similar frequencies being played together. For example, if a piano string tuned to 440
1338:, pp. 240–244) (During the late 18th century the standard was about a half-step lower than today; there are some orchestras, particularly in Europe, that use a higher pitch standard.)
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If an electronic tuning device is used, the temperament step might be skipped, as it is possible for the tuner to adjust notes directly with the tuning device in any reasonable order.
1301:, p. 240) (Since the 1800s almost all pianos have been tuned in equal temperament, although there is a movement among organists to return to historical non-equal temperaments.
167:(vibrations per second) is played together with a piano string tuned to 442 Hz, the resulting tone beats at a frequency of 2 Hz, due to the constructive and destructive
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285:, is the ratio of their absolute frequencies. The easiest intervals to identify and tune are those where the note frequencies have a simple whole-number ratio (e.g.
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337:, for instance, a fifth would be tempered by narrowing it slightly, achieved by flattening its upper pitch slightly, or raising its lower pitch slightly.
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Tempering an interval causes it to beat. Because the actual tone of a vibrating piano string is not just one pitch, but a complex of tones arranged in a
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took advantage of this breakthrough, with preludes and fugues written for all 24 major and minor keys. However, while unpleasant intervals (such as the
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meaning that such instruments could sound "in tune" in one key, or some keys, but would then have more dissonance in other keys. The development of
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Some common piano tuning tools: From top to bottom: a tuning lever, a felt mute, a rubber mute, a felt temperament strip (left), and a Papps mute.
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is the result of measuring the fundamental frequencies of stretched tunings and plotting their deviations from unstretched equal temperament.
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Piano tuning became a profession around the beginning of the 1800s, as the "pianoforte" became mainstream. Previously musicians owned
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79:(440 Hz), the note A above middle C. For a classical piano and musical theory, the middle C is usually labelled as C
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In all systems of tuning, every pitch may be derived from its relationship to a chosen fixed pitch, which is usually
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necessary to achieve the desired compromise is a complicated determination described theoretically as a function of
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manufacturers recommend that new pianos be tuned four times during the first year and twice a year thereafter.
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through the compass of the instrument. The name of this modification of the width of the scale is called the
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Many factors cause pianos to go out of tune, particularly atmospheric changes. For instance, changes in
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allowed fixed-pitch instruments to play reasonably well in all of the keys. The famous "
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A piano tuner's most basic tools include the tuning lever (or "hammer") and mutes
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determine its optimal pitch within the context of the entire instrument.
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is the process of adjusting the tension of the strings of an acoustic
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An out-of-tune piano can often be identified by the characteristic "
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particularly in Europe, use a higher pitch standard, such as A442.
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deviation of the real partials from the theoretical harmonics
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will affect the pitch of a piano; high humidity causes the
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1415:, Trans. Alexander Ellis, New York: Dover Publications
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A stretched string can vibrate in different modes, or
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Historically, keyboard instruments were tuned using
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deviate slightly from mathematically pure harmonics
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30:"Piano tuner" redirects here. For the novel, see
281:The relationship between two pitches, called an
1214:, Piano Technicians Guild, 1993, archived from
1006:maintaining intervallic and tonal consistency.
379:Equal temperament beatings (all figures in Hz)
1322:and thus harder to reproduce electronically);
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1460:(3rd ed.), Pearson Education Inc
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1433:, Michigan State University Press,
1313:Concert Pitch - a Variable Standard
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1010:and upper range of the treble be
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1189:"Information on Piano Tuning"
854:Beating above the lower pitch
41:A man tuning an upright piano
1482:Procedure For Tuning A Piano
1451:(2nd ed.), Vestal Press
1249:Lutherie Information Website
1080:Other factors, physical and
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882:Two octaves and major third
851:Approximate frequency ratio
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1844:Piano Technicians Guild
1487:History of Piano Tuning
1262:History of Piano Tuning
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251:Overtones and harmonics
109:Piano Technicians Guild
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707:
705:
702:
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698:
695:
691:
690:
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685:
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681:
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664:
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553:
551:
549:
546:
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518:
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510:
507:
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493:
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477:
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469:
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454:
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450:
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433:
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428:
426:
422:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
331:just intervals
299:
296:
252:
249:
247:
244:
192:
189:
116:
113:
100:
96:
92:
80:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1931:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1886:Miscellaneous
1884:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1847:
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1842:
1840:
1837:
1836:
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1828:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1807:
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1800:
1797:
1796:
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1790:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
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1757:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
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1733:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1659:Digital piano
1657:
1656:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1642:Theatre organ
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1627:Hammond organ
1625:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1552:Bowed clavier
1550:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1523:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:Gill Green MA
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1442:
1440:0-87013-290-3
1436:
1432:
1427:
1424:
1423:0-486-60753-4
1420:
1414:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1396:Reblitz (1993
1392:
1389:
1385:
1384:Reblitz (1993
1380:
1377:
1373:
1372:Reblitz (1993
1368:
1365:
1361:
1360:Reblitz (1993
1356:
1353:
1349:
1348:Reblitz (1993
1344:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1307:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1218:on 2019-10-20
1217:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1143:Pseudo-octave
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1094:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1068:
1065:elastic. The
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
982:
975:
968:
965:
962:
959:
958:
954:
951:
948:
945:
944:
940:
937:
934:
931:
930:
926:
923:
920:
917:
916:
912:
909:
906:
903:
902:
898:
895:
892:
889:
888:
884:
881:
878:
875:
874:
870:
867:
864:
861:
860:
856:
853:
850:
847:
846:
840:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
808:
807:
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
782:
780:
779:
773:
771:
769:
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763:
761:
759:
756:
754:
752:
751:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
733:
730:
728:
726:
723:
722:
716:
714:
712:
710:
708:
706:
703:
701:
699:
696:
693:
692:
686:
684:
682:
680:
678:
675:
673:
671:
668:
665:
662:
661:
655:
653:
651:
649:
646:
644:
642:
639:
636:
633:
631:
630:
624:
622:
620:
617:
615:
613:
610:
607:
604:
602:
599:
598:
595:
593:
591:
589:
586:
584:
582:
579:
576:
573:
571:
568:
565:
564:
561:
559:
557:
554:
552:
550:
547:
544:
541:
539:
536:
533:
530:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
517:
514:
511:
508:
506:
503:
500:
497:
495:
494:
491:
488:
486:
484:
481:
478:
475:
473:
470:
467:
464:
462:
460:
459:
455:
453:
451:
448:
445:
442:
440:
437:
434:
431:
429:
427:
424:
423:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
382:
376:
372:
368:
364:
362:
359:
349:
345:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
327:
318:
314:
313:David Klavins
297:
295:
292:
291:perfect fifth
288:
284:
279:
277:
276:inharmonicity
273:
266:
262:
257:
250:
245:
243:
240:
235:
233:
229:
228:wolf interval
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
190:
188:
186:
182:
178:
173:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
150:
146:
142:
134:
129:
121:
114:
112:
110:
104:
90:
86:
78:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
39:
33:
19:
1848:
1722:Short octave
1602:Harmonichord
1457:
1448:
1430:
1412:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1320:prime number
1312:
1306:
1294:
1282:
1270:
1261:
1259:Gill Green,
1254:
1242:
1230:
1220:, retrieved
1216:the original
1210:
1204:
1193:. Retrieved
1161:
1122:
1118:
1102:tuning lever
1099:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1025:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1003:"stretching"
987:
946:Minor third
932:Major third
924:Two octaves
890:Minor sixth
876:Major sixth
837:
832:Minor third
804:Major third
719:Minor sixth
689:Major sixth
627:Fundamental
373:
369:
365:
354:
339:
324:
322:
316:
280:
269:
261:normal modes
236:
201:
197:harpsichords
194:
174:
169:interference
154:
138:
105:
74:
52:so that the
46:Piano tuning
45:
44:
1831:Maintenance
1804:Innovations
1750:Split sharp
1740:Frequencies
1681:Synthesizer
1607:Harpsichord
1545:Instruments
1110:tuning fork
1051:springiness
361:tuning fork
326:temperament
298:Temperament
145:sound board
18:Piano tuner
1908:Categories
1768:Expression
1637:Reed organ
1632:Pipe organ
1597:Fortepiano
1577:Clavichord
1405:References
1222:2012-03-23
1195:2013-05-27
1046:elasticity
1038:stretching
1016:inharmonic
857:Tempering
315:tunes his
157:honky tonk
115:Background
27:Profession
1799:Acoustics
1587:Claviharp
1063:perfectly
1012:stretched
323:The term
317:Una Corda
272:harmonics
265:harmonics
177:frequency
1686:Virginal
1617:Melodica
1562:Carillon
1557:Calliope
1169:Archived
1127:See also
1108:, and a
848:Interval
724:14.1185
697:14.9580
694:10.3824
669:15.8475
666:10.9998
663:1.18243
640:16.7898
637:11.6539
634:1.25274
611:17.7882
608:12.3468
605:1.32724
600:.885824
580:18.8459
577:13.0810
574:1.40616
569:.938498
566:16.4810
548:19.9665
545:13.8588
542:1.48977
537:.994304
534:17.4610
531:11.8722
515:21.1538
512:14.6829
509:1.57836
504:1.05343
501:18.4993
498:12.5781
482:22.4117
479:15.5560
476:1.67221
471:1.11607
468:19.5994
465:13.3261
449:23.7444
446:16.4810
443:1.77165
438:1.18243
435:20.7648
432:14.1185
425:0.00000
420:523.251
417:493.883
414:466.164
411:440.000
408:415.305
405:391.995
402:369.994
399:349.228
396:329.628
393:311.127
390:293.665
387:277.183
384:261.626
283:interval
141:humidity
1814:Aliquot
1778:Sustain
1695:Layouts
1649:Orphica
1567:Celesta
1534:Musical
976:Stretch
966:Unison
960:Unison
955:Narrow
899:Narrow
868:Octave
862:Octave
658:Octave
191:History
185:tension
161:beating
149:strings
133:beating
83:(as in
68:. (See
62:pitches
58:in tune
1854:Wrench
1849:Tuning
1839:Action
1809:Wiring
1760:Pedals
1676:Spinet
1612:Keytar
1437:
1431:Tuning
1421:
1021:timbre
969:Exact
871:Exact
333:". In
287:octave
246:Theory
183:, and
1919:Piano
1819:Cross
1654:Piano
1622:Organ
1572:Chime
1154:Notes
1106:mutes
995:sharp
941:Wide
885:Wide
319:piano
222:" by
159:" or
50:piano
1773:Soft
1732:Keys
1536:and
1435:ISBN
1419:ISBN
963:1:1
949:6:5
935:5:4
921:4:3
907:3:2
893:8:5
879:5:3
865:2:1
358:A440
210:and
181:mass
89:MIDI
77:A440
1112:or
1061:is
783:C♯
731:D♯
647:F♯
587:G♯
522:A♯
263:or
1910::
1180:^
1033:.
809:C
757:D
704:E
676:F
618:G
555:A
489:B
456:C
206:,
165:Hz
99:-C
1526:e
1519:t
1512:v
1425:.
1198:.
1049:"
101:5
97:3
93:3
81:4
34:.
20:)
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