304:"The ideal diagnostic test would incorporate a theory of knowledge and a theory of instruction. The theory of knowledge would identify the student's skills and the theory of instruction would suggest remedies for the student's weaknesses. Moreover, the test would be, in a different sense of the word from what we have previously employed, adaptive. That is, it would not subject students to detailed examinations of skills in which they have acceptable overall competence or in which a student has important strengths and weaknesses—areas where an overall score is not an adequate representation of the individual's status."
168:
groups in each of which all individuals would be expected to make somewhat the same progress. It should afford the instructor a useful device for establishing academic relations with his class at the first meeting of the group. It should indicate to the student something of the preparation he is assumed to have made for the work upon which he is entering and introduce him to the nature of the material of the course.
370:
academic and non-academic factors that placement tests do not adequately capture”. Furthermore, Belfield and Crosta's 2012 study establishes “positive but weak association between placement test scores and college GPA”. Defining key skills and attributes that lead to college success cannot be simply extrapolated from performance on a single placement test.
374:
placement test have a high probability (with high predictive validity) of succeeding in college-level coursework. Meanwhile, those who do poorly on the placement test aren't necessarily put on a trajectory that has predictive validity. Regardless, those who start in remediation, end up becoming victims to the vicious cycle of being stuck in remediation.
137:
students from taking college level classes until they finish their developmental sequence(s), while others apply course prerequisites. For example, a psychology course may contain a reading prerequisite such that a student placing into developmental reading may not sign up for psychology until they complete the developmental reading requirement.
200:, at one time "community colleges embraced a completely open policy. They believed that students know best what they could and could not do and that no barriers should restrict them....This openness, however, came with a price....By the early 1970s, it became apparent that this unrestricted approach was a failure."
328:
According to a 2010 California community college study, about 56% of colleges did not provide practice placement tests, and for those that did, many students were not made aware of them. In addition, their students "did not think they should prepare, or thought that preparation would not change their
172:
Historically, the view that colleges can remediate abilities that may be lacking was not universal. Hammond and
Stoddard wrote in 1928: "Since, as has been amply demonstrated, scholastic ability is, in general, a quite permanent quality, any instrument that measures factors contributing to success in
43:
Historically, placement tests also served additional purposes such as providing individual instructors a prediction of each student's likely academic success, sorting students into homogeneous skill groups within the same course level and introducing students to course material. Placement testing can
39:
assess abilities in
English, mathematics and reading; they may also be used in other disciplines such as foreign languages, computer and internet technologies, health and natural sciences. The goal is to offer low-scoring students remedial coursework (or other remediation) to prepare them for regular
365:
As of 2012 neither kind of alignment has progressed to the point of close coordination of curriculum, assessments, or learning methodologies between public school systems and systems of higher education. Recently, state legislatures (including
California, Florida, and Connecticut) passed a series of
320:
Some studies offer partial support for the test publishers' claims. For example, several studies concluded that for admissions tests, coaching produces only modest, if statistically significant, score gains. Other studies, and claims by companies in the preparation business were more positive. Other
312:
A controversy exists over the value of test preparation and review. Test publishers maintain that their assessments should be taken without preparation, and that such preparation will not yield significantly higher scores. Test preparation organizations claim the opposite. Some schools have begun to
268:
In 1988, Ward predicted that computer adaptive testing would evolve to cover more advanced and varied item types, including simulations of problem situations, assessments of conceptual understanding, textual responses and essays. Tests now being developed incorporate conceptual questions in multiple
159:
In 1849 the
University of Wisconsin established country's first in-house preparatory department. Late in the century, Harvard introduced a mandatory expository writing course, and by the end of the 19th century, most colleges and universities had instituted both preparatory departments and mandatory
111:
Upon enrollment a student will be recommended or required to take placement tests, usually in
English or writing, in math and in reading. Testing may also include a computer-scored essay, or an English-as-a-second-language assessment. Students with disabilities may take an adaptive version, such as
332:
By 2011, at least three state community colleges systems (California, Florida, and North
Carolina), had asked publishers to bid to create customized placement tests, with integrated test reviews and practice tests. Meanwhile, some individual colleges have created online review courses complete with
316:
The publishers' claims are partly based on the theory that any test a student can prepare for does not measure general proficiency. Institutional test preparation programs are also said to risk washback, which is the tendency for the test content to dictate the prior curriculum, or "teaching to the
300:
Placement testing focuses on a holistic score to decide placement into various levels, but is not designed for more specific diagnoses. Increasing diagnostic precision could involve changes to both scoring and test design and to better targeted remediation programs, where students focus on areas of
167:
The chief function of the placement examination is prognosis. It is expected to yield results which will enable the administrator to predict with fair accuracy the character of work which a given individual is likely to do. It should afford a reasonable basis for sectioning a class into homogeneous
123:
Advisors interpret the scores and discuss course placement with the student. As a result of the placement, students may take multiple developmental courses before qualifying for college level courses. Students with the most developmental courses have the lowest odds of completing the developmental
176:
Entrance examinations began with the purpose of predicting college grades by assessing general achievement or intelligence. In 1914 T.L. Kelley published the results of his course-specific high school examinations designed to predict "the capacity of the student to carry a prospective high school
94:
is run using the test score as the independent variable, and course grades as the dependent conditions. Typically, grades of A, B or C are counted as successful, while grades of D and F are counted as unsuccessful. Grades of I (for an unconverted
Incomplete) and W (a Withdrawal) may be considered
324:
Other research indicates that reviewing for placement tests may raise scores by helping students to become comfortable with the test format and item types. It also might serve to refresh skills that have simply grown rusty. Placement tests often involve subjects and skills that students haven't
136:
Once students receive their placement, they either may or must begin taking developmental classes as prerequisites to credit-bearing college level classes that count toward their degree. Most students are unaware that developmental courses do not count toward a degree. Some institutions prevent
373:
Scott-Clayton claims “it is easier to distinguish between those likely to do very well and everyone else than it is to distinguish between those likely to do very poorly and everyone else”. This exacerbates the issue of the placement test as it highlights the fact that those who do well on the
369:
Succeeding in a college course requires students to fulfill a multitude of tasks in order to demonstrate their competency in a given class. Frederick's Ngo's study of
Multiple Measures further criticized the use of placement tests by considering that “college readiness is a function of several
349:
Since placement testing is done to measure college readiness, and high schools in part prepare students for college, it only makes sense that K-12 and higher education curricula be aligned. Such realignment could take many forms, including K-12 changes, collegiate changes or even collaboration
30:
is a practice that many colleges and universities use to assess college readiness and determine which classes a student should initially take. Since most two-year colleges have open, non-competitive admissions policies, many students are admitted without college-level academic qualifications.
259:
Conley recommends adding assessments of contextual skills and awareness, academic behaviors, and key cognitive strategies to the traditional math, reading and traditional tests Boylan proposes examining affective factors such as "motivation, attitudes toward learning, autonomy, or anxiety."
98:
Test scores are interpreted based on a proposed use and assessed in that context, rather than simply by establishing a predictive relationship between scores and grades. Since placement tests are designed to predict student learning in college courses, by extension they predict the need for
85:
In the construction of a test, subject matter experts (SMEs) construct questions that assess skills typically required of students for that content area. "Cut scores" are the minimum scores used to divide students into higher and lower level courses. SMEs sort test items into categories of
156:," called for grammar schools to be set up with the purpose of "being able to instruct youth so far as they shall be fitted for the university." Predictably, many in-coming students lacked sufficient fluency with Latin and got by with the help of tutors who had graduated as early as 1642.
478:
Morgan, Deanna. "Best
Practices for Setting Placement Cut Scores in Postsecondary Education" (working paper). Prepared for the NCPR Developmental Education Conference: What Policies and Practices Work for Students? September 23–24, 2010, Teachers College, Columbia University, p.
132:
Many students do not understand the high-stakes nature of placement testing. Lack of preparation is also cited as a problem. According to a study by
Rosenbaum, Schuetz and Foran, roughly three quarters of students surveyed say that they did not prepare for their placement tests.
321:
research has shown that students score higher with tutoring, with practice using cognitive and metacognitive strategies and under certain test parameters, such as when allowed to review answers before final submission, something that most computer adaptive tests do not allow.
89:
Once in use, placement tests are assessed for the degree to which they predict the achievements of students once they have been assigned to remedial or standard classes. Since grades serve as a common indirect measure of student learning, in the customary analysis, a binary
151:
Placement testing has its roots in remedial education, which has always been part of American higher education. Informal assessments were given at Harvard as early as the mid-1600s in the subject of Latin. Two years earlier, the Massachusetts Law of 1647, also known as the
325:
studied since elementary or middle school, and for older adults, the might be many years between high school and college. In addition, students who attach a consequence to test results and therefore take placement tests more seriously are likely to achieve higher scores.
102:
One study found that one-quarter of students assigned to math remediation and one-third of students assigned to English remediation in the US would have passed regular university courses with a grade of at least a B without any additional support.
750:
Scholes, Roberta J., & Lain, M. Margaret. (1997). "The Effects of Test Preparation Activities on ACT Assessment Scores." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. March 24–28, 22
404:
Conley, David. "Replacing Remediation with Readiness" (working paper). Prepared for the NCPR Developmental Education Conference: What Policies and Practices Work for Students? September 23–24, 2010, Teachers College, Columbia University, p.
99:
developmental education. However, the efficacy of developmental education has been questioned in recent research studies, such as those by Bettinger and Long; Calcagno and Long; Martorell and McFarlin and Attewell, Lavin, Domina and Levey.
692:"CCCAssess Proof of Concept Report 2011: Centralizing Assessment in the California Community Colleges." California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office, Telecommunications and Technology Division, Sacramento, CA, 2011, pp. 30, 33.
778:
Shokrpour, N., Zareii, E., Zahedi, S. S., & Rafatbakhsh, M. M. (2011). "The Impact of Cognitive and Meta-cognitive Strategies on Test Anxiety and Students' Educational Performance." European Journal of Social Science, 21(1),
60:
on that subject. It is not unusual for students to take a placement exam in a subject such as mathematics upon admission to a school or university to determine what level of classes they should take. Scores on such exams as the
188:(now the College Board) allowed colleges and universities to formalize entrance requirements and shift the burden of remedial education to junior colleges in the early 20th century and later to community and technical colleges.
682:
Ward, William C. "Using Microcomputers for Adaptive Testing," in Computerized adaptive testing: The state of the art in assessment at three community colleges." League for Innovation in the Community College, Laguna Hills, CA,
731:
Perlman, Carole L. (2003). "Practice Tests and Study Guides: Do They Help? Are They Ethical? What Is Ethical Test Preparation Practice?" Measuring Up: Assessment Issues for Teachers, Counselors, and Administrators, ERIC, 12
501:
Calcagno, J. C., and Long, B. T. "The Impact of Postsecondary Remediation Using a Regression Discontinuity Approach: Addressing Endogenous Sorting and Noncompliance." New York: National Center for Postsecondary Research,
797:
Napoli, Anthony R., & Raymond, Lanette A. (2004). "How Reliable Are Our Assessment Data?: A Comparison of the Reliability of Data Produced in Graded and Un-Graded Conditions." Research in Higher Education, 45(8),
44:
also serve a gatekeeper function, keeping academically challenged students from progressing into college programs, particularly in competitive admissions programs such as nursing within otherwise open-entry colleges.
619:
Willson, J.M. (1931). A study of an objective placement examination for sectioning college physics classes. Thesis submitted to the faculty of the School of Mines and Metallurgy of the University of Missouri, p. 5.
575:
Rosenbaum, James E., Schuetz, Pam & Foran, Amy. "How students make college plans and ways schools and colleges could help." (working paper, Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, July 15,
769:
Rothman, Terri, & Henderson, Mary. (2011). "Do School-Based Tutoring Programs Significantly Improve Student Performance on Standardized Tests?" Research in Middle Level Education Online, 34 (6), p1-10.
359:
269:
choice format (for example by presenting a student with a problem and the correct answer and then asking why that answer is correct); and computer-scored essays such as e-Write, and WritePlacer.
221:, such as 21 plus or minus in relevant subjects on ACT, and 500 plus or minus in relevant subject areas on SAT), other approved placement tests, or previous college coursework in math and English
280:
asked for "questions that require students to type in responses (e.g. a mathematical equation)" and for questions where "Students can annotate/highlight on the screen in the reading test." Some
143:
programs pay for up to 30 hours of developmental coursework. Under some placement regimens and at some community colleges, low-scoring students may require more than 30 hours of such classes.
668:
Saxon, Patrick; Levine-Brown, Patti; & Boylan, Hunter. "Affective Assessment for Developmental Students, Parts 1 & 2." Research in Developmental Education, 22(1&2), 2008, p. 1.
555:
Bailey, T., Jeong, D. W., & Cho, S. (2010). Referral, enrollment, and completion in developmental education sequences in community colleges. Economics of Education Review, 29, 255-270.
317:
test". Various test preparation methods have shown effectiveness: test-taking tips and training, familiarity with the answer sheet format along with strategies that mitigate test anxiety.
124:
sequence or passing gatekeeper college courses such as Expository Writing or College Algebra. Adelman has shown that this is not necessarily a result of developmental education itself.
807:
Venezia, A., Bracco, K. R., & Nodine, T. (2010). One-shot deal? Students' perceptions of assessment and course placement in California's community colleges. San Francisco: WestEd.
641:
Kelley, T. Educational Guidance: An Experimental Study in the Analysis and Prediction of High School Pupils. Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education. No. 71.
77:
exams can serve as placement tests for students in certain subjects, where a high score would enable them to get into a more advanced class than what a freshman would normally take.
207:
Placement testing using state approved tests is required (or encouraged) for all student (or all students taking classes for credit, or all new students taking classes for credit)
760:
Buchmann, C., Condron, D. J., & Roscigno, V. J. (2010). "Shadow Education, American Style: Test Preparation, the SAT and College Enrollment." Social Forces, 89(2), 435-461.
511:
Martorell, P., and McFarlin, I. "Help or Hindrance? The Effects of College Remediation on Academic and Labor Market Outcomes." Dallas: University of Texas at Dallas, 2007.
741:
Briggs, Derek C. 2001. "Are standardized test coaching programs effective? The effect of admissions test preparation: Evidence from NELS:88. Chance, Vol. 14,(1) pp 10-21.
341:
In "Using Microcomputers for Adaptive Testing," Ward predicted the computerization of branching simulation problems, such as those used in professional licensing exams.
722:
Robb, Thomas N., & Ercanbrack, Jay. (1999). "A Study of the Effect of Direct Test preparation on the TOEIC Scores of Japanese University Students." TESL-EJ, 3(4).
823:
Ngo, Federick; Kwon, William W. (2015-08-01). "Using Multiple Measures to Make Math Placement Decisions: Implications for Access and Success in Community Colleges".
86:
appropriate difficulty, or correlate item difficulty to course levels. "Performance level descriptors" define the required skills for remedial and standard courses.
788:
Papanastasiou, E. C. (2005). "Item Review and the Rearrangement Procedure: Its process and its results." Educational Research And Evaluation, 11(4), 303-321.
659:
McCabe, Robert H. (2000). No One to Waste: A Report to Public Decision-Makers and Community College Leaders. Washington, DC: Community College Press, p. 42.
416:
632:"A Study of Placement Examinations." University of Iowa Studies in Education. Charles L. Robbins, Editor. Volume 4(7) Published by UIA, Iowa City, p9.
585:
Rosenbaum, J., Deil-Amen, R., & Person, A. (2006). After admission: From college access to college success. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
242:
Requiring completion of Students may not register for college level classes until they have completed all (or certain) prescribed remedial courses
355:
351:
564:
Adelman, Clifford (2006). "The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college." U.S. Department of Education.
277:
185:
535:
488:
Bettinger, E., and Long, B. T. "Remediation at the Community College: Student Participation and Outcomes." In C. A. Kozeracki (ed.),
196:
Required placement testing and remediation was not always considered desirable. According to Robert McCabe, former president of
117:
366:
mandates to redefine developmental curricula. This was done in response to diminishing four-year graduation rates in college.
56:
designed to evaluate a person's knowledge of a subject and thus determine the level most suitable for the person to begin
607:
Wright, Thomas Goddard (1920). Literary culture in early New England, 1620-1730. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, Ch. 6, p. 99.
197:
880:
66:
350:
between the two levels. Various efforts to improve education may undertake this challenge, such as the national K-12
213:
Placement testing waived for students demonstrating college readiness via admissions tests (typically high scores on
608:
281:
230:
Before testing/retesting students are encouraged/required to review study guides or complete a review course.
273:
621:
245:
Defining remedial prerequisites such as placement test score or remedial coursework for specific courses.
383:
153:
565:
236:
Remedial students encouraged/required to take diagnostic assessments before/during their coursework
140:
91:
62:
224:
Students allowed/required to retest after/within a certain length of time (sometimes for a fee).
840:
461:
53:
832:
453:
520:
Attewell, P., Lavin, D., Domina, T., and Levey, T. "New Evidence on College Remediation."
173:
the freshman year will also be indicative of success in later years of the curriculum."
595:
874:
442:"The Advanced Placement Exam in History: Growth, Controversies, and New Perspectives"
808:
861:
Do High-Stakes Placement Exams Predict College Success? CCRC Working Paper No. 41
492:
New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 129. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005.
609:
https://web.archive.org/web/20051025080258/http://www.dinsdoc.com/wright-1-6.htm
178:
836:
57:
17:
844:
465:
239:
Integration of criteria beyond test scores into remediation decision-making.
218:
214:
210:
Students must meet approved cut scores to gain access to specific courses
622:
http://scholarsmine.mst.edu/thesis/pdf/Willson_1931_09007dcc8073add4.pdf
289:
227:
Students must begin remedial coursework within a specified time period.
177:
course." The courses were algebra, English, geometry and history, with
113:
74:
441:
70:
859:
457:
292:, automatically assess user-written computer code for correctness.
703:"Free Online Courses. Advance your College Education & Career"
360:
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
285:
417:"History of Standardized Testing in the United States | NEA"
702:
203:
Examples of state or college placement testing policies:
490:
Responding to the Challenges of Developmental Education.
536:"Are College Entrants Overdiagnosed as Underprepared?"
596:
http://www.lawlib.state.ma.us/docs/DeluderSatan.pdf
95:unsuccessful or may be excluded from the analysis.
233:Cut score levels, roles and reviews are described.
809:http://www.wested.org/online_pubs/OneShotDeal.pdf
400:
398:
301:demonstrated weakness within a broader subject.
181:ranging from R =.31 (history) to .44 (English).
818:
816:
8:
333:instructional videos and practice tests.
255:Testing other elements of student ability
594:Massachusetts Trial Court Law Libraries
276:on a centralized assessment system, the
858:Scott-Clayton, Judith (February 2012).
678:
676:
674:
394:
534:Judith Scott-Clayton (20 April 2012).
356:Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
352:Common Core State Standards Initiative
7:
864:. Community College Research Center.
278:California Community Colleges System
440:Reichard, Gary; Keirn, Tim (1999).
186:College Entrance Examination Board
116:format that is compliant with the
25:
415:Association, National Education.
118:Americans with Disabilities Act
184:Entrance examinations and the
1:
160:expository writing programs.
107:The placement testing process
825:Research in Higher Education
345:Secondary/tertiary alignment
296:Diagnostic placement testing
198:Miami-Dade Community College
522:Journal of Higher Education
282:massive open online courses
163:According to John Willson,
67:International Baccalaureate
897:
313:support test preparation.
837:10.1007/s11162-014-9352-9
524:2006, 77(5), pp 886–924.
264:Alternative test formats
284:, such as those run by
274:Request for Information
354:in the United States,
170:
75:British Advanced Level
52:A placement exam is a
384:Oxford Placement Test
165:
154:Old Deluder Satan Law
446:The History Teacher
141:Federal Student Aid
92:logistic regression
48:Secondary schooling
881:Standardized tests
128:Student acceptance
63:Advanced Placement
71:SAT Subject Tests
28:Placement testing
16:(Redirected from
888:
866:
865:
855:
849:
848:
820:
811:
805:
799:
795:
789:
786:
780:
776:
770:
767:
761:
758:
752:
748:
742:
739:
733:
729:
723:
720:
714:
713:
711:
710:
699:
693:
690:
684:
680:
669:
666:
660:
657:
651:
648:
642:
639:
633:
630:
624:
617:
611:
605:
599:
592:
586:
583:
577:
573:
567:
562:
556:
553:
547:
546:
544:
543:
531:
525:
518:
512:
509:
503:
499:
493:
486:
480:
476:
470:
469:
437:
431:
430:
428:
427:
412:
406:
402:
308:Test preparation
21:
896:
895:
891:
890:
889:
887:
886:
885:
871:
870:
869:
857:
856:
852:
822:
821:
814:
806:
802:
796:
792:
787:
783:
777:
773:
768:
764:
759:
755:
749:
745:
740:
736:
730:
726:
721:
717:
708:
706:
701:
700:
696:
691:
687:
681:
672:
667:
663:
658:
654:
649:
645:
640:
636:
631:
627:
618:
614:
606:
602:
593:
589:
584:
580:
574:
570:
563:
559:
554:
550:
541:
539:
533:
532:
528:
519:
515:
510:
506:
500:
496:
487:
483:
477:
473:
439:
438:
434:
425:
423:
414:
413:
409:
403:
396:
392:
380:
358:(SBAC), or the
347:
339:
310:
298:
266:
257:
252:
194:
149:
130:
112:in an audio or
109:
83:
50:
37:placement tests
33:Placement exams
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
894:
892:
884:
883:
873:
872:
868:
867:
850:
831:(5): 442–470.
812:
800:
790:
781:
771:
762:
753:
743:
734:
724:
715:
694:
685:
670:
661:
652:
643:
634:
625:
612:
600:
587:
578:
568:
557:
548:
526:
513:
504:
494:
481:
471:
458:10.2307/494438
452:(2): 169–173.
432:
407:
393:
391:
388:
387:
386:
379:
376:
346:
343:
338:
335:
309:
306:
297:
294:
265:
262:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
231:
228:
225:
222:
211:
208:
193:
190:
148:
145:
129:
126:
108:
105:
82:
79:
49:
46:
24:
18:Placement exam
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
893:
882:
879:
878:
876:
863:
862:
854:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
819:
817:
813:
810:
804:
801:
794:
791:
785:
782:
775:
772:
766:
763:
757:
754:
747:
744:
738:
735:
728:
725:
719:
716:
704:
698:
695:
689:
686:
679:
677:
675:
671:
665:
662:
656:
653:
647:
644:
638:
635:
629:
626:
623:
616:
613:
610:
604:
601:
597:
591:
588:
582:
579:
572:
569:
566:
561:
558:
552:
549:
538:. NYTimes.com
537:
530:
527:
523:
517:
514:
508:
505:
498:
495:
491:
485:
482:
475:
472:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
436:
433:
422:
418:
411:
408:
401:
399:
395:
389:
385:
382:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
361:
357:
353:
344:
342:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
307:
305:
302:
295:
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
270:
263:
261:
254:
249:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:
216:
212:
209:
206:
205:
204:
201:
199:
191:
189:
187:
182:
180:
174:
169:
164:
161:
157:
155:
146:
144:
142:
138:
134:
127:
125:
121:
119:
115:
106:
104:
100:
96:
93:
87:
81:Test validity
80:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
55:
47:
45:
41:
40:coursework.
38:
34:
29:
19:
860:
853:
828:
824:
803:
793:
784:
774:
765:
756:
746:
737:
727:
718:
707:. Retrieved
697:
688:
664:
655:
650:Boylan, 1988
646:
637:
628:
615:
603:
590:
581:
571:
560:
551:
540:. Retrieved
529:
521:
516:
507:
497:
489:
484:
474:
449:
445:
435:
424:. Retrieved
420:
410:
372:
368:
364:
348:
340:
331:
329:placement."
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
303:
299:
271:
267:
258:
250:Alternatives
202:
195:
183:
179:correlations
175:
171:
166:
162:
158:
150:
139:
135:
131:
122:
110:
101:
97:
88:
84:
51:
42:
36:
32:
27:
26:
421:www.nea.org
337:Simulations
709:2012-11-22
542:2012-04-24
426:2022-07-04
390:References
58:coursework
845:1573-188X
705:. Udacity
466:0018-2745
362:(PARCC).
219:SAT tests
875:Category
798:921-929.
779:177-188.
378:See also
192:Policies
290:Udacity
147:History
120:(ADA).
114:braille
843:
751:pages.
732:pages.
576:2010).
464:
73:, and
502:2008.
272:In a
841:ISSN
683:1988
462:ISSN
54:test
833:doi
479:12.
454:doi
405:12.
288:or
286:edX
217:or
215:ACT
35:or
877::
839:.
829:56
827:.
815:^
673:^
460:.
450:32
448:.
444:.
419:.
397:^
69:,
65:,
847:.
835::
712:.
598:.
545:.
468:.
456::
429:.
152:"
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.