974:, can be perceived as a political crime when those in power see such conduct as undermining the political (and economic) stability of the state. In this context, note that the Law Enforcement Code of Conduct passed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police says in part: "The fundamental duties of a police officer include serving the community, safeguarding lives and property, protecting the innocent, keeping the peace and ensuring the rights of all to liberty, equality and justice" (cited in Robinson, 2002). This code requires that police behave in a courteous and fair manner, that they treat all citizens in a respectable and decent manner, and that they never use unnecessary force. When they do, it is argued that this constitutes a crime (e.g. as an
1016:
centralised. In particular, the rationalisation of criminal law standardised not just the concept of crime, but was adopted as the means to eliminate the "deviant" as a threat to a modern, uniform, moral standard. In this, the religious establishment began to play a new role in defining "evil" in which threats to the political or social norm became as dangerous as threats to religious orthodoxy. Thus, political speech became one of the most likely activities to be criminalised. The freedom of association and to meet may also be criminalised if the purpose is to express oppositional political views.
40:
1032:
furnished more victims to the
Executioner than the former. Because real Treasons are rare: Oppressions frequent. The unsuccessful Struggles against Tyranny have been the chief Martyrs of Treason laws in all countries. Reformation of government with our neighbors, as much wanting now as Reformation of religion is, or ever was anywhere. We should not wish then to give up to the Executioner the Patriot who fails, and flees to us. Treasons then, taking the simulated with the real are sufficiently punished by Exile.
112:
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plays a crucial role in promoting conformity and order. However, unlike the latter, they are highly critical of the ideas, values and norms of "capitalist ideology". Modern
Marxists point to education and the media as socialising agencies, which delude or "mystify" the working class into conforming
944:
is usually considered a political crime. But offenders do not have to aim to overthrow the government or to depose its leaders to be acting in a way perceived as "political". A state may perceive it threatening if individuals advocate change to the established order, or argue the need for reform of
1083:
Where there is no clear separation between the state and the prevailing religion, the edicts of the church may be codified as law and enforced by the secular policing and judicial authorities. This is a highly functionalist mechanism for enforcing conformity in all aspects of cultural life and the
1015:
Miller says that one of the defining characteristics of power in modern history has been the rationalisation and bureaucratisation of law. Legal codification, or at least debates over the merits of legal codification, became an almost global phenomenon in the nineteenth century as state power was
996:
advantages. Thus, states will protect property rights and reduce the rights of trade unions to represent the interests of the poor. Even war could be grounded in the problems of local capitalists in wealthy countries in the effort to move raw materials, profits and jobs in a globalised political
1052:
People convicted or suspected of certain crimes classified as terrorism by the government of their country (or some foreign countries) reject that classification. They consider that their fight is a legitimate one using legitimate means, and thus their crimes should be more appropriately called
1031:
Treason. This, when real, merits the highest punishment. But most Codes extend their definitions of treason to acts not really against one's country. They do not distinguish between acts against the government, and acts against the
Oppressions of the Government. The latter are virtues: yet have
955:
is encouraged and maintained through the primary social discourses which may include religious, economic, social, or other less formal concerns. Any interference with the media of communication or the sets of meanings embedded in the communications themselves may be perceived as a threat to the
956:
political authority of the state. Hence, whether in hard copy or electronically, if individuals distribute material containing uncensored information which undermines the credibility of state-controlled news media, this may be considered threatening.
1130:'If it's a political offence, you can't extradite a person' to a country outside the EU, said Per Clareus, a spokesman for Swedish Justice Minister Beatrice Ask. 'And espionage is usually considered a political crime,' he added.
1001:
to function efficiently, social order is necessary. But they consider that, in all societies, one class, usually characterised as the "ruling class", gains far more than other classes. Marxists agree with functionalists that
878:. States may criminalise any behaviour perceived as a threat, real or imagined, to the state's survival, including both violent and non-violent opposition. A consequence of such criminalisation may be that a range of
901:, even though the majority of those who support the current regime may consider criminalisation of politically motivated behaviour an acceptable response when the offender is driven by more extreme political,
1007:
to a social order, which works against its real interests. Thus, all controls which directly or indirectly exploit the criminal law to control access to the discourses are political crimes.
959:
Moreover, even an offence against non-governmental institutions, persons, or practices may be deemed political. Violence or even discrimination against an ethnic or racial group, as well
945:
long-established policies, or engage in acts signifying some degree of disloyalty, e.g. by burning the nation's flag in public. But the scope of such crimes can be rather less direct.
1019:
Because a political offender may be fighting against a tyrannical government, treaties have usually specified that a person cannot be extradited for a political offense (the
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890:(in other words, that is not antisocial according to those who engage in it) is criminalised at the convenience of the group holding power.
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political crimes and justify special treatment in the penal system (as if they were soldiers in a war and therefore covered by the
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criminologists recognise that states invest their resources in maintaining order through social conformity, i.e. a particular
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244:
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710:
1223:
Tunnell, K. D. (1993). "Political crime and pedagogy: A content analysis of criminology and criminal justice texts".
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Miller, Ruth A. "Corruption, Authority, and Evil: The
Invention of Political Crime in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey"
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617:
342:
293:
166:
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1148:. Washington, D. C., Issued under the auspices of the Thomas Jefferson memorial association of the United States.
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process and make no distinction between the terrorists and "ordinary" offenders, e.g. the convicted murderers of
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argue that most political crime arises from the efforts of the state to reproduce the structures of inequality:
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978:) and, if it is institutionalised, then over time, the use of unnecessary force become a state crime.
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Anderson, K. (2006). "Hacktivism and
Politically Motivated Computer Crime". Portland: Encurve, LLC.
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economy, and opposing such a war will be a political crime. Marxists do not dispute that, for a
1054:
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308:
234:
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Kittrie, Nicholas. (March 1975). "In Search of
Political Crime and Political Criminals", 50
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433:
379:
28:
1057:). States tend to consider the political nature of the crimes an aggravating factor in the
886:, and freedoms are curtailed, and conduct which would not normally be considered criminal
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are political because they represent a direct challenge to the government in power.
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use of the label "crime" adds an extra layer of stigma to those convicted.
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Crimes by the capitalist state: An introduction to state criminality
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Justice Blind? Ideals and
Realities of American Criminal Justice
33:
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Political crime in contemporary
America: A critical approach
1199:(2nd ed.), New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
1176:Kooistra, P. G. (1985), "What is Political Crime?"
1120:"Sweden: extradition of US spy suspect 'unlikely'"
1145:The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Correspondence
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1166:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
835:
8:
908:Political crime is to be distinguished from
897:of a law which simply criminalises ordinary
842:
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476:
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1192:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
84:Learn how and when to remove this message
1204:Varieties of State Crime and its Control
47:This article includes a list of general
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554:
98:
1225:Journal of Criminal Justice Education
893:Thus, there may be a question of the
870:that prejudices the interests of the
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1218:An Introduction to Political Crime
1206:, Monsey: Criminal Justice Press.
912:, in which states break their own
53:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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1234:. New York: Garland Publishing.
1195:Ross, Jeffrey Ian. (1995/2000),
187:Risk & actuarial criminology
110:
38:
1211:The Dynamics of Political Crime
992:, ethnic preference as well as
928:At one extreme, crimes such as
1253:New International Encyclopedia
1171:New York University Law Review
905:, religious or other beliefs.
1:
1216:Ross, Jeffrey Ian. (2012),
1209:Ross, Jeffrey Ian. (2003),
1202:Ross, Jeffrey Ian. (2000),
1021:political offence exception
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1247:"Political Offenses"
1178:Criminal Justice Abstracts
1142:Jefferson, Thomas (1903).
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167:Expressive function of law
26:
1220:, Bristol: Policy Press.
1162:Barak, G. (Ed.). (1991).
1011:Authoritarian governments
157:Differential association
27:Not to be confused with
1230:Tunnell, K. D. (1993).
1213:, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
1197:Controlling State Crime
212:Symbolic interactionism
68:more precise citations.
1034:
982:Marxist criminologists
949:Structural functionist
1188:Robinson, M. (2002).
1077:Further information:
716:Biosocial criminology
423:Uniform Crime Reports
132:Biosocial criminology
1065:consider themselves
591:Solitary confinement
255:Alexandre Lacassagne
1067:political prisoners
781:Radical criminology
142:Collective efficacy
1276:Politics by issue
1128:. 27 April 2013.
1055:Geneva Convention
918:international law
899:political dissent
864:political offence
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535:Prisoners' rights
439:Positivist school
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18:Political offense
16:(Redirected from
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884:civil rights
880:human rights
863:
859:
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761:Experimental
483:Denunciation
449:Quantitative
359:Public-order
352:
314:White-collar
245:Enrico Ferri
240:Hans Eysenck
80:
71:
52:
1109:Ross, 2004.
1100:Ross, 2000.
961:trade union
910:state crime
903:ideological
856:criminology
751:Development
726:Criminology
648:Integrative
586:Utilitarian
581:Retributive
571:Restorative
558:in penology
444:Qualitative
418:Ethnography
403:Comparative
309:Blue-collar
217:Victimology
177:Psychopathy
100:Criminology
66:introducing
1265:Categories
1088:References
1079:Secularism
1059:sentencing
876:government
746:Demography
668:Positivist
547:Recidivism
488:Deterrence
380:Victimless
207:Subculture
49:references
1125:The Local
1048:Terrorism
1042:Terrorism
972:employers
968:picketing
942:Espionage
938:terrorism
771:Political
700:Subfields
623:Classical
613:Anarchist
508:abolition
408:Profiling
353:Political
348:Organized
333:Corporate
321:Cold case
277:Types of
934:sedition
924:Overview
895:morality
804:Journals
731:Critical
721:Conflict
706:American
677:Realism
643:Feminist
633:Critical
628:Conflict
525:Prisoner
472:Penology
338:Juvenile
289:Humanity
285:Against
162:Deviance
104:penology
1256:. 1905.
1027:wrote:
999:society
976:assault
964:strikes
953:culture
930:treason
874:or its
868:offence
736:Culture
658:Marxist
653:Italian
618:Chicago
607:Schools
556:Justice
397:Methods
326:Perfect
62:improve
990:sexism
986:racism
936:, and
888:per se
866:is an
814:People
793:Browse
776:Public
518:reform
503:Prison
305:Class
294:Person
202:Strain
127:Anomie
121:Theory
51:, but
994:class
872:state
799:Index
741:Cyber
686:Right
498:Trial
459:NIBRS
365:State
299:State
279:crime
1173:202.
858:, a
681:Left
513:open
102:and
1023:).
966:or
916:or
862:or
854:In
454:BJS
385:War
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882:,
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