Heard Island and McDonald Islands

2092: 79: 488: 1214:. Low plant diversity reflects the islands' isolation, small size, severe climate, the short, cool growing season and, for Heard Island, substantial permanent ice cover. The main environmental determinants of vegetation on subantarctic islands are wind exposure, water availability, parent soil composition, salt spray exposure, nutrient availability, disturbance by trampling (from seabirds and seals) and, possibly, altitude. At Heard Island, exposure to salt spray and the presence of breeding and moulting seabirds and seals is a particularly strong influence on vegetation composition and structure in coastal areas. 4202: 352: 496: 4151: 62: 145: 672: 1289:(mosses and liverworts) contribute substantially to the overall biodiversity of Heard Island, with 43 mosses and 19 liverworts being recorded, often occupying habitats unsuitable for vascular plants, such as cliff faces. Bryophytes are present in most of the major vegetation communities including several soil and moss-inhabiting species. A 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity than that on Heard Island; four mosses and a number of algal species are recorded from there. 698:(at the northwestern end of Heard Island) range from 0.0 to 4.2 °C (32.0 to 39.6 °F), with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2 °C (38.7 to 41.4 °F) in summer and −0.8 to 0.3 °C (30.6 to 32.5 °F) in winter. The winds are predominantly westerly and persistently strong. At Atlas Cove, monthly average wind speeds range between around 26 and 33.5 km/h (16.2 and 20.8 mph). Gusts in excess of 180 km/h (110 mph) have been recorded. 48: 1527: 1699:

cautious about the interpretation of the increasing trend given the disparate nature of the data, as discussed in the paper. The discovery of a large, previously unknown, colony of Heard shags in 2000/01 at Cape Pillar raised the known breeding population from 200 pairs to over 1000 pairs. The breeding population of southern giant petrels decreased by more than 50% between the early 1950s and the late 1980s.

1839:, lichen-covered rocks, exposed rock faces or the underside of rocks. There is a pronounced seasonality to the insect fauna, with densities in winter months dropping to a small percentage (between 0.75%) of the summer maximum. Distinct differences in relative abundances of species between habitats has also been shown, including a negative relationship between altitude and body size for Heard Island weevils. 2265: 399:, went ashore at a place called Oil Barrel Point. From 1855 to 1882 a number of American sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at Oil Barrel Point. At its peak the community consisted of 200 people. By 1880, sealers had wiped out most of the seal population and then left the island. In all, the islands furnished more than 100,000 barrels of 2223: 2251: 1713: 1142: 3741: 1687:(1999, four are listed as threatened species and five are listed migratory species. Under the EPBC Act a recovery plan has been made for albatrosses and giant petrels, which calls for ongoing population monitoring of the species found at HIMI, and at the time of preparing this plan a draft recovery plan has also been made for the 2237: 625:. Many of these wetland areas are separated by active glaciers. There are also several short glacier-fed streams and glacial pools. Some wetland areas have been recorded on McDonald Island but, due to substantial volcanic activity since the last landing was made in 1980, their present extent is unknown. 1822:

Beetles and flies dominate Heard Island's known insect fauna, which comprises up to 21 species of ectoparasite (associated with birds and seals) and up to 13 free-living species. Approximately half of the free-living insects are habitat-specific, while the remainder are generalists found in a variety

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A paper reviewing population data for the black-browed albatross between 1947 and 2000/01 suggested that the breeding population had increased to about three times that present in the late 1940s, although a Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CCAMLR) Working Group was

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One of the most rapidly changing physical settings in the subantarctic has been produced on Heard Island by a combination of rapid glacial recession and climate warming. The consequent increase in habitat available for plant colonisation, plus the coalescing of previously discrete ice-free areas, has

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than other subantarctic islands. Heard Island is the largest subantarctic island with no confirmed human-introduced plants. Areas available for plant colonisation on Heard Island are generally the result of retreating glaciers or new ice-free land created by lava flows. Today, substantial vegetation

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As with the other shore biota, the marine macro-invertebrate fauna of Heard Island is similar in composition and local distribution to other subantarctic islands, although relatively little is known about the Heard Island communities compared with the well-studied fauna of some other islands in the

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populations have increased in density and abundance within the original areas and have expanded beyond them. Expeditioner boot traffic during the Australian Antarctic program expedition in 1987 may be at least partly responsible for the spread, but it is probably mainly due to dispersal by wind and

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Six wetland types have been identified from HIMI covering approximately 1860 ha: coastal 'pool complex' (237 ha); inland 'pool complex' (105 ha); vegetated seeps mostly on recent glaciated areas (18 ha); glacial lagoons (1103 ha); non-glacial lagoons (97ha); Elephant Spit (300 ha) plus some coastal

2007:

During the time period between 1947 and 1988, the total area of Heard Island's glaciers decreased by 11%, from 288 square kilometres (111 sq mi) (roughly 79% of the total area of Heard Island) to only 257 square kilometres (99 sq mi). A visit to the island in the spring of 2000

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between 1874 and 1929. Between 1949 and 1954, marked changes were observed to have occurred in the ice formations above 5000 feet on the southwestern slopes of Big Ben, possibly as a result of volcanic activity. By 1963, major recession was obvious below 2000 feet on almost all glaciers, and minor

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The recorded populations of some seabird species found in the Reserve have shown marked change. The king penguin population is the best studied seabird species on Heard Island and has shown a dramatic increase since first recorded in 1947/48, with the population doubling every five years or so for

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occur at a number of sites around Heard Island and at least 17 other species of seaweed are known, with more to be added following the identification of recent collections. Low seaweed diversity is due to the island's isolation from other land masses, unsuitable beach habitat, constant abrasion by

694:) under the Köppen climate classification, tempered by their maritime setting. The weather is marked by low seasonal and daily temperature ranges; persistent and generally low cloud cover; frequent precipitation and strong winds. Snowfall occurs throughout the year. Monthly average temperatures at 1686:

A further 28 seabird species are recorded as either non-breeding visitors or have been noted during 'at-sea surveys' of the islands. All recorded breeding species, other than the Heard Island sheathbill, are listed marine species under the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Act

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The potential for introducing plant species (including invasive species not previously found on subantarctic islands) by both natural and human-induced means is high. This is due to the combination of low species diversity and climatic amelioration. During the 2003/04 summer a new plant species,

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are the major vegetation components. The vascular flora comprises the smallest number of species of any major subantarctic island group, reflecting its isolation, small ice-free area and severe climate. Twelve vascular species are known from Heard Island, of which five have also been recorded on

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The fauna of the freshwater pools, lakes, streams and mires found in the coastal areas of Heard Island are broadly similar to those on other subantarctic islands of the southern Indian Ocean. Many species reported from Heard Island are found elsewhere. Some sampling of freshwater fauna has been

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Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are free from introduced predators and provide crucial breeding habitat in the middle of the vast Southern Ocean for a range of birds. The surrounding waters are important feeding areas for birds and some scavenging species also derive sustenance from their

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and six moss species. Volcanic activity has altered the distribution and abundance of the vegetation. The vascular flora covers a range of environments and, although only six species are currently widespread, glacial retreat and the consequent connection of previously separate ice-free areas is

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at Heard Island lasted from 1855 to 1910, during which time 67 sealing vessels are recorded visiting, nine of which were wrecked off the coast. Relics that survive from that time include trypots, casks, hut ruins, graves and inscriptions. This caused the seal populations there to either become

608:. Mawson Peak has erupted several times in the last decade and as recently as May 2023. An earlier eruption was filmed on 2 February 2016. The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000 years, became active in 1992 and has erupted several times since, the most recently in 2005. 1443:

Some plant species are spreading and modifying the structure and composition of communities, some of which are also increasing in distribution. It is likely that further changes will occur, and possibly at an accelerated rate. Changes in population numbers of seal and seabird species are also

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occurs on moist substrate, mostly on moraines and moist lee slopes (often in association with burrowing petrels colonies) at low altitude (< 40 m) where the water table is at or close to the surface. Species richness is highest here of all the communities, with dominant species being

2018: mi) since 1950. The total ice-covered area of Brown Glacier is estimated to have decreased by roughly 29% between 1947 and 2004. This degree of loss of glacier mass is consistent with the measured increase in temperature of 0.9 °C (1.6 °F) over that time span. 1485:

have been recorded from Heard Island and they are common on exposed rock, dominating the vegetation in some areas. As with plants, a 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity there, with just eight lichen species and a number of non-lichenized fungi recorded.

1473:, was recorded. Only one small specimen was found growing on a coastal river terrace that had experienced substantial development and expansion of vegetation over the past decade. The species has a circumantarctic distribution and occurs on many subantarctic islands. 3164:

Woehler, E.J. & Croxall, J.P. 1991. ‘Status and conservation of the seabirds of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands’, in Seabird – status and conservation: a supplement, ICBP Technical Publication 11. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. pp

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on the west coast have lost at least 100 and 200 vertical feet of ice, respectively. Winston Glacier, which retreated approximately one mile between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. The young moraines flanking

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of Heard Island, most of its glaciers are relatively thin (averaging only about 55 m (180 ft) in depth). The presence of glaciers on Heard Island provides an excellent opportunity to measure the rate of glacial retreat as an indicator of climate change.

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Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbours; ships must anchor offshore. The coastline is 101.9 km (63.3 mi) in extent, and a 12 nmi (22 km) territorial sea and 200 nmi (370 km) exclusive fishing zone are claimed.

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The islands' only natural resource is fish; the Australian government allows limited fishing in the surrounding waters. There are no active military installations or defence personnel on the islands. However, as part of "Operation Resolute", the

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Nineteen species of birds have been recorded as breeding on Heard Island and the McDonald Islands, although recent volcanic activity at the McDonald Islands in the last decade is likely to have reduced vegetated and un-vegetated nesting areas.

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from the Kerguelen Islands where it is widespread. It was initially recorded in 1987 in two deglaciated areas of Heard Island not previously exposed to human visitors, while being absent from known sites of past human habitation. Since 1987

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The rocky shores of Heard Island exhibit a clear demarcation between fauna of the lower kelp holdfast zone and the upper shore zone community, probably due to effects of desiccation, predation and freezing in the higher areas. The limpet

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Heard Island supports a relatively low number of terrestrial invertebrate species compared to other Southern Ocean islands, in parallel with the low species richness in the flora–that is, the island's isolation and limited ice-free area.

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Heard Island has a range of terrestrial environments in which vegetation occurs. Seven general vegetation communities are currently recognised, although vegetation composition is considered more of a continuum than discrete units:

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locally extinct or reduced to levels too low to exploit economically. Modern sealers visited from Cape Town in the 1920s. Since then the populations have generally increased and are protected. Seals breeding on Heard include the

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of Brown Glacier was more than double average rate measured from 1947 to 2003. The increase in the rate of ice loss suggests that the glaciers of Heard Island are reacting to ongoing climate change, rather than approaching

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patrol boats to carry out civil maritime security operations in both Australian mainland and offshore territories including the Heard Island and McDonald Islands. In part to carry out this mission, as of 2023, the Navy's

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applying to the Territory. The islands are contained within a 65,000-square-kilometre (25,000 sq mi) marine reserve and are primarily visited for research, meaning that there is no permanent human habitation.

522:'s Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alert Team showed an active 2-kilometre-long (1.2 mi) and 50- to 90-metre-wide (164–295 ft) lava flow trending south-west from the summit of Big Ben. 640:

areas. On Heard Island, the majority of these types suites are found below 150 m asl. The wetland vegetation occurs in the 'wet mixed herbfield' and 'coastal biotic vegetation' communities described above.

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SC–CAMLR 2002. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment. Report of the Twenty-First Meeting of the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Hobart, Australia.

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The islands were formally claimed by the United Kingdom in 1910 and transferred to Australia on 26 December 1947. The transfer was confirmed in letters exchanged on 19 December 1950. The archipelago became a

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Heard Island has a number of small wetland sites scattered around its coastal perimeter, including areas of wetland vegetation, lagoons or lagoon complexes, rocky shores and sandy shores, including the

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Heard Island, by far the largest of the group, is a 368-square-kilometre (142 sq mi) mountainous island covered by 41 glaciers (the island is 80% covered with ice) and dominated by the

4420: 3441: 3959: 2103:. Effective government, administration and control of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands was transferred to the Australian government on 26 December 1947 at the commencement of the first 701:

Annual precipitation at sea level on Heard Island is in the order of 1,300 to 1,900 mm (51.2 to 74.8 in); rain or snow falls on about 3 out of 4 days. According to the Australian

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is also generally low and the invertebrate fauna is exceptionally pristine with few, if any, (successful) human-induced introductions of alien species. Two species, including the thrips

2107:(ANARE) to Heard Island, with a formal declaration that took place at Atlas Cove. The transfer was confirmed by an exchange of letters between the two governments on 19 December 1950. 1862:

Despite Heard Island's isolation, species richness is considered to be moderate, rather than depauperate, although the number of endemic species reported is low. The large macro-alga

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are located 44 kilometres (27 mi) to the west of Heard Island. They consist of McDonald Island (186 m or 610 ft high), Flat Island (55 m or 180 ft high) and

266:. The group's overall land area is 372 km (144 sq mi) and it has 101.9 km (63 mi) of coastline. Discovered in the mid-19th century, the islands lie on the 2872: 4770: 4765: 2099:

The United Kingdom formally established its claim to Heard Island in 1910, marked by the raising of the Union Flag and the erection of a beacon by Captain Evensen, master of the

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expedition), with a further operation in January 1997 (VK0IR). The DXpedition in March 2016 (VK0EK) was organised by Cordell Expeditions, and made over 75,000 radio contacts.

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on glacier mass balance. Based on the findings of that expedition, the rate of loss of glacier ice on Heard Island appears to be accelerating. Between 2000 and 2003, repeat

2008:

found that the Stephenson, Brown and Baudissin glaciers, among others, had retreated even further. The terminus of Brown Glacier has retreated approximately 1.1 kilometres (

406:

A number of wrecks have occurred in the vicinity of the islands. There is also a discarded building left from John Heard's sealing station that is situated near Atlas Cove.

1620:. The penguins mostly colonise the coastal tussock and grasslands of Heard Island, and have previously been recorded as occupying the flats and gullies on McDonald Island. 2104: 1992:

taken in December 1947 with those taken on a return visit in early 1980. Retreat of Heard Island glaciers is most dramatic on the eastern section of the island, where the

1734: 1159: 3179:

Woehler, E.J. (2006). ‘Status and trends of the seabirds of Heard Island, 2000’, in Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. ed. Green, K. & Woehler, E. Surrey Beattie.

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is abundant in the lower part of the shore, being found on rock surfaces and on kelp holdfasts. Other common but less abundant species in this habitat include the chiton

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expedition). A helicopter landing was made at the summit by an ANARE team on 21 December 1986. An Australian Army team was successful in making the third ascent in 2000.

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was also collected in 1929 from a dump near Atlas Cove, and has recently been collected from a variety of habitats including wallows, streams and lakes on Heard Island.

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led to marked changes in the vegetation of Heard Island in the last 20 years or so. Other species and vegetation communities found on subantarctic islands north of the

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Mawson Peak, atop Big Ben, was first climbed on 25 January 1965 by five members of the Southern Indian Ocean Expedition to Heard Island (sometimes referred to as the

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penguins, considered to be wetland species under the Ramsar Convention. Non-wetland vegetated parts of the islands also support penguin and other seabird colonies.

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Mawson Peak and McDonald Island are the only two active volcanoes in Australian territory. Mawson Peak is also one of the highest Australian mountains (higher than

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The first recorded aircraft landing on McDonald Island was made by Australian scientists Grahame Budd and Hugh Thelander on 12 February 1971, using a helicopter.

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At least 100 species of terrestrial algae are known from Heard Island, commonly in permanently moist and ephemeral habitats. Forests of the giant Antarctic kelp

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recorded. A study over summer at Atlas Cove in 1987/88 showed overall densities of up to 60 000 individual springtails per square metre in soil under stands of

305:. This Antarctic territory is a land claim unrecognised by most other countries, meaning that Mawson Peak is the highest mountain over which Australia has true 514:, the historically active volcanic summit of Big Ben, to which the average ascent from shore is steeper than that for any island of comparable size or larger; 4114: 1338:

describes vegetation with abundant bare ground and less than 50% plant cover. Fellfield may occur as a result of harsh climatic or edaphic factors, or recent

4510: 4122: 4082: 3935: 2055:. Glaciologists conducted further research on the Brown Glacier, in an effort to determine whether glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated. Using a portable 629: 1332:

cushions interspersed with bryophytes, small vascular species and bare ground with 20–75% cover, and found mainly at altitudes between 30 and 70 m asl.

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operators have visited Heard, often associated with scientific expeditions. The first activity there was in 1947 by Alan Campbell-Drury. Two amateur radio

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in the northwest, which was in 1969 again occupied by American scientists and expanded in 1971 by French scientists) and in 1971 on McDonald Island (at

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has been recorded from immediately above the holdfast zone. Oligochaetes are also abundant in areas supporting porous and spongy layers of algal mat.

1226:(a period with a cool and moist climate). Neither group of plants is present today, although potential Tertiary survivors include the vascular plant 4577: 78: 4489: 2091: 343:

The islands, which are uninhabited, can be reached only by sea, which from Australia takes two weeks in the vessels normally used to access them.

3925: 3105: 567: nmi) north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. They total about 1.1 square kilometres ( 2591: 2183: 1200: 4686: 2653: 2059:, the team took measurements of the volume of the glacier. Monitoring of climatic conditions continued, with an emphasis on the impact of 643:

The wetlands provide important breeding and feeding habitat for a number of Antarctic and subantarctic wetland animals. These include the

2631: 1453:, a cosmopolitan grass native to Europe, was possibly introduced by humans, though is more likely to have arrived naturally, probably by 4668: 4333: 4145: 4031: 3901: 3871: 3827: 3608: 337: 247: 3760: 2807: 2525:

Goode, George Brown (1887) Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1887).

4322: 3890: 3682: 3663: 3641: 3626: 2549: 2293: 1760: 1181: 487: 2399: 1964:

Glaciers, which in 1954 were over 50 feet high, had disappeared by 1963 when the glaciers terminated as much as 100 yards inland.

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supports a diverse array of invertebrate taxa and may play an important role in transporting some of this fauna to Heard Island.

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are now located inland. Glaciers on the northern and western coasts have narrowed significantly, while the area of glaciers and

3885: 3019:"Probable long distance dispersal of Leptinella plumosa Hook.f. to Heard Island: habitat, status and discussion of its arrival" 2717: 1404:, occurring mainly on coastal sites of moderate exposure and in areas subject to significant influence from seals and seabirds. 4551: 4280: 2701: 2308: 2278: 1915: 1738: 1163: 597: 302: 3318: 443:

expedition). The second ascent was made by five members of the Heard Island Expedition 1983 (sometimes referred to as the

4730: 4245: 3803: 3445: 3289: 2115: 2040: 3449: 4227: 3860: 3705: 2298: 2131: 4453: 4274: 4251: 3920: 3733: 3723: 2722: 2349: 1656: 1440:

now absent from the Heard Island flora may colonise the island if climate change produces more favourable conditions.

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unrecognised by most other countries, meaning that Mawson Peak is the highest mountain over which Australia has true

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undertaken during recent expeditions and records to date indicate that the freshwater fauna includes a species of

1742: 1727: 1152: 351: 4593: 4530: 3940: 2899: 2539: 2064: 454:, an experiment in very long-distance transmission of low frequency sound through the ocean. The US Navy vessels 17: 4201: 1851:, at least four species of nematode, 26 species of rotifer, six species of annelid and 14 species of arthropod. 1222:

Evidence from microfossil records indicates that ferns and woody plants were present on Heard Island during the

4755: 4651: 4619: 4567: 4443: 3796: 3189:

Woehler, E. J.; Auman, H. J.; Riddle, M. J. (2002). "Long-term population increase of black-browed albatrosses

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covers over 20 km of Heard Island, and is best developed on coastal areas at elevations below 250 m.

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were used to transmit signals which could be detected as far away as both ocean coasts of the US and Canada.

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BirdLife International. (2011). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Heard and McDonald Islands. Downloaded from

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The islands are a territory (Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands) of Australia administered from

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Penguins are by far the most abundant birds on the islands, with four breeding species present, comprising

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cushions that often grow together to form continuous carpets which can be subject to burrowing by seabirds.

495: 396: 4468: 2167: 1819:. Despite a few recent surveys, the non-arthropod invertebrate fauna of Heard Island remain poorly known. 1680: 1628: 1590: 1543: 1386: 644: 504: 2921: 4745: 4075: 3840: 2512: 2159: 2029: 1878: 1864: 1636: 1551: 1437: 1299: 702: 632:

and, in a recent analysis of Commonwealth-managed wetlands, was ranked highest for nomination under the

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expected to affect the vegetation by changing nutrient availability and disturbance through trampling.

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is found on moraines and sand at altitudes mostly below 60 m, and is dominated almost entirely by

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vegetation is the most widespread and abundant vegetation type on Heard Island. It is characterised by

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Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)

4520: 4484: 4448: 4232: 3819: 2827: 2135: 1949: 1936:. 80% of the island is covered in ice, with glaciers descending from 2,400 m (7,900 ft) to 1919: 1790: 1652: 519: 3951: 2981:. Australian Department of the Environment, Australian Antarctic Division. Updated 28 February 2005. 2032:: such a movement conceivably might cause glacier retreat through a rise in sea and air temperatures 332:, 1,630 km (880 nmi) north of Antarctica, and 450 km (240 nmi) southeast of the 3855: 3850: 2080: 1624: 1594: 411: 189: 181: 2565: 1977:

show that Winston Glacier has lost at least 300 vertical feet of ice within a recent time period.

4525: 4463: 4316: 4237: 3728: 3419: 3263: 3210: 3049: 2354: 1989: 1961: 1547: 1407: 1380: 1355:

cushions. It is found at altitudes between 30 and 150 m in areas with intermediate exposure.

356: 61: 2902:. Australian Department of the Environment, Australian Antarctic Division, updated 1 March 2005 2663: 381:

provided the first written description and drawings of the island. William McDonald aboard the

4286: 4191: 4051: 4046: 3678: 3659: 3637: 3622: 3604: 3321:. Kingston, Tasmania, Australia: Australian Antarctic Division. 8 October 2008. Archived from 3246:

Ian F. Allison & Peter L. Keage (1986). "Recent changes in the glaciers of Heard Island".

3101: 3069:. Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan. retrieved 5 February 2016. 3041: 2992: 2697: 2639: 2545: 2075: 1997: 1982: 1965: 1688: 1668: 633: 385: 333: 267: 3548: 2083:. The retreat of Heard Island's glaciers is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. 2047:

of 2003–04. A small team of scientists spent two months on the island, conducting studies on

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vegetation is minimal and includes small types of shrubbery, including mosses and liverworts.

4572: 4458: 4341: 4304: 4186: 4036: 4026: 4009: 3409: 3255: 3202: 3033: 2675: 2242: 2228: 2205: 1993: 1856: 1613: 1526: 1264: 1242: 648: 589: 581: 420:

There were at least five private expeditions to Heard Island between 1965 and 2000. Several

294: 4598: 4176: 4166: 3767: (archived 17 March 2006) with further historical and geographic information and a map 3764: 3712: 2811: 2804: 1925: 1788:

are thought to be recent, possibly natural, introductions. An exotic species of earthworm

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The plants are typically subantarctic, but with a higher abundance of the cushion-forming

675: 455: 3133:. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Australia 3126: 1683:

also breeds on the island. Both the shag and the sheathbill are endemic to Heard Island.

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waves, tides and small stones, and the extension of glaciers into the sea in many areas.

377:. He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him. His wife 2403: 1623:

Other seabirds recorded as breeding at Heard Island include three species of albatross (

4382: 4296: 4041: 3755: 2752: 2318: 2270: 2256: 2044: 1974: 1969: 1929: 1672: 1609: 1563: 1469: 1416:

and limited in extent, being found at low elevations on lavas in exposed coastal sites.

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sp. are closely associated with the kelp. Above the kelp holdfast zone, the littornid

4719: 4624: 4016: 3497: 3423: 3267: 2978: 2303: 2201: 2071: 2056: 1978: 1957: 1531: 1419: 1323: 1210:

islands. In this cold climate, plant life is mainly limited to grasses, lichens, and

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Readfearn G. Australian volcano near Antarctica captured on satellite spewing lava.

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The main indigenous animals are insects along with large populations of ocean-going

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providing opportunities for further distribution of vegetation into adjacent areas.

4070: 3982: 3214: 2193: 1648: 1605: 1571: 1555: 1538: 1339: 1317: 1207: 656: 325: 321: 271: 94: 3079: 2264: 533:(170 m or 560 ft high). They total approximately 2.5 square kilometres ( 3523: 2142:

From 1947 until 1955 there were camps of visiting scientists on Heard Island (at

4374: 4058: 3322: 2313: 1712: 1640: 1559: 1141: 553: sq mi). There is a small group of islets and rocks about 10 km ( 511: 462: 282: 128: 3752:

of Heard Island and McDonald Island with high quality limited copyright images.

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The arthropods of Heard Island are comparatively well known with 54 species of

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is a community with high species richness and consists of bryophytes and small

4171: 3259: 3206: 3037: 2218: 2197: 2143: 2060: 2052: 1941: 1848: 1825: 1810: 1676: 1364: 695: 585: 530: 425: 329: 316:: They are located about 4,100 kilometres (2,200 nautical miles) southwest of 290: 286: 263: 259: 4701: 4688: 3067:

Part 3: A Description of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve

3045: 2617:"Sealers, shipwrecks and survivors inspire new names on sub-Antarctic island" 1823:

of habitats, being associated with either supralittoral or intertidal zones,

705:, Heard Island (Atlas Cove) receives an average of 96.8 snowy days annually. 391:

No landing took place on the islands until March 1855, when sealers from the

285:, is higher than any mountain in all other Australian states, territories or 4634: 4150: 4094: 3999: 3994: 3775: 3354: 2250: 2067: 1937: 1933: 1836: 1664: 1567: 1449: 1358: 1348: 1335: 1286: 1246: 1203: 543: sq mi) in area, where McDonald Island is 1.13 square kilometres ( 374: 255: 150: 4515: 3573: 3649:

Fourteen men; story of the Australian Antarctic Expedition to Heard Island

3601:

Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan 2014–2024

3100:, Scott Polar Research Institute (University of Cambridge), 2018, p. 167. 4603: 4181: 2151: 1844: 1775: 1499: 1228: 1223: 715:

Climate data for Heard Island (1981–2010); 12 m AMSL; 53.10° S, 73.71° E

243: 3698: 3612: 1988:

Retreat of glacier fronts across Heard Island is evident when comparing

3788: 2993:"Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan 2005" 2001: 1503: 1495: 1166: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 278: 2718:"Heard Island VK0EK DXpedition Team Has Arrived, Operation Hours Away" 277:

Heard Island and McDonald Islands contain Australia's only two active

4378: 4370: 2377: 2111: 1806: 1482: 507: 370: 202: 1250:

McDonald Island. None of the vascular species are endemic, although

2192:

Despite the lack of population, the islands have been assigned the

4021: 3017:

Turner, P. A. M.; Scott, J. J.; Rozefelds, A. C. (February 2006).

2654:"Gazetteer – AADC Name Details – Australian Antarctic Data Centre" 2090: 1679:. Although not a true seabird, the Heard Island subspecies of the 1525: 670: 494: 486: 362:

Neither island cluster had recorded visitors until the mid-1850s.

350: 317: 67:

Flag of Australia (used for Heard Island and the McDonald Islands)

2490: 1268:

occur only on subantarctic islands in the southern Indian Ocean.

3619:

Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan

2048: 1802: 1798: 1589:

cohabitants on the islands. The islands have been identified by

1454: 1345: 1211: 510:. It has a maximum elevation of 2,745 metres (9,006 ft) at 428:

to the island took place in 1983 using the callsigns VK0HI (the

4402: 4118: 3955: 3792: 3779: 3448:, Territories, Environment and Treaties Section. Archived from 2120:

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

3770: 2208: 2021:

Possible causes of glacier recession on Heard Island include:

1706: 1135: 3319:"'Big brother' monitors glacial retreat in the sub-Antarctic" 1597:

because they support very large numbers of nesting seabirds.

4200: 3719:

World heritage listing for Heard Island and McDonald Islands

2182:-class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger 2122:. The administration of the territory is established in the 1902:

are found in well-sheltered situations, and another bivalve

1511:

List of non-avian fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands

3442:

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts

3292:. Glaciology Program, Antarctic CRC and AAD. Archived from 2491:"Distance Between Cities Places On Map Distance Calculator" 3398:"Glacier Recession on Heard Island, Southern Indian Ocean" 3152: 369:, sighted Heard Island on 25 November 1853, en route from 2888:

Rare glimpse of erupting Australian sub-Antarctic volcano

324:, Australia, 4,200 km (2,300 nmi) southeast of 27:

Australian external territory in the sub-Antarctic region

4751:

Important Bird Areas of Australian External Territories

708:

Meteorological records at Heard Island are incomplete.

491:

Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the Southern Ocean

3574:"Heard Island and McDonald Islands :: Time Zones" 1932:, roughly 4,000 km (2,200 nmi) southwest of 1463:

the movement of seabirds and seals around the island.

4391:) Co-mandate with New Zealand and the United Kingdom. 3290:"Our subantarctic glaciers: why are they retreating?" 3175: 3173: 3171: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 3745:

Wikimedia Atlas of Heard Island and McDonald Islands

3671:

Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Oceans

3669:

LeMasurier, W. E. and Thomson, J. W. (eds.). (1990)

3415:

10.1657/1523-0430(06-084)[THOST]2.0.CO;2

2541:

Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia

1522:

List of mammals of Heard Island and McDonald Islands

4643: 4612: 4586: 4560: 4539: 4498: 4477: 4436: 4332: 4261: 4218: 4211: 4159: 3899: 3869: 3826: 2900:

Volcanic activity at McDonald Island – Heard Island

2154:in the east, such as in 1988, 1992–93 and 2004–05. 2043:conducted an expedition to Heard Island during the 1985:has also demonstrated marked recession since 1955. 220: 208: 198: 188: 179: 171: 163: 158: 134: 124: 116: 108: 100: 90: 85: 3699:Heard Island and McDonald Islands official website 3396:Douglas E. Thost; Martin Truffer (February 2008). 3362:International Association for Scientific Hydrology 2070:revealed that the rate of loss of ice in both the 1924:Heard Island is a heavily glaciated, subantarctic 274:and have been an Australian territory since 1947. 3621:. Australian Antarctic Division: Kingston (Tas). 2128:Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory 2105:Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition 1703:Terrestrial, freshwater and coastal invertebrates 18:Politics of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands 2126:, which places it under the jurisdiction of the 2773:"Heard Island Feasibility Test – reception map" 2696:. Spirit of Adventure Pty Ltd. pp. 28–29. 450:In 1991, the islands were the location for the 2150:). Later expeditions used a temporary base at 328:, 3,830 km (2,070 nmi) southeast of 320:, 3,850 km (2,080 nmi) southwest of 236:Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4414: 4130: 3967: 3804: 3658:. Armidale: University of New England Press. 1948:Available records show no apparent change in 246:region code: HMD, HM, 334;) is an Australian 53:A southwesterly view of Heard Island in 2009. 8: 4771:Important Bird Areas of subantarctic islands 4766:Important Bird Areas of Indian Ocean islands 4083:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 3715:, including all major topographical features 3498:"Heard Island and McDonald Islands Act 1953" 3391: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3233: 2004:on Laurens Peninsula have shrunk by 30–65%. 1953:recession was evident as high as 5000 feet. 678:as winds pass Heard Island resulted in this 630:Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia 365:An American sailor, John Heard, on the ship 32: 3636:. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons. 3603:, Department of the Environment, Canberra. 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3340: 2794:. Surrey Beatty & Sons. pp. 28–51. 2632:"SIOE 2002: Heard I. & The McDonald Is" 2289:List of birds of Heard and McDonald Islands 2284:List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands 1741:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1584:List of birds of Heard and McDonald Islands 477:Geography of the Heard and McDonald Islands 4736:States and territories established in 1947 4421: 4407: 4399: 4267: 4215: 4137: 4123: 4115: 3974: 3960: 3952: 3811: 3797: 3789: 3776: 3632:Green, Ken and Woehler Eric (eds). (2006) 3313: 3311: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 2936:"Moyennes 1961–1990 Australie (Ile Heard)" 2124:Heard Island and McDonald Islands Act 1953 711: 686:The islands have an Antarctic climate, or 499:A map of Heard Island and McDonald Islands 258:islands, about two-thirds of the way from 77: 31: 3771:Heard Island: The Cordell Expedition 2016 3413: 2211:. The time zone of the islands is UTC+5. 1896:Laevilitorina (Corneolitorina) heardensis 1761:Learn how and when to remove this message 1562:though they do not breed on the islands. 1182:Learn how and when to remove this message 636:as an internationally important wetland. 4093:"Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the 3706:Map of Heard Island and McDonald Islands 3355:"Recent glacier retreat on Heard Island" 3131:Heard Island and McDonald Islands: Seals 2592:"Heard Island: a history of exploration" 3193:at Heard Island, 1947/1948–2000/2001". 2400:"About Heard Island – Human Activities" 2330: 1410:is dominated by the salt-tolerant moss 518:. A July 2000 satellite image from the 3402:Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 3080:"Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra" 1534:on Heard Island – a 19th-century scene 516:only seven smaller islands are steeper 386:discovered the nearby McDonald Islands 3634:Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel 3613:http://heardisland.antarctica.gov.au/ 3098:Historical Antarctic Sealing Industry 2792:Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel 2687: 2685: 2533: 2531: 1643:, four species of burrowing petrels ( 432:expedition) and VK0JS and VK0NL (the 219: 207: 197: 187: 178: 7: 3472:"Heard Island Officially Australian" 2130:, with the non-criminal laws of the 1739:adding citations to reliable sources 1201:Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra 1164:adding citations to reliable sources 388:six weeks later, on 4 January 1854. 4146:States and territories of Australia 3353:G.M. Budd; P.J. Stephenson (1970). 2790:Ken Green and Eric Woehler (2006). 2753:"The Heard Island Feasibility Test" 2465:"Cocky Flies, Geoscience Australia" 2426:"Heard Island and McDonald Islands" 2350:"Heard Island and McDonald Islands" 1447:One plant species on Heard Island, 338:French Southern and Antarctic Lands 3985:countries and overseas territories 3599:Commonwealth of Australia (2014). 2958:"Météo Climat stats for Ile Heard" 628:The HIMI wetland is listed on the 25: 4761:World Heritage Sites in Australia 4741:Australian National Heritage List 4726:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4657:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4430:World Heritage Sites in Australia 4369:) Sovereignty recognised only by 4292:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4005:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 3936:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 3724:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 3440:. Kingston, Tasmania, Australia: 3438:"Australian Research Expeditions" 2294:List of glaciers in the Antarctic 112:368 km (142 sq mi) 35:Heard Island and McDonald Islands 4149: 4105:territorial claims in Antarctica 3756:UNESCO World Heritage site entry 3739: 2659:Australian Antarctic Data Centre 2263: 2249: 2235: 2221: 1910:Retreat of Heard Island glaciers 1847:, a gastrotrich, two species of 1711: 1689:Heard Island cormorant (or shag) 1140: 143: 60: 46: 3528:Australian Government - Defence 3502:Federal Register of Legislation 1151:needs additional citations for 4547:Australian fossil mammal sites 4506:Australian fossil mammal sites 4490:Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park 4281:Australian Antarctic Territory 3916:Australian Antarctic Territory 3617:Australian Government. (2005) 3288:Andrew Ruddell (25 May 2010). 2570:Australian Antarctic Gazetteer 2309:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 2279:Australian Antarctic Territory 2187:-class offshore patrol vessels 1916:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 1342:which has exposed bare ground. 598:Australian Antarctic Territory 303:Australian Antarctic Territory 1: 3446:Australian Antarctic Division 2630:Cerchi, Dan (1 August 2009). 2596:Australian Antarctic Magazine 2590:Woehler, Eric (Spring 2004). 2538:Mills, William James (2003). 2204:) and therefore the Internet 2116:Australian Antarctic Division 2041:Australian Antarctic Division 1904:Gaimardia trapesina trapesina 1855:subantarctic region, such as 1558:visit regularly in winter to 1114:Source 1: Météo climat stats 452:Heard Island feasibility test 4228:Australian Capital Territory 3881:Australian Capital Territory 3656:Specks in the Southern Ocean 2513:"Frequently asked questions" 2378:"Heard and McDonald Islands" 2299:List of islands of Australia 2132:Australian Capital Territory 2051:and terrestrial biology and 1657:South Georgia diving petrels 1199:The islands are part of the 4604:Budj Bim Cultural Landscape 4275:Ashmore and Cartier Islands 4032:French Southern Territories 3911:Ashmore and Cartier Islands 3734:Central Intelligence Agency 3651:. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire. 2890:. BBC News, 2 February 2016 2723:American Radio Relay League 2398:Commonwealth of Australia. 1618:eastern rockhopper penguins 1396:vegetation is dominated by 974:Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 834:Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 577: sq mi) in area. 525:The much smaller and rocky 314:most remote places on Earth 120:2,745 m (9006 ft) 4787: 3675:American Geophysical Union 2087:Administration and economy 2028:Southward movement of the 1956:The coastal ice cliffs of 1913: 1581: 1519: 1508: 1237:Flowering plants and ferns 1118: 1113: 714: 480: 474: 312:The islands are among the 182:UNESCO World Heritage Site 4665: 4594:Royal Exhibition Building 4531:Wet Tropics of Queensland 4363: 4270: 4198: 4091: 3990: 3786: 3781:Links to related articles 3260:10.1017/S0032247400007099 3207:10.1007/s00300-002-0436-1 3038:10.1007/s00300-005-0035-z 2810:12 September 2009 at the 2134:and the criminal laws of 1633:light-mantled albatrosses 1574:are occasional visitors. 1043: 973: 903: 833: 763: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 228: 224:658,903 ha (2544 sq. mi.) 175: 139: 76: 40: 4652:Australian Convict Sites 4620:Australian Convict Sites 4568:Australian Convict Sites 4444:Australian Convict Sites 4334:Indian Ocean Territories 3647:Scholes, Arthur. (1949) 3476:The Daily News, Perth WA 3191:Thalassarche melanophrys 2853:U.S. Department of State 2777:University of Washington 2758:University of Washington 2737:Temple, Phillip (1966). 2444:U.S. Department of State 2428:. ISO. 26 November 2018. 1968:on the north coast, and 1898:and the bivalve mollusc 1785:Tyrophagus putrescentiae 1413:Muelleriella crassifolia 1259:Colobanthus kerguelensis 1119:Source 2: Météo Climat 403:oil during this period. 4630:Purnululu National Park 4347:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 4064:NZ Subantarctic Islands 3926:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 3504:. Australian Government 3153:http://www.birdlife.org 2694:Heard Island Expedition 2544:. Bloomsbury Academic. 2164:Australian Border Force 1832:Pringlea antiscorbutica 1816:Pringlea antiscorbutica 1375:Pringlea antiscorbutica 1253:Pringlea antiscorbutica 1229:Pringlea antiscorbutica 4469:Willandra Lakes Region 4459:Lord Howe Island Group 4205: 3654:Smith, Jeremy. (1986) 3086:. World Wildlife Fund. 3084:Terrestrial Ecoregions 2997:www.legislation.gov.au 2911:HIMI official website. 2692:Thornton, Meg (1983). 2096: 1681:black-faced sheathbill 1661:Wilson's storm petrels 1637:southern giant petrels 1591:BirdLife International 1544:southern elephant seal 1535: 1387:Deschampsia antarctica 1308:Vegetation communities 1206:that includes several 683: 645:southern elephant seal 584:). It is surpassed by 500: 492: 359: 117:Highest elevation 4702:53.10000°S 73.51667°E 4204: 4076:Prince Edward Islands 3553:Royal Australian Navy 2160:Royal Australian Navy 2094: 2030:Antarctic Convergence 1981:on the east coast of 1879:Hemiarthrum setulosum 1865:Durvillaea antarctica 1582:Further information: 1552:subantarctic fur seal 1529: 1520:Further information: 1438:Antarctic Convergence 1300:Durvillaea antarctica 1282:Mosses and liverworts 1245:flowering plants and 703:Bureau of Meteorology 674: 498: 490: 483:Heard Island glaciers 397:Erasmus Darwin Rogers 355:Heard Island 1887 by 354: 281:. The summit of one, 4731:Islands of Australia 4644:External territories 4578:Tasmanian Wilderness 4521:Gondwana Rainforests 4485:Kakadu National Park 4449:Gondwana Rainforests 4323:Papua and New Guinea 4233:Jervis Bay Territory 3902:External territories 3886:Jervis Bay Territory 3872:Mainland territories 3820:History of Australia 3711:26 July 2015 at the 3524:"Operation Resolute" 3325:on 30 September 2009 2828:Geoscience Australia 2805:Heard Island Geology 2741:. Cassell Australia. 2739:The Sea and the Snow 2493:. distancefromto.net 2136:Jervis Bay Territory 1950:glacier mass balance 1920:Glacier mass balance 1874:Nacella kerguelensis 1791:Dendrodrilus rubidus 1780:Apterothrips apteris 1735:improve this section 1695:more than 50 years. 1691:and Antarctic tern. 1408:Saltspray vegetation 1160:improve this article 764:Record high °C (°F) 680:Kármán vortex street 520:University of Hawaii 4707:-53.10000; 73.51667 4698: / 3549:"Arafura Class OPV" 3452:on 16 February 2011 3096:R.K.Headland (Ed.) 2922:"Snowy Days (96.8)" 2824:"Highest Mountains" 2471:on 24 December 2008 2081:dynamic equilibrium 1940:. Due to the steep 1890:sp. and the isopod 1595:Important Bird Area 1420:Closed cushionfield 1359:Wet mixed herbfield 1044:Record low °C (°F) 904:Daily mean °C (°F) 412:World Heritage Site 287:claimed territories 37: 4669:states/territories 4667:Shared with other 4526:Great Barrier Reef 4478:Northern Territory 4464:Sydney Opera House 4238:Northern Territory 4206: 3891:Northern Territory 3729:The World Factbook 2849:"Antarctic Region" 2440:"Antarctic Region" 2406:on 18 October 2006 2355:CIA World Factbook 2118:of the Australian 2097: 2095:Heard Island, 1929 1998:tidewater glaciers 1990:aerial photographs 1884:Anasterias mawsoni 1669:subantarctic skuas 1548:Antarctic fur seal 1536: 1381:Acaena magellanica 684: 661:eastern rockhopper 501: 493: 360: 357:Henry Wood Elliott 248:external territory 125:Highest point 4681: 4680: 4675: 4674: 4650:(Norfolk Island) 4613:Western Australia 4396: 4395: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4287:Coral Sea Islands 4246:Central Australia 4192:Western Australia 4112: 4111: 4052:Saint Paul Island 4047:Kerguelen Islands 3949: 3948: 3931:Coral Sea Islands 3861:Western Australia 3478:. 9 February 1951 3296:on 2 October 2009 3106:978-0-901021-26-7 2642:on 26 April 2012. 2566:"Fidelia Isthmus" 2076:accumulation zone 2025:Volcanic activity 1983:Laurens Peninsula 1966:Baudissin Glacier 1882:and the starfish 1771: 1770: 1763: 1324:Open cushionfield 1192: 1191: 1184: 1123: 1122: 602:territorial claim 334:Kerguelen Islands 268:Kerguelen Plateau 254:of mostly barren 232: 231: 194:Natural: viii, ix 16:(Redirected from 4778: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4691: 4573:Macquarie Island 4548: 4507: 4423: 4416: 4409: 4400: 4342:Christmas Island 4268: 4216: 4154: 4153: 4139: 4132: 4125: 4116: 4037:Amsterdam Island 4027:Falkland Islands 4010:Macquarie Island 3976: 3969: 3962: 3953: 3921:Christmas Island 3904: 3874: 3813: 3806: 3799: 3790: 3777: 3743: 3742: 3702: 3701: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3417: 3393: 3378: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3359: 3350: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3285: 3272: 3271: 3254:(144): 255–272. 3243: 3228: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3186: 3180: 3177: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3123: 3117: 3116:Headland, p. 167 3114: 3108: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3023: 3014: 3008: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2820: 2814: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2769: 2763: 2762: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2726:. 22 March 2016. 2714: 2708: 2707: 2689: 2680: 2679: 2676:Internet Archive 2673: 2671: 2662:. 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Archived from 2395: 2389: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2346: 2273: 2268: 2267: 2259: 2254: 2253: 2245: 2243:Geography portal 2240: 2239: 2238: 2231: 2229:Australia portal 2226: 2225: 2224: 2206:top-level domain 2017: 2016: 2012: 1900:Kidderia bicolor 1766: 1759: 1755: 1752: 1746: 1715: 1707: 1265:Poa kerguelensis 1187: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1167: 1144: 1136: 712: 590:Mount McClintock 582:Mount Kosciuszko 576: 575: 571: 566: 565: 561: 558: 552: 551: 547: 542: 541: 537: 527:McDonald Islands 295:Mount McClintock 149: 147: 146: 81: 64: 50: 38: 36: 21: 4786: 4785: 4781: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4775: 4756:IBRA subregions 4716: 4715: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4677: 4676: 4671: 4661: 4639: 4608: 4599:Carlton Gardens 4582: 4556: 4546: 4540:South Australia 4535: 4505: 4494: 4473: 4437:New South Wales 4432: 4427: 4397: 4392: 4386: 4351: 4328: 4299: 4263: 4257: 4252:North Australia 4240: 4220: 4207: 4196: 4177:South Australia 4167:New South Wales 4155: 4148: 4143: 4113: 4108: 4087: 3986: 3980: 3950: 3945: 3900: 3895: 3870: 3865: 3846:South Australia 3836:New South Wales 3822: 3817: 3782: 3765:Wayback Machine 3740: 3713:Wayback Machine 3697: 3696: 3693: 3688: 3611:. Available at 3609:978-1876934-255 3595: 3593:Further reading 3590: 3589: 3579: 3577: 3576:. timegenie.com 3572: 3571: 3567: 3557: 3555: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3532: 3530: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3507: 3505: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3455: 3453: 3436: 3435: 3431: 3395: 3394: 3381: 3371: 3369: 3357: 3352: 3351: 3338: 3328: 3326: 3317: 3316: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3287: 3286: 3275: 3245: 3244: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3201:(12): 921–927. 3188: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3169: 3163: 3159: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3095: 3091: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3021: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3001: 2999: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2886: 2882: 2871: 2867: 2857: 2855: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2832: 2830: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2812:Wayback Machine 2803: 2799: 2789: 2788: 2784: 2771: 2770: 2766: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2735: 2731: 2716: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2691: 2690: 2683: 2669: 2667: 2666:on 6 April 2011 2652: 2651: 2647: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2574: 2572: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2537: 2536: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2496: 2494: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2474: 2472: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2448: 2446: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2424: 2423: 2419: 2409: 2407: 2397: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2360: 2358: 2348: 2347: 2332: 2327: 2269: 2262: 2255: 2248: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2227: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2089: 2068:surface surveys 2035:Climatic change 2014: 2010: 2009: 1928:located in the 1926:volcanic island 1922: 1912: 1886:. The amphipod 1859:and Kerguelen. 1767: 1756: 1750: 1747: 1732: 1716: 1705: 1673:Antarctic terns 1586: 1580: 1524: 1518: 1513: 1492: 1479: 1433: 1424:Azorella selago 1402:Azorella selago 1370:Azorella selago 1353:Azorella selago 1329:Azorella selago 1310: 1295: 1284: 1274:Azorella selago 1239: 1220: 1197: 1188: 1177: 1171: 1168: 1157: 1145: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 676:Vortex shedding 669: 618: 573: 569: 568: 563: 559: 556: 554: 549: 545: 544: 539: 535: 534: 485: 479: 473: 349: 184: 154: 144: 142: 72: 71: 70: 69: 68: 65: 56: 55: 54: 51: 34: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4718: 4717: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4647: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4625:Ningaloo Coast 4622: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4590: 4588: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4554: 4549: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4481: 4479: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4454:Blue Mountains 4451: 4446: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4428: 4426: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4403: 4394: 4393: 4383:United Kingdom 4364: 4361: 4360: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4338: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4326: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4297:Norfolk Island 4294: 4289: 4284: 4277: 4271: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4256: 4255: 4249: 4235: 4230: 4224: 4222: 4213: 4209: 4208: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4144: 4142: 4141: 4134: 4127: 4119: 4110: 4109: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4068: 4067: 4066: 4056: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4042:Crozet Islands 4039: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4007: 3997: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3983:Peri-Antarctic 3981: 3979: 3978: 3971: 3964: 3956: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3941:Norfolk Island 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3907: 3905: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3877: 3875: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3832: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3818: 3816: 3815: 3808: 3801: 3793: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3758: 3753: 3747: 3737: 3721: 3716: 3703: 3692: 3691:External links 3689: 3687: 3686: 3667: 3652: 3645: 3630: 3615: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3565: 3540: 3515: 3489: 3463: 3429: 3408:(1): 199–214. 3379: 3336: 3307: 3273: 3229: 3220: 3181: 3167: 3157: 3155:on 2011-12-23. 3144: 3118: 3109: 3089: 3071: 3059: 3032:(3): 160–168. 3009: 2983: 2971: 2960:. Météo Climat 2949: 2927: 2913: 2904: 2892: 2880: 2865: 2840: 2815: 2797: 2782: 2764: 2744: 2729: 2709: 2702: 2681: 2645: 2636:www.cerchi.net 2622: 2608: 2582: 2557: 2550: 2527: 2518: 2504: 2482: 2456: 2431: 2417: 2390: 2368: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2321: 2319:Wakefield Reef 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2271:Oceania portal 2260: 2257:Islands portal 2246: 2232: 2216: 2213: 2088: 2085: 2045:austral summer 2037: 2036: 2033: 2026: 1975:Winston Lagoon 1970:Vahsel Glacier 1930:Southern Ocean 1911: 1908: 1769: 1768: 1719: 1717: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1579: 1576: 1532:elephant seals 1517: 1514: 1491: 1488: 1481:71 species of 1478: 1475: 1470:Cotula plumosa 1432: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1417: 1405: 1394:Coastal biotic 1391: 1356: 1343: 1333: 1321: 1309: 1306: 1294: 1291: 1283: 1280: 1238: 1235: 1219: 1216: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1189: 1148: 1146: 1139: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 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4135: 4133: 4128: 4126: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4106: 4102: 4101: 4096: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4062: 4061: 4060: 4057: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4017:Bouvet Island 4015: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3992: 3989: 3984: 3977: 3972: 3970: 3965: 3963: 3958: 3957: 3954: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3809: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3785: 3778: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3750:Image gallery 3748: 3746: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3683:0-87590-172-7 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3665: 3664:0-85834-615-X 3661: 3657: 3653: 3650: 3646: 3643: 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2905: 2901: 2896: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2877:, 30 May 2023 2876: 2869: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2844: 2841: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2801: 2798: 2793: 2786: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2768: 2765: 2760: 2759: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2740: 2733: 2730: 2725: 2724: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2705: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2665: 2661: 2660: 2655: 2649: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2626: 2623: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2583: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2553: 2551:9781576074220 2547: 2543: 2542: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2519: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2492: 2486: 2483: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2432: 2427: 2421: 2418: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2391: 2379: 2372: 2369: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2304:Needle Island 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2261: 2258: 2252: 2247: 2244: 2233: 2230: 2219: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2203: 2202:ISO 3166-2:HM 2199: 2195: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2093: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2072:ablation zone 2069: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1979:Jacka Glacier 1976: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1917: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1892:Cassidinopsis 1889: 1885: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1869: 1867: 1866: 1860: 1858: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1827: 1820: 1818: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1786: 1782:and the mite 1781: 1777: 1765: 1762: 1754: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1720:This section 1718: 1714: 1709: 1708: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649:Fulmar prions 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1585: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1572:Weddell seals 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1556:Leopard seals 1553: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1515: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1464: 1461: 1456: 1452: 1451: 1445: 1441: 1439: 1430: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1382: 1377: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1269: 1267: 1266: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1254: 1248: 1244: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1225: 1217: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1194: 1186: 1183: 1175: 1165: 1161: 1155: 1154: 1149:This section 1147: 1143: 1138: 1137: 1131: 1126: 1117: 1112: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1042: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 972: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 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89: 84: 80: 75: 63: 49: 39: 33:Territory of 30: 19: 4746:Seal hunting 4683: 4656: 4388: 4366: 4300: 4291: 4279: 4241: 4099: 4098: 4071:South Africa 4004: 3727: 3670: 3655: 3648: 3633: 3618: 3600: 3578:. Retrieved 3568: 3556:. Retrieved 3552: 3543: 3531:. Retrieved 3527: 3518: 3506:. Retrieved 3501: 3492: 3480:. Retrieved 3475: 3466: 3454:. Retrieved 3450:the original 3432: 3405: 3401: 3370:. Retrieved 3365: 3361: 3327:. Retrieved 3323:the original 3298:. Retrieved 3294:the original 3251: 3248:Polar Record 3247: 3223: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3160: 3147: 3135:. Retrieved 3130: 3121: 3112: 3097: 3092: 3083: 3074: 3062: 3029: 3025: 3012: 3000:. Retrieved 2996: 2986: 2974: 2962:. Retrieved 2952: 2940:. Retrieved 2930: 2916: 2907: 2895: 2883: 2875:The Guardian 2874: 2868: 2856:. Retrieved 2852: 2843: 2831:. Retrieved 2818: 2800: 2791: 2785: 2776: 2767: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2732: 2721: 2712: 2693: 2674:– via 2668:. Retrieved 2664:the original 2657: 2648: 2640:the original 2635: 2625: 2611: 2599:. Retrieved 2595: 2585: 2573:. Retrieved 2569: 2560: 2540: 2521: 2507: 2495:. Retrieved 2485: 2473:. Retrieved 2469:the original 2459: 2447:. Retrieved 2443: 2434: 2420: 2408:. 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Knowledge (XXG)

Heard Island and McDonald Islands

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