97:, heard about Fedyakin's experiments. He improved on the method to produce the new water, and though he still produced very small quantities of this mysterious material, he did so substantially faster than Fedyakin did. Investigations of the material properties showed a substantially lower freezing point of −40 °C or less, a boiling point of 150 °C or greater, a density of approx. 1.1 to 1.2 g/cm, and increased expansion with increasing temperature. The results were published in Soviet science journals, and short summaries were published in
607:
617:
466:
Challenged by critics to let impartial scientists analyze his polywater, Deryagin had turned over 25 tiny samples of the substance to investigators of the Soviet
Academy of Sciences' Institute of Chemical Physics. The results, which were published in the journal, showed that Deryagin's polywater was
430:
Water is so essential, so abundant, so simple in composition and so intensively studied over the centuries that it seems a most unlikely substance to provide a major scientific surprise. Nevertheless, this is precisely what has recently occurred. American chemists have confirmed that there is a form
393:
Western scientists were frankly skeptical. Russian
Chemists N. Fedyakin and Boris Deryagin claimed to have produced a mysterious new substance, a form of water so stable, it boiled only at about 1,000°F., or five times the boiling temperature of natural water. It did not evaporate. It did not freeze
38:
had taken notice of
Western attempts to recreate the substance and sparked fears of a "polywater gap" between the United States and Soviet Union. Increased press attention also brought with it increased scientific attention, and as early as 1970 doubts about its authenticity were being circulated.
236:
It has been suggested that polywater should have been dismissed on theoretical grounds. The laws of thermodynamics predicted that, since polywater had a higher boiling point than ordinary water, it meant it was more stable, and thus all of Earth's water should have turned spontaneously into
194:
Another wave of research followed, this time more tightly controlled. Invariably, polywater could no longer be made. Chemical analysis found the samples of polywater to be contaminated with other substances (explaining the changes in melting and boiling points due to
431:
of water with properties quite different from that of the fluid everyone takes for granted. Polywater as this substance has been named is an organized aggregate or polymer of ordinary water molecules but it has very different properties from its ...
146:
A scientific furore followed. Some experiments carried out were able to reproduce
Derjaguin's findings, while others failed. Several theories were advanced to explain the phenomenon. Some proposed it was the cause for increasing resistance on
164:
During this time, several people questioned the authenticity of what had come to be known in the West as polywater. The main concern was contamination of the water, but the papers went to great lengths to note the care taken to avoid this.
273:. In the original episode, a scientific research outpost falls victim to polywater, which causes the crew to become so incapacitated that they all died after shutting off environmental controls in the compound. In the sequel, a
543:Федякин (Fedyakin), Н.Н. (N.N.) (1962). "Изменение структуры воды при конденсации в капиллярах" [Changes in the structure of water during condensation in capillaries.].
191:
game at the lab and found it had identical properties. He then published a paper suggesting polywater was nothing more than water with small amounts of biological impurities.
1102:
241:
remarked that if such a material existed, then an animal would exist that would ingest water and excrete polywater, using the energy released from the process to survive.
1082:
214:, the anomalous properties of the resulting water vanished, and even the scientists who had originally advanced the case for polywater agreed it did not exist.
629:
Good news The U.S. has apparently closed the polywater gap and the
Pentagon is bankrolling efforts to push this country's polywater technology ahead of the ...
39:
By 1973 it was found to be illusory, being just water with any number of common compounds contaminating it. Today, polywater is best known as an example of
151:, while others predicted that if polywater were to contact ordinary water, it would convert that water into polywater, echoing the doomsday scenario in
1024:
608:"U.S. Begins Efforts To Exceed the USSR In Polywater Science. Pentagon Picks Firm to Study Water-Like Fluid That Boils At 400, Was Isolated in 1961"
1107:
1097:
294:. It features an animal composed entirely of polywater, with the metabolism described by Richard Feynman. (The title of the story is a pun on "
135:, a popular media term indicating a possible capability "gap", or discrepancy, between the US and the USSR, popularized by media hype of the "
853:
520:
443:
370:
931:
661:
723:
642:
1022:; Zorin, Z. M.; Rabinovich, Ya. I.; et al. (1974). "Results of analytical investigation of the composition of "anomalous" water".
563:
319:
There is a company named
American Polywater Corporation, which is unrelated to the hypothesized form of water. The company is based in
311:. The story revolves around the use of a type of polywater to make people controllable and incapable of independent thought or action.
223:
in which they wrote; "these properties should be attributed to impurities rather than to the existence of polymeric water molecules".
148:
1064:
793:
170:
1069:
4. M. De Paz, A. Pozzo, and M. E. Vallauri, Mass spectrometric evidence against "polywater" Chem. Phys. Letters, 7, October 1970
290:
265:
255:
480:
116:. English scientists then started researching the effect as well, and by 1968 it was also under study in the United States.
308:
467:
badly contaminated by organic compounds, including lipids and phospholipids, which are ingredients of human perspiration.
588:
Deryagin, B. V.; Fedyakin, N. N. (1962). "Special properties and viscosity of liquids condensed in capillaries".
485:
76:
949:
1087:
612:
72:
112:. There, he presented the work again, and this time English scientists took note of what he referred to as
303:
270:
196:
128:
31:
1092:
394:– though at −40°F., with little or no expansion, it hardened into a glassy substance, quite unlike ice.
320:
143:", during periods when the USSR appeared to be outstripping the US in numbers of these various weapons.
1033:
989:
879:
823:
735:
673:
230:
211:
40:
200:
453:
380:
210:
When the experiments which had initially produced polywater were repeated with thoroughly cleaned
1007:
814:
759:
697:
416:
295:
177:
carried out infrared spectrum analysis, which showed polywater to be mostly chlorine and sodium.
1060:
895:
870:
789:
751:
689:
516:
508:
277:
vessel is discovered adrift, its crew frozen in various states due to polywater intoxication.
188:
410:
1041:
997:
980:
887:
743:
681:
219:
93:, director of the laboratory for surface physics at the Institute for Physical Chemistry in
68:
1019:
971:
865:
332:
281:
238:
105:
90:
157:
34:
during the late 1960s, first described by Soviet scientist
Nikolai Fedyakin. By 1969 the
1037:
993:
883:
827:
739:
677:
844:
809:
250:
226:
180:
166:
71:. Some of these experiments resulted in what was seemingly a new form of water with a
1076:
1045:
448:
375:
260:
152:
35:
1011:
763:
701:
848:
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184:
132:
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52:
891:
685:
747:
515:. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing (Facts on File imprint). p. 287.
140:
849:"'Pathological Science' is not Scientific Misconduct (nor is it pathological)"
342:
217:
In August 1973, Derjaguin and N. V. Churaev published a letter in the journal
136:
120:
109:
1056:
274:
203:
showed it also contained small particles of various solids – from silica to
174:
124:
80:
899:
693:
755:
56:
868:(September 1981). "A Scientific Gold Rush. (Book Reviews: Polywater)".
23:
55:
physicist
Nikolai Fedyakin, working at the Technological Institute of
1002:
975:
94:
60:
590:
Proceedings of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR Physics Chemistry
161:. By the 1970s, polywater was well known in the general population.
104:
In 1966, Derjaguin travelled to
England for the "Discussions of the
301:
Polywater is the central idea of the 1972 espionage/thriller novel
63:, performed measurements on the properties of water which had been
724:""Polywater" and Sweat: Similarities between the Infrared Spectra"
564:"Polywater, the Soviet Scientific Secret That Made the World Gulp"
347:
84:
27:
812:(January–February 1992). "Case Studies in Pathological Science".
913:
101:
in English, but Western scientists took no notice of the work.
932:"Interview with Erik Freyser, President and COO at Polywater"
660:
Rousseau, Denis L.; Porto, Sergio P. S. (March 27, 1970).
854:
Hyle: International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry
545:Коллоидный Журнал (Kolloidnyi Zhurnal, Colloid Journal)
131:
that there was a so-called "polywater gap" with the
863:The above paper cites this review from Eisenberg:
409:
233:and has since written on other examples as well.
67:in, or repeatedly forced through, narrow quartz
8:
641:Christian, P. A.; Berka, L. H. (June 1973).
365:
363:
1103:Science and technology in the Soviet Union
288:") appeared in the February 1971 issue of
1001:
1025:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
839:
837:
722:Rousseau, Denis L. (January 15, 1971).
359:
237:polywater, instead of just part of it.
229:used polywater as a classic example of
404:
402:
83:than ordinary water – about that of a
16:Hypothetical polymerized form of water
1083:Discovery and invention controversies
643:"How You Can Grow Your Own Polywater"
183:undertook an experiment with his own
7:
507:Greenberg, Arthur (1 January 2009).
479:Butler, S. T. (September 17, 1973).
207:, explaining its greater viscosity.
532:– via Google Books (Preview).
379:. December 19, 1969. Archived from
269:, 1987) involve forms of polywater
199:), and examination of polywater by
119:By 1969, the concept had spread to
562:Giaimo, Cara (21 September 2015).
452:. October 19, 1970. Archived from
14:
662:"Polywater: Polymer or Artifact?"
950:"American Polywater Corporation"
280:The story "Polywater Doodle" by
616:. June 30, 1969. Archived from
291:Analog Science Fiction and Fact
1108:Obsolete theories in chemistry
788:. The MIT Press. p. 140.
481:"Polywater Debate Fizzles Out"
284:(writing under the pseudonym "
266:Star Trek: The Next Generation
1:
1098:Water chemistry controversies
892:10.1126/science.213.4512.1104
686:10.1126/science.167.3926.1715
30:that was the subject of much
1046:10.1016/0021-9797(74)90053-8
748:10.1126/science.171.3967.170
513:Chemistry: Decade by Decade
149:trans-Atlantic phone cables
1124:
486:The Sydney Morning Herald
259:, 1966) and its sequel, "
127:. There was fear by the
496:– via Google News.
444:"Doubts about Polywater"
613:The Wall Street Journal
784:Franks, Felix (1981).
304:A Report from Group 17
197:colligative properties
129:United States military
32:scientific controversy
936:Transformers Magazine
321:Stillwater, Minnesota
976:"Polywater reviewed"
420:. September 22, 1969
231:pathological science
77:lower freezing point
73:higher boiling point
41:pathological science
1038:1974JCIS...46..437D
994:1983Natur.301....9D
884:1981Sci...213.1104F
878:(4512): 1104–1105.
828:1992AmSci..80...54R
740:1971Sci...171..170R
678:1970Sci...167.1715R
672:(3926): 1715–1719.
649:. pp. 105–107.
620:on January 27, 2012
383:on 27 December 2009
201:electron microscopy
22:was a hypothesized
815:American Scientist
810:Rousseau, Denis L.
456:on 1 December 2010
417:The New York Times
296:Polly Wolly Doodle
99:Chemical Abstracts
79:, and much higher
734:(3967): 170–172.
522:978-1-4381-0978-7
371:"Unnatural Water"
309:Robert C. O'Brien
1115:
1049:
1020:Derjaguin, B. V.
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1003:10.1038/301009d0
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954:Power Technology
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187:after playing a
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965:Further reading
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866:David Eisenberg
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333:Hexagonal water
329:
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282:Howard L. Myers
247:
239:Richard Feynman
114:anomalous water
106:Faraday Society
91:Boris Derjaguin
69:capillary tubes
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1119:
1111:
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1088:Forms of water
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1032:(3): 437–441.
1016:
988:(5895): 9–10.
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923:
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845:Henry H. Bauer
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547:(in Russian).
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251:The Naked Time
249:The episodes "
246:
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227:Denis Rousseau
181:Denis Rousseau
167:Denis Rousseau
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10:
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596:(2): 808–811.
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568:Atlas Obscura
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449:Time magazine
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376:Time magazine
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261:The Naked Now
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153:Kurt Vonnegut
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51:In 1961, the
46:
44:
42:
37:
36:popular press
33:
29:
25:
21:
1093:Liquid water
1053:
1052:Franks, F.,
1029:
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822:(1): 54–63.
819:
813:
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785:
779:
767:. Retrieved
731:
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705:. Retrieved
669:
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646:
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622:. Retrieved
618:the original
611:
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571:. Retrieved
567:
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526:. Retrieved
512:
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490:. Retrieved
484:
474:
465:
458:. Retrieved
454:the original
447:
438:
429:
422:. Retrieved
415:
392:
385:. Retrieved
381:the original
374:
338:Water memory
318:
302:
300:
289:
286:Dr. Dolittle
279:
271:intoxication
264:
254:
248:
235:
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193:
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171:Sergio Porto
163:
158:Cat's Cradle
156:
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133:Soviet Union
118:
113:
103:
98:
89:
50:
19:
18:
914:"Polywater"
509:"Chapter 8"
460:24 December
424:24 December
411:"Polywater"
387:24 December
141:missile gap
139:" and the "
24:polymerized
1077:Categories
861:(1): 5–20.
769:August 13,
707:August 13,
624:2010-12-24
551:: 497–501.
354:References
343:Hard water
245:In fiction
137:bomber gap
121:newspapers
110:Nottingham
47:Background
1057:MIT Press
1054:Polywater
918:Polywater
786:Polywater
275:Starfleet
256:Star Trek
212:glassware
175:Bell Labs
155:'s novel
125:magazines
81:viscosity
65:condensed
20:Polywater
1012:42529135
974:(1983).
900:17741096
764:46032654
702:37067352
694:17729617
327:See also
315:Business
189:handball
57:Kostroma
26:form of
1059:, 1981
1034:Bibcode
990:Bibcode
880:Bibcode
871:Science
824:Bibcode
756:5538826
736:Bibcode
728:Science
674:Bibcode
666:Science
1063:
1010:
981:Nature
898:
792:
762:
754:
700:
692:
519:
220:Nature
95:Moscow
61:Russia
53:Soviet
1008:S2CID
760:S2CID
698:S2CID
573:1 May
528:1 May
492:1 May
348:N ray
185:sweat
108:" in
85:syrup
28:water
1061:ISBN
896:PMID
790:ISBN
771:2011
752:PMID
709:2011
690:PMID
575:2021
530:2021
517:ISBN
494:2021
462:2010
426:2010
389:2010
298:".)
169:and
123:and
1042:doi
998:doi
986:301
888:doi
876:213
744:doi
732:171
682:doi
670:167
594:147
307:by
263:" (
253:" (
173:of
1079::
1040:.
1030:46
1028:.
1006:.
996:.
984:.
978:.
952:.
934:.
916:.
894:.
886:.
874:.
857:.
851:.
847:.
836:^
820:80
818:.
758:.
750:.
742:.
730:.
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696:.
688:.
680:.
668:.
664:.
645:.
627:.
610:.
592:.
566:.
549:24
511:.
483:.
464:.
446:.
428:.
414:.
401:^
391:.
373:.
362:^
323:.
87:.
75:,
59:,
43:.
1048:.
1044::
1036::
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1000::
992::
956:.
938:.
920:.
902:.
890::
882::
859:8
830:.
826::
798:.
773:.
746::
738::
711:.
684::
676::
577:.
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