Messenger RNA - Knowledge (XXG)

324: 934: 309:

genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for translation. Regarding the natural history, uracil came first then thymine; evidence suggests that RNA came before DNA in evolution. The RNA World hypothesis proposes that life began with RNA molecules, before the emergence of DNA genomes and coded proteins. In DNA, the evolutionary substitution of thymine for uracil may have increased DNA stability and improved the efficiency of DNA replication.

4643: 732: 284:

this causes the new mRNA strand to become double stranded by producing a complementary strand known as the tRNA strand, which when combined are unable to form structures from base-pairing. Moreover, the template for mRNA is the complementary strand of tRNA, which is identical in sequence to the anticodon sequence that the DNA binds to. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed product is termed

878: 245: 388: 40: 655: 471: 4162: 603: 925:

lifetimes range from several minutes to days. The greater the stability of an mRNA the more protein may be produced from that mRNA. The limited lifetime of mRNA enables a cell to alter protein synthesis rapidly in response to its changing needs. There are many mechanisms that lead to the destruction of an mRNA, some of which are described below.

1353:-based research group had been right behind them with a series of experiments whose results pointed in roughly the same direction. Brenner and the others agreed to Watson's request to delay publication of their research findings. As a result, the Brenner and Watson articles were published simultaneously in the same issue of 701:. In general, the start codon is an AUG triplet and the stop codon is UAG ("amber"), UAA ("ochre"), or UGA ("opal"). The coding regions tend to be stabilised by internal base pairs; this impedes degradation. In addition to being protein-coding, portions of coding regions may serve as regulatory sequences in the 924:

Different mRNAs within the same cell have distinct lifetimes (stabilities). In bacterial cells, individual mRNAs can survive from seconds to more than an hour. However, the lifetime averages between 1 and 3 minutes, making bacterial mRNA much less stable than eukaryotic mRNA. In mammalian cells, mRNA

483:

and the protein bound to it aid in protecting mRNA from degradation by exonucleases. Polyadenylation is also important for transcription termination, export of the mRNA from the nucleus, and translation. mRNA can also be polyadenylated in prokaryotic organisms, where poly(A) tails act to facilitate,

1341:

for assistance. During the summer of 1960, Brenner, Jacob, and Meselson conducted an experiment in Meselson's laboratory at Caltech which was the first to prove the existence of mRNA. That fall, Jacob and Monod coined the name "messenger RNA" and developed the first theoretical framework to explain

1156:

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that typically are partially complementary to sequences in metazoan messenger RNAs. Binding of a miRNA to a message can repress translation of that message and accelerate poly(A) tail removal, thereby hastening mRNA degradation. The mechanism of action of miRNAs is

487:

Polyadenylation occurs during and/or immediately after transcription of DNA into RNA. After transcription has been terminated, the mRNA chain is cleaved through the action of an endonuclease complex associated with RNA polymerase. After the mRNA has been cleaved, around 250 adenosine residues are

283:

makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process differs slightly in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference is that prokaryotic RNA polymerase associates with DNA-processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed during transcription. Therefore,

1230:

Overcoming these challenges, mRNA as a therapeutic was first put forward in 1989 "after the development of a broadly applicable in vitro transfection technique." In the 1990s, mRNA vaccines for personalized cancer have been developed, relying on non-nucleoside modified mRNA. mRNA based therapies

308:

mRNA uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) in DNA. uracil (U) is the complementary base to adenine (A) during transcription instead of thymine (T). Thus, when using a template strand of DNA to build RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil. This substitution allows the mRNA to carry the appropriate

1012:

of the mRNA is shortened by specialized exonucleases that are targeted to specific messenger RNAs by a combination of cis-regulatory sequences on the RNA and trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Poly(A) tail removal is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the

897:, forming an mRNA-protein-mRNA bridge. Circularization is thought to promote cycling of ribosomes on the mRNA leading to time-efficient translation, and may also function to ensure only intact mRNA are translated (partially degraded mRNA characteristically have no m7G cap, or no poly-A tail). 478:

Polyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a polyadenylyl moiety to a messenger RNA molecule. In eukaryotic organisms most messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are polyadenylated at the 3' end, but recent studies have shown that short stretches of uridine (oligouridylation) are also common. The

781:

Cytoplasmic localization of mRNA is thought to be a function of the 3' UTR. Proteins that are needed in a particular region of the cell can also be translated there; in such a case, the 3' UTR may contain sequences that allow the transcript to be localized to this region for translation.

252:

The brief existence of an mRNA molecule begins with transcription, and ultimately ends in degradation. During its life, an mRNA molecule may also be processed, edited, and transported prior to translation. Eukaryotic mRNA molecules often require extensive processing and transport, while

915:

RNA virus genomes (the + strands of which are translated as mRNA) are also commonly circularized. During genome replication the circularization acts to enhance genome replication speeds, cycling viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase much the same as the ribosome is hypothesized to cycle.

3519:

Kowalska J, Wypijewska del Nogal A, Darzynkiewicz ZM, Buck J, Nicola C, Kuhn AN, Lukaszewicz M, Zuberek J, Strenkowska M, Ziemniak M, Maciejczyk M, Bojarska E, Rhoads RE, Darzynkiewicz E, Sahin U, Jemielity J (2014), "mRNA-based therapeutics–developing a new class of drugs.",

1053:

is a critical mechanism for preventing the overproduction of potent cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). AU-rich elements also regulate the biosynthesis of proto-oncogenic transcription factors like

849:(ORFs), each of which is translated into a polypeptide. These polypeptides usually have a related function (they often are the subunits composing a final complex protein) and their coding sequence is grouped and regulated together in a regulatory region, containing a 407:

of a eukaryotic messenger RNA shortly after the start of transcription. The 5' cap consists of a terminal 7-methylguanosine residue that is linked through a 5'-5'-triphosphate bond to the first transcribed nucleotide. Its presence is critical for recognition by the

499:

Polyadenylation site mutations also occur. The primary RNA transcript of a gene is cleaved at the poly-A addition site, and 100–200 A's are added to the 3' end of the RNA. If this site is altered, an abnormally long and unstable mRNA construct will be formed.

755:. The ability of a UTR to perform these functions depends on the sequence of the UTR and can differ between mRNAs. Genetic variants in 3' UTR have also been implicated in disease susceptibility because of the change in RNA structure and protein translation. 343:. Non-eukaryotic mRNA is, in essence, mature upon transcription and requires no processing, except in rare cases. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA, however, requires several processing steps before its transport to the cytoplasm and its translation by the ribosome. 1333:, himself, and Monod (the so-called PaJaMo experiment, which did not prove mRNA existed but suggested the possibility of its existence). With Crick's encouragement, Brenner and Jacob immediately set out to test this new hypothesis, and they contacted 769:

Translational efficiency, including sometimes the complete inhibition of translation, can be controlled by UTRs. Proteins that bind to either the 3' or 5' UTR may affect translation by influencing the ribosome's ability to bind to the mRNA.

1025:. In this way, translationally inactive messages can be destroyed quickly, while active messages remain intact. The mechanism by which translation stops and the message is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail. 1242:

Since the 2010s, RNA vaccines and other RNA therapeutics have been considered to be "a new class of drugs". The first mRNA-based vaccines received restricted authorization and were rolled out across the world during the

625:

Eukaryotic mRNA that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm (i.e., mature mRNA) can then be translated by the ribosome. Translation may occur at ribosomes free-floating in the cytoplasm, or directed to the

1665:

Strässer K, Masuda S, Mason P, Pfannstiel J, Oppizzi M, Rodriguez-Navarro S, Rondón AG, Aguilera A, Struhl K, Reed R, Hurt E (May 2002). "TREX is a conserved complex coupling transcription with messenger RNA export".

1206:

The primary challenges of RNA therapy center on delivering the RNA to the appropriate cells. Challenges include the fact that naked RNA sequences naturally degrade after preparation; they may trigger the body's

419:

Cap addition is coupled to transcription, and occurs co-transcriptionally, such that each influences the other. Shortly after the start of transcription, the 5' end of the mRNA being synthesized is bound by a

4210: 583:

and especially growth cones. Many mRNAs are marked with so-called "zip codes", which target their transport to a specific location. mRNAs can also transfer between mammalian cells through structures called

1275:

Several molecular biology studies during the 1950s indicated that RNA played some kind of role in protein synthesis, but that role was not clearly understood. For instance, in one of the earliest reports,

205:, which terminate protein synthesis. The translation of codons into amino acids requires two other types of RNA: transfer RNA, which recognizes the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, and 508:

Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport. Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic mRNAs must be exported from the

1142:. siRNA is commonly used in laboratories to block the function of genes in cell culture. It is thought to be part of the innate immune system as a defense against double-stranded RNA viruses. 638:

directly coupled to transcription. It is even possible in some contexts that reduced mRNA levels are accompanied by increased protein levels, as has been observed for mRNA/protein levels of

2011:

Hüttelmaier S, Zenklusen D, Lederer M, Dictenberg J, Lorenz M, Meng X, et al. (November 2005). "Spatial regulation of beta-actin translation by Src-dependent phosphorylation of ZBP1".

1231:

continue to be investigated as a method of treatment or therapy for both cancer as well as auto-immune, metabolic, and respiratory inflammatory diseases. Gene editing therapies such as

953:(sRNA) tens to hundreds of nucleotides long can stimulate the degradation of specific mRNAs by base-pairing with complementary sequences and facilitating ribonuclease cleavage by 520:

by binding to the cap-binding proteins CBP20 and CBP80, as well as the transcription/export complex (TREX). Multiple mRNA export pathways have been identified in eukaryotes.

751:

as they are present in the mature mRNA. Several roles in gene expression have been attributed to the untranslated regions, including mRNA stability, mRNA localization, and

639: 3269:

Tasuku Honjo, Michael Reth, Andreas Radbruch, Frederick Alt. Molecular Biology of B Cells, 2nd Edition. Academic Press, 2014 (including "updated research on microRNAs")

693:, which are decoded and translated into proteins by the ribosome; in eukaryotes usually into one and in prokaryotes usually into several. Coding regions begin with the 941:

In general, in prokaryotes the lifetime of mRNA is much shorter than in eukaryotes. Prokaryotes degrade messages by using a combination of ribonucleases, including

3686:

Monod J, Pappenheimer AM, Cohen-Bazire G (1952). "La cinétique de la biosynthèse de la β-galactosidase chez E. coli considérée comme fonction de la croissance".

1474: 516:—a process that may be regulated by different signaling pathways. Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the 1004:, protecting the ends of the message. The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of cytoplasmic structures known as 965:. Removal of two of the phosphates leaves a 5' monophosphate, causing the message to be destroyed by the exonuclease RNase J, which degrades 5' to 3'. 4679: 2220: 456:

mRNA, which is edited in some tissues, but not others. The editing creates an early stop codon, which, upon translation, produces a shorter protein.

556: 4238: 797:, directly bind small molecules, changing their fold to modify levels of transcription or translation. In these cases, the mRNA regulates itself. 1037:

in some mammalian mRNAs tends to destabilize those transcripts through the action of cellular proteins that bind these sequences and stimulate

912:

has binding between mRNA segments on its 5' end and 3' end (called kissing stem loops), circularizing the mRNA without any proteins involved.

4847: 3042:

Shaw G, Kamen R (August 1986). "A conserved AU sequence from the 3' untranslated region of GM-CSF mRNA mediates selective mRNA degradation".

1256: 2860:

Deana A, Celesnik H, Belasco JG (January 2008). "The bacterial enzyme RppH triggers messenger RNA degradation by 5' pyrophosphate removal".

1248: 1310:. In hindsight, this may have been one of the first observations of the existence of mRNA but it was not recognized at the time as such. 1080:(NMD), which checks for the presence of premature stop codons (nonsense codons) in the message. These can arise via incomplete splicing, 739:

Untranslated regions (UTRs) are sections of the mRNA before the start codon and after the stop codon that are not translated, termed the

327:

DNA gene is transcribed to pre-mRNA, which is then processed to form a mature mRNA, and then lastly translated by a ribosome to a protein

1450: 4731: 4711: 1338: 175: 4819: 4324: 2787: 2268:"Contradictory mRNA and protein misexpression of EEF1A1 in ductal breast carcinoma due to cell cycle regulation and cellular stress" 1510: 1192: 318: 60: 4611: 5084: 4973: 4917: 4616: 744: 758:

The stability of mRNAs may be controlled by the 5' UTR and/or 3' UTR due to varying affinity for RNA degrading enzymes called

4912: 3495: 2634:

Wells SE, Hillner PE, Vale RD, Sachs AB (July 1998). "Circularization of mRNA by eukaryotic translation initiation factors".

1280:

and his team showed that RNA synthesis was necessary for protein synthesis, specifically during the production of the enzyme

740: 1138:

that cleaves perfectly complementary messages to which the siRNA binds. The resulting mRNA fragments are then destroyed by

5064: 5000: 4931: 4672: 4513: 4399: 3522: 1131: 3376: 4736: 1426: 1400: 1361: 1322: 982: 2423:"IFNL3 mRNA structure is remodeled by a functional non-coding polymorphism associated with hepatitis C virus clearance" 1760:"Genome analysis reveals interplay between 5'UTR introns and nuclear mRNA export for secretory and mitochondrial genes" 5069: 4626: 4621: 4606: 4231: 3893:"Human milk miRNAs primarily originate from the mammary gland resulting in unique miRNA profiles of fractionated milk" 631: 2952:

Chen CY, Gherzi R, Ong SE, Chan EL, Raijmakers R, Pruijn GJ, Stoecklin G, Moroni C, Mann M, Karin M (November 2001).

1811:"Preferential localization of polyribosomes under the base of dendritic spines in granule cells of the dentate gyrus" 819:

of the pre-mRNA. This tail promotes export from the nucleus and translation, and protects the mRNA from degradation.

1306:

described a certain cytosine-containing DNA (indicating it was RNA) that disappeared quickly after its synthesis in

4951: 2813:"Structural and functional analysis of an mRNP complex that mediates the high stability of human beta-globin mRNA" 1195:

sequence can cause a cell to make a protein, which in turn could directly treat a disease or could function as a

1041:

tail removal. Loss of the poly(A) tail is thought to promote mRNA degradation by facilitating attack by both the

909: 789:

when transcribed into RNA. These structural mRNA elements are involved in regulating the mRNA. Some, such as the

614:

can begin immediately after the end of transcription. Therefore, it can be said that prokaryotic translation is

5059: 4995: 4783: 4696: 4665: 1758:

Cenik C, Chua HN, Zhang H, Tarnawsky SP, Akef A, Derti A, Tasan M, Moore MJ, Palazzo AF, Roth FP (April 2011).

1252: 763: 752: 710: 706: 489: 274: 52: 3974:

Melnik BC, Kakulas F, Geddes DT, Hartmann PE, John SM, Carrera-Bastos P, Cordain L, Schmitz G (21 June 2016).

4194: 2681:"Protein synthesis in eukaryotes: the growing biological relevance of cap-independent translation initiation" 4956: 4773: 4758: 2582: 1077: 1071: 993: 905: 890: 123: 3085:

Chen CY, Shyu AB (November 1995). "AU-rich elements: characterization and importance in mRNA degradation".

1624:

Kierzkowski D, Kmieciak M, Piontek P, Wojtaszek P, Szweykowska-Kulinska Z, Jarmolowski A (September 2009).

4961: 4886: 4778: 4646: 4339: 4224: 2643: 1374: 1359:

in May 1961, while that same month, Jacob and Monod published their theoretical framework for mRNA in the

1212: 1085: 974: 834: 323: 68: 865:

is polycistronic, as is the human mitochondrial genome. Dicistronic or bicistronic mRNA encodes only two

579:

in order for translation to be initiated. In developing neurons, mRNAs are also transported into growing

523:

In spatially complex cells, some mRNAs are transported to particular subcellular destinations. In mature

224:. In 1961, mRNA was identified and described independently by one team consisting of Brenner, Jacob, and 5079: 4876: 4861: 4741: 4523: 4367: 1956:"Real-time visualization of ZBP1 association with beta-actin mRNA during transcription and localization" 1860:"Selective targeting of newly synthesized Arc mRNA to active synapses requires NMDA receptor activation" 1123: 627: 597: 535:. One site of mRNA translation is at polyribosomes selectively localized beneath synapses. The mRNA for 171: 31: 4185: 3782:"Nucleic acid economy in bacteria infected with bacteriophage T2. I. Purine and pyrimidine composition" 1219:. Once within the cell, they must then leave the cell's transport mechanism to take action within the 1096:, and other causes. Detection of a premature stop codon triggers mRNA degradation by 5' decapping, 3' 5074: 4983: 4881: 4799: 4558: 4541: 4372: 3904: 3850: 3734: 3637: 3344: 2869: 2539: 2434: 2279: 2173: 2020: 1967: 1675: 1170: 493: 112: 2648: 933: 4809: 4553: 4536: 4394: 4277: 2581:

Mercer TR, Neph S, Dinger ME, Crawford J, Smith MA, Shearwood AM, Haugen E, Bracken CP, Rackham O,

1232: 1081: 1014: 786: 147: 1626:"The Arabidopsis CBP20 targets the cap-binding complex to the nucleus, and is stabilized by CBP80" 4944: 4827: 4447: 4442: 4317: 3945:, Burdge GC (October 2012). "Epigenetic mechanisms linking early nutrition to long term health". 3942: 3613: 3595: 3067: 2983: 2893: 2563: 2248: 2044: 1936: 1889: 1699: 1350: 854: 850: 846: 585: 135: 3662: 1281: 5028: 4531: 4493: 4486: 4437: 4389: 4171: 4140: 4095: 4052: 4007: 3962: 3930: 3868: 3811: 3762: 3703: 3587: 3547: 3476: 3427: 3310: 3252: 3192: 3143: 3102: 3059: 3024: 2975: 2934: 2885: 2842: 2793: 2783: 2753: 2702: 2661: 2616: 2555: 2512: 2460: 2403: 2354: 2305: 2240: 2201: 2142: 2093: 2036: 1993: 1928: 1881: 1840: 1791: 1740: 1691: 1647: 1606: 1557: 1506: 1395: 1326: 1260: 1244: 1046: 1022: 576: 436:

the chemical reactions that are required for mRNA capping. Synthesis proceeds as a multi-step

403:

cap, or an RNA mG cap) is a modified guanine nucleotide that has been added to the "front" or

400: 221: 80: 2374:"Widespread selection for local RNA secondary structure in coding regions of bacterial genes" 4357: 4130: 4120: 4085: 4077: 4042: 4032: 3997: 3987: 3954: 3920: 3912: 3858: 3801: 3793: 3752: 3742: 3695: 3577: 3537: 3527: 3466: 3458: 3417: 3407: 3352: 3300: 3292: 3242: 3232: 3182: 3174: 3133: 3094: 3051: 3014: 2965: 2924: 2877: 2832: 2824: 2743: 2733: 2692: 2653: 2606: 2598: 2547: 2502: 2494: 2450: 2442: 2393: 2385: 2344: 2336: 2295: 2287: 2232: 2191: 2181: 2132: 2124: 2083: 2075: 2028: 1983: 1975: 1920: 1871: 1830: 1822: 1781: 1771: 1730: 1683: 1637: 1596: 1588: 1547: 1539: 1475:"The presence of thymine the place of uracil also confers additional stability to DNA. How?" 1355: 1334: 1286: 1186: 453: 225: 100: 162:. Mature mRNA is then read by the ribosome, and the ribosome creates the protein utilizing 5005: 4842: 4688: 4481: 4452: 4198: 3279:

Eulalio A, Huntzinger E, Nishihara T, Rehwinkel J, Fauser M, Izaurralde E (January 2009).

3003:"Multiple processing body factors and the ARE binding protein TTP activate mRNA decapping" 2483:"Comparison of initiation of protein synthesis in procaryotes, eucaryotes, and organelles" 1050: 1042: 1034: 1018: 1009: 1001: 806: 747:(3' UTR), respectively. These regions are transcribed with the coding region and thus are 610:

Because prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed or transported, translation by the

572: 465: 2162:"Intercellular mRNA trafficking via membrane nanotube-like extensions in mammalian cells" 833:

An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to

4167: 3908: 3854: 3738: 3348: 3167:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2873: 2543: 2438: 2283: 2177: 2160:

Haimovich G, Ecker CM, Dunagin MC, Eggan E, Raj A, Gerst JE, Singer RH (November 2017).

2024: 1971: 1679: 885:

In eukaryotes mRNA molecules form circular structures due to an interaction between the

4832: 4804: 4573: 4476: 4293: 4135: 4108: 4090: 4065: 4047: 4020: 4002: 3975: 3925: 3892: 3806: 3781: 3542: 3471: 3446: 3422: 3395: 3305: 3280: 3247: 3220: 3187: 3162: 2771: 2748: 2721: 2611: 2586: 2455: 2422: 2349: 2324: 2300: 2267: 2196: 2161: 2137: 2112: 2088: 2063: 1988: 1955: 1908: 1835: 1826: 1810: 1786: 1759: 1601: 1576: 1552: 1527: 1314: 1299: 1166: 1089: 528: 425: 421: 280: 213: 194: 131: 3757: 3722: 3098: 2970: 2953: 2657: 2507: 2482: 2398: 2373: 2079: 1979: 1876: 1859: 5048: 5033: 4508: 4498: 4379: 4334: 3699: 3599: 3055: 2837: 2828: 2812: 2252: 1642: 1625: 1405: 1385: 1330: 1318: 1291: 1277: 1264: 1216: 1208: 790: 684: 667: 643: 560: 544: 357:

The extensive processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA that leads to the mature mRNA is the

262: 233: 217: 206: 3122:"Quality control of eukaryotic mRNA: safeguarding cells from abnormal mRNA function" 3071: 2987: 2697: 2680: 1893: 735:

Universal structure of eukaryotic mRNA, showing the structure of the 5' and 3' UTRs.

731: 5054: 4907: 4837: 4706: 4591: 4411: 4329: 4248: 3834: 2897: 2776: 2567: 2048: 1940: 1703: 1498: 1390: 1346: 1303: 1182: 1135: 1101: 942: 877: 762:

and for ancillary proteins that can promote or inhibit RNA degradation. (See also,

759: 568: 517: 509: 437: 358: 352: 229: 167: 151: 56: 3496:"The mRNA revolution: How COVID-19 hit fast-forward on an experimental technology" 17: 4125: 3237: 3019: 3002: 2929: 2912: 2421:

Lu YF, Mauger DM, Goldstein DB, Urban TJ, Weeks KM, Bradrick SS (November 2015).

1776: 209:(rRNA), the central component of the ribosome's protein-manufacturing machinery. 5010: 4939: 4503: 3396:"Advances in the delivery of RNA therapeutics: from concept to clinical reality" 2498: 2111:

Ainger K, Avossa D, Diana AS, Barry C, Barbarese E, Carson JH (September 1997).

1911:(December 2001). "Localization and translation of mRNA in dendrites and axons". 1427:"The Information in DNA Is Decoded by Transcription | Learn Science at Scitable" 1379: 1139: 1093: 946: 694: 547:. Other mRNAs also move into dendrites in response to external stimuli, such as 452:, changing the nucleotide composition of that mRNA. An example in humans is the 449: 296: 254: 244: 186: 163: 159: 4064:

Zhou Q, Li M, Wang X, Li Q, Wang T, Zhu Q, Zhou X, Wang X, Gao X, Li X (2012).

3958: 3727:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3582: 3565: 3357: 3332: 2602: 2291: 2166:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

387: 39: 4968: 4563: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4204: 3992: 3863: 3838: 3412: 3163:"The evolution of RNAi as a defence against viruses and transposable elements" 2738: 901: 794: 698: 548: 536: 470: 202: 198: 2797: 1577:"Regulation of mRNA export by the PI3 kinase/AKT signal transduction pathway" 904:

mRNA uses a cloverleaf section towards its 5' end to bind PCBP2, which binds

785:

Some of the elements contained in untranslated regions form a characteristic

658:

The structure of a mature eukaryotic mRNA. A fully processed mRNA includes a

488:

added to the free 3' end at the cleavage site. This reaction is catalyzed by

4427: 2325:"A periodic pattern of mRNA secondary structure created by the genetic code" 2186: 1592: 1224: 1220: 1200: 954: 950: 842: 654: 513: 332: 258: 64: 44: 4144: 4099: 4056: 4011: 3966: 3934: 3872: 3815: 3766: 3707: 3591: 3551: 3480: 3431: 3314: 3256: 3209:

Robert E. Farrell, Jr. RNA Methodologies, 5th Edition. Academic Press, 2017

3196: 3178: 3147: 3028: 2979: 2938: 2889: 2846: 2757: 2706: 2620: 2559: 2464: 2407: 2358: 2309: 2244: 2205: 2128: 2040: 1997: 1932: 1885: 1795: 1744: 1695: 1651: 1610: 1561: 1543: 962: 958: 816: 775: 726: 722: 671: 663: 659: 404: 382: 3747: 3333:"Tools for translation: non-viral materials for therapeutic mRNA delivery" 3106: 3063: 2665: 2530:

Niehrs C, Pollet N (December 1999). "Synexpression groups in eukaryotes".

2516: 2146: 2097: 1844: 178:, which describes the flow of genetic information in a biological system. 4988: 4978: 4902: 4581: 4432: 4362: 4216: 4021:"Early life nutrition, epigenetics and programming of later life disease" 3797: 3532: 2954:"AU binding proteins recruit the exosome to degrade ARE-containing mRNAs" 2340: 1735: 1718: 1151: 1119: 1005: 978: 977:

and mRNA decay. Messages that are being actively translated are bound by

858: 771: 702: 611: 532: 433: 409: 336: 290: 139: 108: 92: 72: 3638:"Hungarian and US scientists win Nobel for COVID-19 vaccine discoveries" 3296: 3138: 3121: 2881: 2722:"Viral Circular RNAs and Their Possible Roles in Virus-Host Interaction" 2236: 2032: 900:

Other mechanisms for circularization exist, particularly in virus mRNA.

602: 4724: 4586: 4081: 3891:

Alsaweed M, Lai CT, Hartmann PE, Geddes DT, Kakulas F (February 2016).

3001:

Fenger-Grøn M, Fillman C, Norrild B, Lykke-Andersen J (December 2005).

2389: 1196: 1097: 1038: 866: 862: 838: 828: 812: 564: 540: 340: 158:, regions that will encode the protein. This exon sequence constitutes 143: 116: 4037: 3916: 3462: 2446: 1687: 539:

is induced by synaptic activity and localizes selectively near active

4601: 4596: 4546: 3947:

Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism

1924: 1235:

may also benefit from using mRNA to induce cells to make the desired

989: 985: 973:

Inside eukaryotic cells, there is a balance between the processes of

690: 524: 429: 366: 362: 232:. While analyzing the data in preparation for publication, Jacob and 190: 127: 279:

Transcription is when RNA is copied from DNA. During transcription,

3564:

Barbier AJ, Jiang AY, Zhang P, Wooster R, Anderson DG (June 2022).

2551: 2266:

Lin CY, Beattie A, Baradaran B, Dray E, Duijf PH (September 2018).

793:, are targets for proteins to bind. One class of mRNA element, the 4746: 4657: 4404: 4191: 3976:"Milk miRNAs: simple nutrients or systemic functional regulators?" 2113:"Transport and localization elements in myelin basic protein mRNA" 1165:

There are other ways by which messages can be degraded, including

1127: 1113: 1059: 1055: 932: 894: 886: 876: 730: 653: 601: 469: 413: 386: 322: 243: 155: 38: 1267:

for the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.

496:, there can be more than one polyadenylation variant of an mRNA. 4188:: a database of RNAi libraries and their target analysis results 3445:

Schlake T, Thess A, Fotin-Mleczek M, Kallen KJ (November 2012).

1236: 997: 748: 580: 552: 370: 104: 4661: 4220: 4066:"Immune-related microRNAs are abundant in breast milk exosomes" 4716: 4466: 4384: 4349: 4304: 4287: 2913:"P bodies and the control of mRNA translation and degradation" 2720:

Zhang X, Liang Z, Wang C, Shen Z, Sun S, Gong C, Hu X (2022).

937:

Overview of mRNA decay pathways in the different life domains.

551:

mRNA. For export from the nucleus, actin mRNA associates with

185:, genetic information in mRNA is contained in the sequence of 182: 96: 48: 845:

mRNAs. On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries several

3566:"The clinical progress of mRNA vaccines and immunotherapies" 778:

also may affect translational efficiency or mRNA stability.

1017:. The message is then subject to degradation by either the 634:. Therefore, unlike in prokaryotes, eukaryotic translation 261:

mRNA and the proteins surrounding it are together called a

3281:"Deadenylation is a widespread effect of miRNA regulation" 3161:

Obbard DJ, Gordon KH, Buck AH, Jiggins FM (January 2009).

957:. It was recently shown that bacteria also have a sort of 3219:

Brennecke J, Stark A, Russell RB, Cohen SM (March 2005).

4109:"mRNA — From COVID-19 Treatment to Cancer Immunotherapy" 3375:

Gousseinov E, Kozlov M, Scanlan C (September 15, 2015).

1526:

Choi YS, Patena W, Leavitt AD, McManus MT (March 2012).

1329:

was telling them about a recent experiment conducted by

1199:; more indirectly the protein could drive an endogenous 2774:, Krebs JE, Kilpatrick ST, Goldstein ES, eds. (2011). 841:

chain (polypeptide). This is the case for most of the

2782:(10th ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett. 2064:"RNA localization: different zipcodes, same postman?" 1719:"Roles of the TREX complex in nuclear export of mRNA" 27:

RNA that is read by the ribosome to produce a protein

3394:

Kaczmarek JC, Kowalski PS, Anderson DG (June 2017).

248:

RNA polymerase transcribes a DNA strand to form mRNA

146:, regions that will not go on to code for the final 5021: 4930: 4895: 4869: 4860: 4818: 4792: 4766: 4757: 4695: 4572: 4522: 4465: 4420: 4348: 4303: 4286: 4255: 2219:Haimovich G, Dasgupta S, Gerst JE (February 2021). 1575:Quaresma AJ, Sievert R, Nickerson JA (April 2013). 1528:"Widespread RNA 3'-end oligouridylation in mammals" 1076:Eukaryotic messages are subject to surveillance by 2775: 2323:Shabalina SA, Ogurtsov AY, Spiridonov NA (2006). 908:, forming the familiar mRNA-protein-mRNA circle. 815:nucleotides (often several hundred) added to the 3663:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023" 3614:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023" 996:. eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme ( 484:rather than impede, exonucleolytic degradation. 3723:"Nucleic Acid Precursors and Protein Synthesis" 3526:, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 759–780, 4673: 4232: 4201:: Tool for finding microRNAs that target mRNA 2476: 2474: 1130:are incorporated into a complex known as the 8: 4070:International Journal of Biological Sciences 3326: 3324: 3331:Hajj KA, Whitehead KA (12 September 2017). 3221:"Principles of microRNA-target recognition" 2679:López-Lastra M, Rivas A, Barría MI (2005). 1294:also found similar RNA accumulation in 1954 1211:to attack them as an invader; and they are 563:and is transported to the target location ( 30:"MRNA" redirects here. For other uses, see 4866: 4828:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA) 4763: 4680: 4666: 4658: 4300: 4239: 4225: 4217: 3780:Hershey AD, Dixon J, Chase M (July 1953). 2585:, Filipovska A, Mattick JS (August 2011). 2221:"RNA transfer through tunneling nanotubes" 1503:Molecular Biology of the Gene, 7th edition 1088:, mutations in DNA, transcription errors, 1000:), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the 949:, and 5' exonucleases. In some instances, 811:The 3' poly(A) tail is a long sequence of 294:; once completely processed, it is termed 174:. All of these processes form part of the 4134: 4124: 4089: 4046: 4036: 4001: 3991: 3924: 3862: 3805: 3756: 3746: 3581: 3541: 3531: 3470: 3421: 3411: 3356: 3304: 3246: 3236: 3186: 3137: 3018: 2969: 2928: 2836: 2747: 2737: 2696: 2647: 2610: 2506: 2454: 2397: 2348: 2299: 2195: 2185: 2136: 2087: 1987: 1875: 1834: 1785: 1775: 1734: 1641: 1600: 1551: 1451:"RNA world (article) | Natural selection" 331:Processing of mRNA differs greatly among 1954:Oleynikov Y, Singer RH (February 2003). 1717:Katahira J, Yoneda Y (27 October 2014). 1313:The idea of mRNA was first conceived by 527:, certain mRNA are transported from the 142:). This pre-mRNA usually still contains 3829: 3827: 3825: 2587:"The human mitochondrial transcriptome" 2062:Oleynikov Y, Singer RH (October 1998). 1418: 823:Monocistronic versus polycistronic mRNA 3447:"Developing mRNA-vaccine technologies" 3370: 3368: 197:each. Each codon codes for a specific 150:. These are removed in the process of 122:mRNA is created during the process of 4848:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 3377:"RNA-Based Therapeutics and Vaccines" 1257:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 369:(non-coding regions) are removed and 257:mRNA molecules do not. A molecule of 212:The concept of mRNA was developed by 7: 4913:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC) 961:consisting of a triphosphate on the 2811:Yu J, Russell JE (September 2001). 2372:Katz L, Burge CB (September 2003). 1858:Steward O, Worley PF (April 2001). 1203:to differentiate in a desired way. 881:mRNA circularisation and regulation 448:In some instances, an mRNA will be 220:in 1960 during a conversation with 3120:Isken O, Maquat LE (August 2007). 1827:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.02-03-00284.1982 1339:California Institute of Technology 1134:or RISC. This complex contains an 176:central dogma of molecular biology 25: 4363:Micro 3786:The Journal of General Physiology 1809:Steward O, Levy WB (March 1982). 1193:nucleoside-modified messenger RNA 480: 319:Post-transcriptional modification 236:coined the name "messenger RNA". 170:(tRNA). This process is known as 43:The "life cycle" of an mRNA in a 4642: 4641: 4160: 2911:Parker R, Sheth U (March 2007). 2829:10.1128/mcb.21.17.5879-5888.2001 2225:Biochemical Society Transactions 1643:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2009.03915.x 1249:Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine 1157:the subject of active research. 399:(also termed an RNA cap, an RNA 75:. Finally, the mRNA is degraded. 4918:Post-translational modification 4318:precursor, heterogenous nuclear 3839:"Who discovered messenger RNA?" 2698:10.4067/S0716-97602005000200003 745:three prime untranslated region 689:Coding regions are composed of 304:Uracil substitution for thymine 4448:Trans-acting small interfering 4412:Enhancer RNAs 4330:Transfer 3087:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 2817:Molecular and Cellular Biology 1408:, the sum of all RNA in a cell 1382:, an mRNA profiling technology 741:five prime untranslated region 606:Translation of mRNA to protein 543:based on signals generated by 313:Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing 1: 4335:Ribosomal 4313:Messenger 3688:Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 3523:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3099:10.1016/S0968-0004(00)89102-1 2971:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00578-5 2658:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80122-7 2080:10.1016/s0962-8924(98)01348-8 1980:10.1016/s0960-9822(03)00044-7 1877:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00275-6 1581:Molecular Biology of the Cell 1223:, which houses the necessary 1132:RNA-induced silencing complex 1108:Small interfering RNA (siRNA) 1049:. Rapid mRNA degradation via 983:eukaryotic initiation factors 373:(coding regions) are joined. 4126:10.3390/biomedicines11020308 3700:10.1016/0006-3002(52)90227-8 3238:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030085 3056:10.1016/0092-8674(86)90341-7 3020:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.10.031 2930:10.1016/j.molcel.2007.02.011 1913:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 1777:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001366 1401:Prokaryotic mRNA degradation 1362:Journal of Molecular Biology 929:Prokaryotic mRNA degradation 857:. Most of the mRNA found in 618:to transcription and occurs 559:. The complex is bound by a 2499:10.1128/MMBR.47.1.1-45.1983 2117:The Journal of Cell Biology 1815:The Journal of Neuroscience 632:signal recognition particle 376: 63:, it is transported to the 5101: 4514:Multicopy single-stranded 4358:Interferential 3980:Nutrition & Metabolism 3959:10.1016/j.beem.2012.03.009 3583:10.1038/s41587-022-01294-2 3358:10.1038/natrevmats.2017.56 2603:10.1016/j.cell.2011.06.051 2292:10.1038/s41598-018-32272-x 1180: 1149: 1111: 1092:by the ribosome causing a 1069: 826: 804: 720: 682: 595: 463: 380: 350: 316: 272: 228:, and another team led by 189:, which are arranged into 85:messenger ribonucleic acid 29: 4637: 4428:Guide 3993:10.1186/s12986-016-0101-2 3864:10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.032 3413:10.1186/s13073-017-0450-0 2739:10.3389/fimmu.2022.939768 1505:. Pearson Higher Ed USA. 1323:King's College, Cambridge 910:Barley yellow dwarf virus 711:exonic splicing silencers 707:exonic splicing enhancers 134:) converts the gene into 4979:sequestration (P-bodies) 4390:Small nuclear 4019:Vickers MH (June 2014). 3381:Genetic Engineering News 3337:Nature Reviews Materials 1255:, for example. The 2023 1191:The administration of a 1102:endonucleolytic cleavage 969:Eukaryotic mRNA turnover 764:C-rich stability element 753:translational efficiency 490:polyadenylate polymerase 422:cap-synthesizing complex 275:Transcription (genetics) 99:that corresponds to the 4957:Gene regulatory network 4504:Genomic 3494:Haridi R (2021-04-23). 3126:Genes & Development 2726:Frontiers in Immunology 2487:Microbiological Reviews 2187:10.1073/pnas.1706365114 1593:10.1091/mbc.E12-06-0450 1173:(piRNA), among others. 1078:nonsense-mediated decay 1072:Nonsense-mediated decay 1066:Nonsense-mediated decay 994:poly(A)-binding protein 906:poly(A)-binding protein 891:poly(A)-binding protein 361:, a mechanism by which 91:) is a single-stranded 5085:Life sciences industry 4962:cis-regulatory element 4607:Artificial chromosomes 4395:Small nucleolar 3721:Pardee AB (May 1954). 3179:10.1098/rstb.2008.0168 2481:Kozak M (March 1983). 2329:Nucleic Acids Research 2129:10.1083/jcb.138.5.1077 2068:Trends in Cell Biology 1544:10.1261/rna.029306.111 1375:Extension Poly(A) Test 1161:Other decay mechanisms 1126:(siRNAs) processed by 1124:small interfering RNAs 1086:adaptive immune system 938: 882: 736: 675: 607: 475: 392: 328: 249: 76: 4400:Small Cajal Body RNAs 4213:: theconversation.com 3748:10.1073/pnas.40.5.263 2583:Stamatoyannopoulos JA 1501:(February 22, 2013). 1029:AU-rich element decay 936: 893:, which both bind to 880: 734: 657: 628:endoplasmic reticulum 605: 598:Translation (biology) 571:. Eventually ZBP1 is 473: 390: 326: 247: 42: 32:MRNA (disambiguation) 5065:Protein biosynthesis 4984:alternative splicing 4974:Post-transcriptional 4800:Transcription factor 4453:Subgenomic messenger 4368:Small interfering 4340:Transfer-messenger 3798:10.1085/jgp.36.6.777 3570:Nature Biotechnology 1736:10.4161/rna.6.2.8046 1321:on 15 April 1960 at 1171:Piwi-interacting RNA 873:mRNA circularization 717:Untranslated regions 620:co-transcriptionally 494:alternative splicing 412:and protection from 193:consisting of three 138:mRNA (also known as 4908:Transfer RNA (tRNA) 3909:2016NatSR...620680A 3855:2015CBio...25.R526C 3739:1954PNAS...40..263P 3349:2017NatRM...217056H 3297:10.1261/rna.1399509 3139:10.1101/gad.1566807 2882:10.1038/nature06475 2874:2008Natur.451..355D 2685:Biological Research 2544:1999Natur.402..483N 2439:2015NatSR...516037L 2284:2018NatSR...813904L 2237:10.1042/BST20200113 2178:2017PNAS..114E9873H 2172:(46): E9873–E9882. 2033:10.1038/nature04115 2025:2005Natur.438..512H 1972:2003CBio...13..199O 1680:2002Natur.417..304S 1082:V(D)J recombination 1015:cap binding complex 951:small RNA molecules 847:open reading frames 787:secondary structure 674:, and poly(A) tail. 586:tunneling nanotubes 148:amino acid sequence 107:, and is read by a 5070:Molecular genetics 5022:Influential people 5001:Post-translational 4820:Post-transcription 4482:Chloroplast 4325:modified Messenger 4288:Ribonucleic acids 4205:How mRNA is coded? 4197:2012-12-04 at the 4170:has a profile for 4082:10.7150/ijbs.8.118 3897:Scientific Reports 3533:10.1093/nar/gku757 2427:Scientific Reports 2390:10.1101/gr.1257503 2341:10.1093/nar/gkl287 2272:Scientific Reports 1349:revealed that his 1345:In February 1961, 1302:, June Dixon, and 939: 883: 737: 676: 608: 476: 393: 329: 250: 136:primary transcript 111:in the process of 77: 18:Polycistronic mRNA 5042: 5041: 4926: 4925: 4856: 4855: 4732:Special transfers 4655: 4654: 4532:Xeno 4494:Complementary 4467:Deoxyribonucleic 4461: 4460: 4438:Small hairpin 4176: 4107:Krause W (2023). 4038:10.3390/nu6062165 3917:10.1038/srep20680 3849:(13): R526–R532. 3463:10.4161/rna.22269 3132:(15): 1833–1856. 2868:(7176): 355–358. 2823:(17): 5879–5888. 2538:(6761): 483–487. 2447:10.1038/srep16037 2019:(7067): 512–515. 1688:10.1038/nature746 1674:(6886): 304–308. 1630:The Plant Journal 1396:mRNA surveillance 1284:in the bacterium 1245:COVID-19 pandemic 1169:and silencing by 1100:tail removal, or 1047:decapping complex 1023:decapping complex 565:neurite extension 401:7-methylguanosine 81:molecular biology 16:(Redirected from 5092: 4867: 4764: 4682: 4675: 4668: 4659: 4645: 4644: 4622:Yeast 4443:Small temporal 4373:Piwi-interacting 4301: 4297: 4278:Deoxynucleotides 4241: 4234: 4227: 4218: 4174: 4164: 4163: 4148: 4138: 4128: 4103: 4093: 4060: 4050: 4040: 4031:(6): 2165–2178. 4015: 4005: 3995: 3970: 3938: 3928: 3877: 3876: 3866: 3837:(29 June 2015). 3831: 3820: 3819: 3809: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3760: 3750: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3624: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3585: 3561: 3555: 3554: 3545: 3535: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3506: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3474: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3425: 3415: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3372: 3363: 3362: 3360: 3328: 3319: 3318: 3308: 3276: 3270: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3250: 3240: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3190: 3173:(1513): 99–115. 3158: 3152: 3151: 3141: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3022: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2973: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2932: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2840: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2781: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2751: 2741: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2700: 2691:(2–3): 121–146. 2676: 2670: 2669: 2651: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2614: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2510: 2478: 2469: 2468: 2458: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2401: 2384:(9): 2042–2051. 2369: 2363: 2362: 2352: 2335:(8): 2428–2437. 2320: 2314: 2313: 2303: 2263: 2257: 2256: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2199: 2189: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2140: 2123:(5): 1077–1087. 2108: 2102: 2101: 2091: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1991: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1925:10.1038/35104069 1904: 1898: 1897: 1879: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1838: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1789: 1779: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1738: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1645: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1604: 1587:(8): 1208–1221. 1572: 1566: 1565: 1555: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1495: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1462: 1461: 1447: 1441: 1440: 1438: 1437: 1423: 1335:Matthew Meselson 1187:RNA therapeutics 1146:MicroRNA (miRNA) 1051:AU-rich elements 1035:AU-rich elements 1033:The presence of 454:apolipoprotein B 424:associated with 391:5' cap structure 226:Matthew Meselson 101:genetic sequence 21: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5060:Gene expression 5045: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5017: 4952:Transcriptional 4922: 4891: 4852: 4843:Polyadenylation 4814: 4788: 4753: 4747:Protein→Protein 4698: 4691: 4689:Gene expression 4686: 4656: 4651: 4633: 4574:Cloning vectors 4568: 4554:Locked 4518: 4468: 4457: 4416: 4344: 4291: 4290: 4282: 4251: 4245: 4207:: YouTube video 4199:Wayback Machine 4182: 4181: 4180: 4165: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4106: 4063: 4018: 3973: 3941: 3890: 3886: 3884:Further reading 3881: 3880: 3843:Current Biology 3833: 3832: 3823: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3671: 3669: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3647: 3645: 3636: 3635: 3631: 3622: 3620: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3563: 3562: 3558: 3518: 3517: 3513: 3504: 3502: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3457:(11): 1319–30. 3444: 3443: 3439: 3400:Genome Medicine 3393: 3392: 3388: 3374: 3373: 3366: 3330: 3329: 3322: 3278: 3277: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3218: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3160: 3159: 3155: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3093:(11): 465–470. 3084: 3083: 3079: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2790: 2778:Lewin's genes X 2770: 2769: 2765: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2649:10.1.1.320.5704 2633: 2632: 2628: 2580: 2579: 2575: 2529: 2528: 2524: 2480: 2479: 2472: 2420: 2419: 2415: 2378:Genome Research 2371: 2370: 2366: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2074:(10): 381–383. 2061: 2060: 2056: 2010: 2009: 2005: 1960:Current Biology 1953: 1952: 1948: 1919:(12): 889–898. 1906: 1905: 1901: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1770:(4): e1001366. 1757: 1756: 1752: 1716: 1715: 1711: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1525: 1524: 1520: 1513: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1483: 1481: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1459: 1457: 1449: 1448: 1444: 1435: 1433: 1425: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1371: 1282:β-galactosidase 1273: 1259:was awarded to 1189: 1179: 1163: 1154: 1148: 1116: 1110: 1074: 1068: 1043:exosome complex 1031: 1019:exosome complex 1002:exosome complex 971: 931: 922: 875: 831: 825: 809: 807:Polyadenylation 803: 729: 721:Main articles: 719: 697:and end with a 687: 681: 652: 600: 594: 555:and later with 506: 474:Polyadenylation 468: 466:Polyadenylation 462: 460:Polyadenylation 446: 385: 379: 377:5' cap addition 355: 349: 321: 315: 306: 277: 271: 242: 195:ribonucleotides 154:, leaving only 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5098: 5096: 5088: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5047: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5029:François Jacob 5025: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5008: 4998: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4971: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4936: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4873: 4871: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4824: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4805:RNA polymerase 4802: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4709: 4703: 4701: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4685: 4684: 4677: 4670: 4662: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4649: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4578: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4559:Peptide 4556: 4551: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4537:Glycol 4528: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4473: 4471: 4463: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4382: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4354: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4309: 4307: 4298: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4252: 4249:nucleic acids 4246: 4244: 4243: 4236: 4229: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4189: 4173:messenger RNA 4166: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4154:External links 4152: 4150: 4149: 4104: 4076:(1): 118–123. 4061: 4016: 3971: 3953:(5): 667–676. 3939: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3821: 3792:(6): 777–789. 3772: 3733:(5): 263–270. 3713: 3694:(6): 648–660. 3678: 3667:NobelPrize.org 3654: 3629: 3618:NobelPrize.org 3605: 3576:(6): 840–854. 3556: 3511: 3486: 3437: 3386: 3364: 3320: 3271: 3262: 3211: 3202: 3153: 3112: 3077: 3050:(5): 659–667. 3034: 3013:(6): 905–915. 3007:Molecular Cell 2993: 2964:(4): 451–464. 2944: 2923:(5): 635–646. 2917:Molecular Cell 2903: 2852: 2803: 2788: 2763: 2712: 2671: 2642:(1): 135–140. 2636:Molecular Cell 2626: 2597:(4): 645–658. 2573: 2552:10.1038/990025 2522: 2470: 2413: 2364: 2315: 2258: 2231:(1): 145–160. 2211: 2152: 2103: 2054: 2003: 1966:(3): 199–207. 1946: 1899: 1870:(1): 227–240. 1850: 1821:(3): 284–291. 1801: 1750: 1729:(2): 149–152. 1709: 1657: 1636:(5): 814–825. 1616: 1567: 1538:(3): 394–401. 1518: 1511: 1490: 1466: 1442: 1431:www.nature.com 1417: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1377: 1370: 1367: 1342:its function. 1327:François Jacob 1315:Sydney Brenner 1300:Alfred Hershey 1272: 1269: 1261:Katalin Karikó 1178: 1175: 1167:non-stop decay 1162: 1159: 1150:Main article: 1147: 1144: 1112:Main article: 1109: 1106: 1090:leaky scanning 1070:Main article: 1067: 1064: 1030: 1027: 970: 967: 930: 927: 921: 918: 874: 871: 837:only a single 824: 821: 805:Main article: 802: 799: 718: 715: 683:Main article: 680: 679:Coding regions 677: 651: 648: 596:Main article: 593: 590: 573:phosphorylated 545:NMDA receptors 505: 502: 464:Main article: 461: 458: 445: 442: 426:RNA polymerase 381:Main article: 378: 375: 351:Main article: 348: 345: 317:Main article: 314: 311: 305: 302: 286:precursor mRNA 281:RNA polymerase 273:Main article: 270: 267: 241: 238: 222:François Jacob 214:Sydney Brenner 132:RNA polymerase 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5097: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5035: 5034:Jacques Monod 5032: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5020: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5003: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4996:Translational 4994: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4894: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4791: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759:Transcription 4756: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4712:Central dogma 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4694: 4690: 4683: 4678: 4676: 4671: 4669: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4648: 4640: 4639: 4636: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4571: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4542:Threose 4540: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4499:Deoxyribozyme 4497: 4495: 4492: 4488: 4487:Mitochondrial 4485: 4483: 4480: 4479: 4478: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4464: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4419: 4413: 4410: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4305:Translational 4302: 4299: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4242: 4237: 4235: 4230: 4228: 4223: 4222: 4219: 4212: 4211:What is mRNA? 4209: 4206: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4190: 4187: 4184: 4183: 4178: 4177: 4169: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3888: 3883: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3773: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3690:(in French). 3689: 3682: 3679: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3643: 3639: 3633: 3630: 3619: 3615: 3609: 3606: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3524: 3515: 3512: 3501: 3497: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3343:(10): 17056. 3342: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2789:9780763766320 2785: 2780: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2675: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2627: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2417: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2319: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2215: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2107: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2055: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1900: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1854: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1805: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1764:PLOS Genetics 1761: 1754: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1713: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1661: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1620: 1617: 1612: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1571: 1568: 1563: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1512:9780321851499 1508: 1504: 1500: 1494: 1491: 1480: 1476: 1470: 1467: 1456: 1452: 1446: 1443: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1406:Transcriptome 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1386:Missense mRNA 1384: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1363: 1358: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1331:Arthur Pardee 1328: 1324: 1320: 1319:Francis Crick 1316: 1311: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1292:Arthur Pardee 1289: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1278:Jacques Monod 1270: 1268: 1266: 1265:Drew Weissman 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1217:cell membrane 1214: 1210: 1209:immune system 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1184: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1160: 1158: 1153: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1115: 1107: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1073: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1028: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 984: 980: 976: 968: 966: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 943:endonucleases 935: 928: 926: 919: 917: 913: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 888: 879: 872: 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 830: 822: 820: 818: 814: 808: 800: 798: 796: 792: 791:SECIS element 788: 783: 779: 777: 774:bound to the 773: 767: 765: 761: 760:ribonucleases 756: 754: 750: 746: 743:(5' UTR) and 742: 733: 728: 724: 716: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 686: 685:Coding region 678: 673: 669: 668:coding region 665: 661: 656: 649: 647: 645: 644:breast cancer 641: 637: 633: 629: 623: 621: 617: 613: 604: 599: 591: 589: 587: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 561:motor protein 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 521: 519: 515: 511: 503: 501: 497: 495: 492:. Just as in 491: 485: 482: 472: 467: 459: 457: 455: 451: 443: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 417: 415: 411: 406: 402: 398: 389: 384: 374: 372: 368: 364: 360: 354: 346: 344: 342: 338: 334: 325: 320: 312: 310: 303: 301: 299: 298: 293: 292: 287: 282: 276: 269:Transcription 268: 266: 264: 263:messenger RNP 260: 256: 246: 239: 237: 235: 234:Jacques Monod 231: 227: 223: 219: 218:Francis Crick 215: 210: 208: 207:ribosomal RNA 204: 201:, except the 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 179: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 124:transcription 120: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 5080:RNA splicing 5011:irreversible 4896:Key elements 4793:Key elements 4720: 4707:Genetic code 4697:Introduction 4617:Bacterial 4592:Lambda phage 4312: 4256:Constituents 4172: 4116: 4113:Biomedicines 4112: 4073: 4069: 4028: 4024: 3983: 3979: 3950: 3946: 3943:Lillycrop KA 3903:(1): 20680. 3900: 3896: 3846: 3842: 3789: 3785: 3775: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3670:. Retrieved 3666: 3657: 3646:. Retrieved 3644:. 2023-10-02 3641: 3632: 3621:. Retrieved 3617: 3608: 3573: 3569: 3559: 3521: 3514: 3503:. Retrieved 3499: 3489: 3454: 3450: 3440: 3403: 3399: 3389: 3380: 3340: 3336: 3291:(1): 21–32. 3288: 3284: 3274: 3265: 3228: 3225:PLOS Biology 3224: 3214: 3205: 3170: 3166: 3156: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3010: 3006: 2996: 2961: 2957: 2947: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2865: 2861: 2855: 2820: 2816: 2806: 2777: 2766: 2729: 2725: 2715: 2688: 2684: 2674: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2594: 2590: 2576: 2535: 2531: 2525: 2490: 2486: 2430: 2426: 2416: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2332: 2328: 2318: 2278:(1): 13904. 2275: 2271: 2261: 2228: 2224: 2214: 2169: 2165: 2155: 2120: 2116: 2106: 2071: 2067: 2057: 2016: 2012: 2006: 1963: 1959: 1949: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1867: 1863: 1853: 1818: 1814: 1804: 1767: 1763: 1753: 1726: 1722: 1712: 1671: 1667: 1660: 1633: 1629: 1619: 1584: 1580: 1570: 1535: 1531: 1521: 1502: 1493: 1482:. Retrieved 1478: 1469: 1458:. Retrieved 1455:Khan Academy 1454: 1445: 1434:. Retrieved 1430: 1421: 1391:mRNA display 1360: 1354: 1347:James Watson 1344: 1312: 1307: 1304:Martha Chase 1295: 1285: 1274: 1241: 1229: 1205: 1190: 1183:mRNA vaccine 1177:Applications 1164: 1155: 1140:exonucleases 1136:endonuclease 1117: 1075: 1032: 1010:poly(A) tail 972: 947:exonucleases 940: 923: 914: 899: 884: 832: 810: 801:Poly(A) tail 795:riboswitches 784: 780: 768: 757: 738: 688: 635: 624: 619: 615: 609: 569:cytoskeleton 567:) along the 522: 518:nuclear pore 507: 498: 486: 481:poly(A) tail 477: 447: 418: 396: 394: 359:RNA splicing 356: 353:RNA splicing 330: 307: 295: 289: 285: 278: 251: 230:James Watson 211: 180: 168:transfer RNA 152:RNA splicing 121: 113:synthesizing 88: 84: 78: 36: 5075:Spliceosome 4862:Translation 4699:to genetics 4612:P1-derived 4380:Antisense 4273:Nucleotides 4268:Nucleosides 4263:Nucleobases 3451:RNA Biology 2493:(1): 1–45. 1723:RNA Biology 1380:GeneCalling 1213:impermeable 1094:frame shift 975:translation 920:Degradation 695:start codon 592:Translation 557:40S subunit 438:biochemical 297:mature mRNA 255:prokaryotic 203:stop codons 187:nucleotides 172:translation 166:carried by 164:amino acids 160:mature mRNA 126:, where an 53:transcribed 5049:Categories 5006:reversible 4969:lac operon 4945:imprinting 4940:Epigenetic 4932:Regulation 4887:Eukaryotic 4833:5' capping 4784:Eukaryotic 4564:Morpholino 4477:Organellar 4385:Processual 4350:Regulatory 4294:non-coding 4186:RNAi Atlas 4119:(2): 308. 3672:2023-10-03 3648:2023-10-03 3623:2023-10-03 3505:2021-04-26 3231:(3): e85. 2732:: 939768. 1909:Eberwine J 1484:2024-05-04 1460:2024-05-03 1436:2024-05-03 1413:References 1181:See also: 902:Poliovirus 843:eukaryotic 827:See also: 699:stop codon 537:Arc/Arg3.1 440:reaction. 333:eukaryotes 259:eukaryotic 199:amino acid 69:translated 61:processing 45:eukaryotic 4877:Bacterial 4774:Bacterial 4524:Analogues 4509:Hachimoji 4292:(coding, 4247:Types of 4192:miRSearch 4175:(Q188928) 4025:Nutrients 3986:(1): 42. 3600:248667843 3500:New Atlas 3406:(1): 60. 2798:456641931 2644:CiteSeerX 2433:: 16037. 2253:229689880 1499:Watson JD 1479:Toppr Ask 1298:In 1953, 1239:protein. 1225:ribosomes 1221:cytoplasm 1201:stem cell 1120:metazoans 979:ribosomes 955:RNase III 835:translate 772:MicroRNAs 650:Structure 533:dendrites 514:cytoplasm 504:Transport 434:catalyzes 430:enzymatic 240:Synthesis 65:cytoplasm 4989:microRNA 4903:Ribosome 4882:Archaeal 4838:Splicing 4810:Promoter 4779:Archaeal 4723: → 4719: → 4647:Category 4582:Phagemid 4433:Ribozyme 4195:Archived 4145:36830845 4100:22211110 4057:24892374 4012:27330539 3967:22980048 3935:26854194 3873:26126273 3816:13069681 3767:16589470 3708:13032175 3592:35534554 3552:25150148 3481:23064118 3432:28655327 3315:19029310 3257:15723116 3197:18926973 3148:17671086 3072:40332253 3029:16364915 2988:14817671 2980:11719186 2939:17349952 2890:18202662 2847:11486027 2758:35784275 2707:16238092 2621:21854988 2560:10591207 2465:26531896 2408:12952875 2359:16682450 2310:30224719 2245:33367488 2206:29078295 2041:16306994 1998:12573215 1933:11733796 1894:13395819 1886:11343657 1796:21533221 1745:19229134 1696:11979277 1652:19453442 1611:23427269 1562:22291204 1369:See also 1325:, while 1152:microRNA 1045:and the 1006:P-bodies 867:proteins 859:bacteria 855:operator 851:promoter 703:pre-mRNA 612:ribosome 541:synapses 432:complex 410:ribosome 347:Splicing 337:bacteria 291:pre-mRNA 140:pre-mRNA 109:ribosome 93:molecule 73:ribosome 59:; after 4742:RNA→DNA 4737:RNA→RNA 4725:Protein 4587:Plasmid 4168:Scholia 4136:9953480 4091:3248653 4048:4073141 4003:4915038 3926:4745068 3905:Bibcode 3851:Bibcode 3807:2147416 3735:Bibcode 3642:Reuters 3543:4176373 3472:3597572 3423:5485616 3345:Bibcode 3306:2612776 3248:1043860 3188:2592633 3107:8578590 3064:3488815 2898:4321451 2870:Bibcode 2772:Lewin B 2749:9247149 2666:9702200 2612:3160626 2568:4349134 2540:Bibcode 2517:6343825 2456:4631997 2435:Bibcode 2350:1458515 2301:6141510 2280:Bibcode 2197:5699038 2174:Bibcode 2147:9281585 2138:2136761 2098:9789325 2089:2136761 2049:2453397 2021:Bibcode 1989:4765734 1968:Bibcode 1941:5275219 1907:Job C, 1845:7062109 1836:6564334 1787:3077370 1704:1112194 1676:Bibcode 1602:3623641 1553:3285928 1351:Harvard 1337:at the 1308:E. coli 1287:E. coli 1271:History 1253:Moderna 1215:to the 1197:vaccine 1098:poly(A) 1084:in the 1039:poly(A) 1021:or the 863:archaea 853:and an 839:protein 829:Cistron 813:adenine 630:by the 616:coupled 549:β-actin 525:neurons 512:to the 510:nucleus 444:Editing 428:. This 367:outrons 363:introns 341:archaea 144:introns 117:protein 71:by the 57:nucleus 55:in the 4602:Fosmid 4597:Cosmid 4547:Hexose 4469:acids 4421:Others 4143: 4133: 4098: 4088: 4055: 4045: 4010: 4000: 3965: 3933: 3923: 3871: 3835:Cobb M 3814: 3804: 3765: 3758:534118 3755: 3706: 3598: 3590: 3550: 3540: 3479: 3469: 3430: 3420: 3313: 3303: 3255: 3245: 3195: 3185: 3146: 3105: 3070: 3062: 3027: 2986: 2978: 2937: 2896: 2888: 2862:Nature 2845: 2835: 2796: 2786: 2756: 2746: 2705: 2664: 2646: 2619: 2609: 2566: 2558: 2532:Nature 2515: 2508:281560 2505: 2463: 2453: 2406: 2399:403678 2396: 2357: 2347: 2308: 2298: 2251: 2243: 2204: 2194: 2145: 2135: 2096: 2086: 2047: 2039: 2013:Nature 1996: 1986: 1939: 1931: 1892: 1884: 1864:Neuron 1843: 1833: 1794: 1784: 1743: 1702: 1694: 1668:Nature 1650: 1609: 1599: 1560: 1550: 1509: 1356:Nature 1233:CRISPR 1008:. The 992:, and 990:eIF-4G 986:eIF-4E 981:, the 963:5' end 959:5' cap 817:3' end 776:3' UTR 749:exonic 727:3' UTR 723:5' UTR 691:codons 672:3' UTR 664:5' UTR 660:5' cap 640:EEF1A1 636:is not 450:edited 414:RNases 405:5' end 397:5' cap 383:5' cap 339:, and 191:codons 181:As in 128:enzyme 47:cell. 4870:Types 4767:Types 4627:Human 4405:Y RNA 3596:S2CID 3068:S2CID 2984:S2CID 2894:S2CID 2838:87307 2564:S2CID 2249:S2CID 2045:S2CID 1937:S2CID 1890:S2CID 1700:S2CID 1128:Dicer 1114:siRNA 1060:c-Fos 1056:c-Jun 945:, 3' 895:eIF4G 887:eIF4E 581:axons 371:exons 288:, or 156:exons 103:of a 4141:PMID 4096:PMID 4053:PMID 4008:PMID 3963:PMID 3931:PMID 3869:PMID 3812:PMID 3763:PMID 3704:PMID 3588:PMID 3548:PMID 3477:PMID 3428:PMID 3311:PMID 3253:PMID 3193:PMID 3144:PMID 3103:PMID 3060:PMID 3044:Cell 3025:PMID 2976:PMID 2958:Cell 2935:PMID 2886:PMID 2843:PMID 2794:OCLC 2784:ISBN 2754:PMID 2703:PMID 2662:PMID 2617:PMID 2591:Cell 2556:PMID 2513:PMID 2461:PMID 2404:PMID 2355:PMID 2306:PMID 2241:PMID 2202:PMID 2143:PMID 2094:PMID 2037:PMID 1994:PMID 1929:PMID 1882:PMID 1841:PMID 1792:PMID 1741:PMID 1692:PMID 1648:PMID 1607:PMID 1558:PMID 1507:ISBN 1317:and 1263:and 1251:and 1185:and 1058:and 998:DCP2 988:and 889:and 861:and 725:and 553:ZBP1 529:soma 216:and 105:gene 89:mRNA 67:and 5055:RNA 4721:RNA 4717:DNA 4131:PMC 4121:doi 4086:PMC 4078:doi 4043:PMC 4033:doi 3998:PMC 3988:doi 3955:doi 3921:PMC 3913:doi 3859:doi 3802:PMC 3794:doi 3753:PMC 3743:doi 3696:doi 3578:doi 3538:PMC 3528:doi 3467:PMC 3459:doi 3418:PMC 3408:doi 3353:doi 3301:PMC 3293:doi 3285:RNA 3243:PMC 3233:doi 3183:PMC 3175:doi 3171:364 3134:doi 3095:doi 3052:doi 3015:doi 2966:doi 2962:107 2925:doi 2878:doi 2866:451 2833:PMC 2825:doi 2744:PMC 2734:doi 2693:doi 2654:doi 2607:PMC 2599:doi 2595:146 2548:doi 2536:402 2503:PMC 2495:doi 2451:PMC 2443:doi 2394:PMC 2386:doi 2345:PMC 2337:doi 2296:PMC 2288:doi 2233:doi 2192:PMC 2182:doi 2170:114 2133:PMC 2125:doi 2121:138 2084:PMC 2076:doi 2029:doi 2017:438 1984:PMC 1976:doi 1921:doi 1872:doi 1831:PMC 1823:doi 1782:PMC 1772:doi 1731:doi 1684:doi 1672:417 1638:doi 1597:PMC 1589:doi 1548:PMC 1540:doi 1532:RNA 1247:by 1237:Cas 1118:In 766:.) 709:or 705:as 642:in 577:Src 575:by 531:to 365:or 183:DNA 97:RNA 95:of 79:In 51:is 49:RNA 5051:: 4139:. 4129:. 4117:11 4115:. 4111:. 4094:. 4084:. 4072:. 4068:. 4051:. 4041:. 4027:. 4023:. 4006:. 3996:. 3984:13 3982:. 3978:. 3961:. 3951:26 3949:. 3929:. 3919:. 3911:. 3899:. 3895:. 3867:. 3857:. 3847:25 3845:. 3841:. 3824:^ 3810:. 3800:. 3790:36 3788:. 3784:. 3761:. 3751:. 3741:. 3731:40 3729:. 3725:. 3702:. 3665:. 3640:. 3616:. 3594:. 3586:. 3574:40 3572:. 3568:. 3546:, 3536:, 3498:. 3475:. 3465:. 3453:. 3449:. 3426:. 3416:. 3402:. 3398:. 3379:. 3367:^ 3351:. 3339:. 3335:. 3323:^ 3309:. 3299:. 3289:15 3287:. 3283:. 3251:. 3241:. 3227:. 3223:. 3191:. 3181:. 3169:. 3165:. 3142:. 3130:21 3128:. 3124:. 3101:. 3091:20 3089:. 3066:. 3058:. 3048:46 3046:. 3023:. 3011:20 3009:. 3005:. 2982:. 2974:. 2960:. 2956:. 2933:. 2921:25 2919:. 2915:. 2892:. 2884:. 2876:. 2864:. 2841:. 2831:. 2821:21 2819:. 2815:. 2792:. 2752:. 2742:. 2730:13 2728:. 2724:. 2701:. 2689:38 2687:. 2683:. 2660:. 2652:. 2638:. 2615:. 2605:. 2593:. 2589:. 2562:. 2554:. 2546:. 2534:. 2511:. 2501:. 2491:47 2489:. 2485:. 2473:^ 2459:. 2449:. 2441:. 2429:. 2425:. 2402:. 2392:. 2382:13 2380:. 2376:. 2353:. 2343:. 2333:34 2331:. 2327:. 2304:. 2294:. 2286:. 2274:. 2270:. 2247:. 2239:. 2229:49 2227:. 2223:. 2200:. 2190:. 2180:. 2168:. 2164:. 2141:. 2131:. 2119:. 2115:. 2092:. 2082:. 2070:. 2066:. 2043:. 2035:. 2027:. 2015:. 1992:. 1982:. 1974:. 1964:13 1962:. 1958:. 1935:. 1927:. 1915:. 1888:. 1880:. 1868:30 1866:. 1862:. 1839:. 1829:. 1817:. 1813:. 1790:. 1780:. 1766:. 1762:. 1739:. 1725:. 1721:. 1698:. 1690:. 1682:. 1670:. 1646:. 1634:59 1632:. 1628:. 1605:. 1595:. 1585:24 1583:. 1579:. 1556:. 1546:. 1536:18 1534:. 1530:. 1477:. 1453:. 1429:. 1365:. 1290:. 1227:. 1122:, 1104:. 1062:. 869:. 713:. 670:, 666:, 662:, 646:. 622:. 588:. 416:. 395:A 335:, 300:. 265:. 119:. 115:a 83:, 4681:e 4674:t 4667:v 4296:) 4240:e 4233:t 4226:v 4179:. 4147:. 4123:: 4102:. 4080:: 4074:8 4059:. 4035:: 4029:6 4014:. 3990:: 3969:. 3957:: 3937:. 3915:: 3907:: 3901:6 3875:. 3861:: 3853:: 3818:. 3796:: 3769:. 3745:: 3737:: 3710:. 3698:: 3692:9 3675:. 3651:. 3626:. 3602:. 3580:: 3530:: 3508:. 3483:. 3461:: 3455:9 3434:. 3410:: 3404:9 3383:. 3361:. 3355:: 3347:: 3341:2 3317:. 3295:: 3259:. 3235:: 3229:3 3199:. 3177:: 3150:. 3136:: 3109:. 3097:: 3074:. 3054:: 3031:. 3017:: 2990:. 2968:: 2941:. 2927:: 2900:. 2880:: 2872:: 2849:. 2827:: 2800:. 2760:. 2736:: 2709:. 2695:: 2668:. 2656:: 2640:2 2623:. 2601:: 2570:. 2550:: 2542:: 2519:. 2497:: 2467:. 2445:: 2437:: 2431:5 2410:. 2388:: 2361:. 2339:: 2312:. 2290:: 2282:: 2276:8 2255:. 2235:: 2208:. 2184:: 2176:: 2149:. 2127:: 2100:. 2078:: 2072:8 2051:. 2031:: 2023:: 2000:. 1978:: 1970:: 1943:. 1923:: 1917:2 1896:. 1874:: 1847:. 1825:: 1819:2 1798:. 1774:: 1768:7 1747:. 1733:: 1727:6 1706:. 1686:: 1678:: 1654:. 1640:: 1613:. 1591:: 1564:. 1542:: 1515:. 1487:. 1463:. 1439:. 1296:. 130:( 87:( 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index