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448:
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they tend to burn more severely. They often kill large continuous expanses of vegetation, consume the forest floor, volatilize nutrients, provide for exotic species introductions, increase soil erosion, and, in general, create forest conditions that may not be favorable to society. The long-term consequences are not well understood for issues such as water quality and wildlife habitat. Nor will the sense of place that forests often provide which, in some cases, will not be replaced for many generations.
688:
93:
31:
175:
343:
20:
414:) rapidly regenerates after fire and captures and recycles nitrogen. Because of the range of species that can occur with ponderosa pine and their wide range of tolerance (e.g., shade, competition, fire) along with how they interact with disturbances a plethora of vegetative compositions and structures can occur within ponderosa pine forests arranged and interspersed in a variety of
737:
on the ponderosa pine PVT, grass cover tended to decrease ponderosa pine seedling establishment and survival. However, when heavy livestock grazing ceased in the early 1900s in the southwestern United States, dense stands of ponderosa pine seedlings became established. Because of fire exclusion, climate changes, and other factors these trees readily developed into dense stands.
158:, it can be 240 days. Annual precipitation is about 15 to 20 inches (380 to 510 mm) in the more pure pine areas, but where there are combinations of pine and other conifers at moderate elevations, the precipitation can total 30 inches (760 mm). In the far western sector, only 25 percent of this moisture falls in the warmest months. In the
1010:
905:
854:
711:
Ponderosa pine forests appear to have evolved with fire and many authors have suggested that their composition and structure are dependent on the vegetation's relations with fire. However, when wildfires burn altered ponderosa pine forests, the extent or area burned is similar to historical times but
100:
Ponderosa pine forest is the largest western forest type in the United States. Ponderosa pine is the principal species on over 110,000 km (27,000,000 acres) and is present on an additional 55,000 km (14,000,000 acres). Within the western United States, California alone contains the greatest
736:
and harvesting of ponderosa pine forests was occurring by the mid-1800s. Ponderosa pine was extensively harvested, altering both forest composition and structure. In mesic forests, grand fir and/or white fir and
Douglas-fir rapidly colonized these sites when ponderosa pine was harvested. Especially
771:
spp.), or too old to resist attack. Pine engraver and fir engraver beetles attacked young, densely stocked ponderosa pine or removed trees scorched by low-intensity surface fires and/or trees severely infected with disease. Sometimes disease and insect infestations increased during droughts when
707:
by Native
Americans augmented and even dominated burning in several locations. In the northern Rocky Mountains of Idaho and western Montana, dry settings of ponderosa pine forests historically burned by low severity surface fires that did not kill overstory trees at 15 to 23 year mean return
601:
origin. The physical properties of the soil, and thus its moisture-retaining capacity, play an important role in the tree's development, possibly more than the chemistry of the soil. Studies have shown strong relationships between the vertical growth of ponderosa pine and soil depth. In the
702:
Before successful fire exclusion, temperature and precipitation patterns combined with natural and human ignitions allowed fires to burn the dry ponderosa pine forests at relatively frequent (e.g., < 40 years) intervals, even as frequent as every 6.5 years in
Arizona.
162:, 40-50 percent of the precipitation occurs in the warmest months. In the middle to southern Rockies, 66 to 75 percent occurs in the warmest months. In the southern areas and those at low elevations, precipitation during the frost-free season is only 20 percent of the
669:
of eastern Oregon, pine stands occupy mollisols. In the Middle and
Southern Rocky Mountains, pines and associates are on mollisols, aridisols, entisols, and alfisols. Pine stands in the Gila Mountains are largely on mollisols. The small stands of pine in the
1479:
Graham, Russell T; McCaffrey, Sarah; Jain, Theresa B (2004). Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity (Report). Fort
Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Research Station; US Forest Service. General Technical Report
101:
concentrations of ponderosa pine (20,700 km or 5,100,000 acres) closely followed by Oregon with 19,000 km (4,700,000 acres) and, when combined, Arizona and New Mexico contain an additional 25,000 km (6,200,000 acres) of ponderosa pine.
1495:. In Vance, RK; Edminster, CB; Covington, WW; Blake, J (eds.). Ponderosa pine ecosystems restoration and conservation: steps toward stewardship (Report). Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Research Station, US Forest Service. pp. 9–18. RMRS-P-22.
765:) were insects associated with regularly burned areas. In most years bark beetles occurred at endemic levels in ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and grand fir killing large and weakened trees that were struck by lightning, infected by root disease (
614:, pine growth response has been related to soil type, effective soil depth, landform, and moisture availability. Increased water at a site increased plant growth regardless of the soil type and landform. The high water tables associated with
740:
The dense stands that developed increased the abundance of insect and disease epidemics, and when combined with fire exclusion, significantly altered the composition and structure of these forests. Historically, western pine beetle
434:
or with an understory of shrubs of low to medium height. In perhaps 60 percent of the area, the idealized open character of the ponderosa pine ecosystem has changed to that of a dense and growth-retarded stand, particularly in the
1014:
909:
858:
280:). These species, in particular, exemplify aggressive survivors after disturbance (e.g., fire, mechanical site preparation) and are strong competitors for light and nutrients which compete with ponderosa pine seedlings.
392:) rapidly colonize sites after disturbance and are also active nitrogen fixers. Mid-seral shrubs include Rocky Mountain maple which readily survives disturbances and is joined by late-seral species such as huckleberry (
261:
of
Colorado, in Utah, and in southern Idaho. They also occur along the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas in California and the eastern slopes of the Cascades in Oregon. Ground-level vegetation includes ninebark
404:). The latter readily survives disturbances but is an aggressive colonizer. Probably one of the greatest competitors and survivors after disturbance of any ground-level species occurring with ponderosa pine is
1401:
Covington, WW; Moore, MM (1994). "Postsettlement changes in natural fire regimes and forest structure: Ecological restoration of old-growth ponderosa pine forests". In
Sampson, R. Neil; Adams, David L (eds.).
1086:
Mauk, RL; Henderson, JA (1984). Coniferous forest habitat types of northern Utah (Report). Ogden, UT: Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report GTR-INT-170.
355:
The wettest forests where ponderosa pine occurs are the wet grand fir and/or white fir PVTs and the driest western redcedar PVTs. Such forests occur in the interior northwestern United States and in southern
1075:. Proceedings of the symposium management and productivity of western Montana forest soils. Ogden, UT: Intermountain Research Station: US Forest Service. pp. 101–109. General Technical Report INT-280.
425:
and ecological dynamics can cause some problems in maintaining good delineation of the ponderosa pine ecosystem. This ecosystem is idealized as open and parklike with an excellent ground cover of grasses,
809:. In addition to ponderosa pine being damaged by insects, dense stands of Douglas-fir and grand fir or white fir that developed on many settings arevery susceptible to both defoliators and root diseases.
653:
at the northern edge of the
Columbia Plateau and in much of the Northern Rocky Mountains, pine and the related forest types occur on inceptisols; the soils of the rest of these areas are largely
1708:. Crossing the Millennium: Integrating spatial technologies and ecological principles for a new age in fire management. Spokane, WA: International Association of Wildland Fire. pp. 179–189.
187:
Ponderosa pine forest can occur in different types of ecological site. Each of these sites can be characterized by its potential vegetation type (PVT) after succession reaches equilibrium or
1852:
1453:. Pacific Northwest forest and rangeland soil organism symposium. Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station, US Forest Service. pp. 137–145. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-461.
131:
Ponderosa pine forest occurs when the average mean temperature is between 42 and 50 °F (6 and 10 °C) and the July/August mean temperature is 62 to 70 °F (17 to 21 °C).
408:. This ground-level vegetation can play critical roles in forests such as providing wildlife habitat, stabilizing soil, and capturing nutrients after disturbance. For example, fireweed (
1862:
1857:
1877:
1752:
Wu, Y; Johnson, DW; Angwin, PA (1996). Identification of
Armillaria species in Rocky Mountain Region (Report). Golden, CO: Rocky Mountain Region, US Forest Service. Report R2-58.
1108:(Report). Vol. II, assessments and scientific basis for management options. Davis, CA: University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources. pp. 627–662.
1763:
Hedden, R; Barras, S; Coster, J (1981). Hazard-rating system in forest insect pest management (Report). Washington, DC: US Forest Service. General Technical Repport GTR-WO-27.
1417:
Everett, RL; Schellhaas, R; Keenum, D; Spurbeck, D; Olson, P (2000). "Fire history in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests on the east slope of the Washington Cascades".
1662:
Brawn, JD; Balda, RP (1988). "The influence of silvicultural activity on ponderosa pine forest bird communities in the southwestern United States". In Jackson, JA (ed.).
1633:(Report). Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service U.S. Department of Agriculture. General Technical Report PNW-97.
775:
After a century of fire suppression, these same insects have occurred at epidemic levels in some locations. Ponderosa pine continues to be susceptible to the
1677:
Stein, SJ (1988). "Explanations of imbalanced age structure and scattered distribution of ponderosa pine within a high-elevation mixed coniferous forest".
818:
720:
1447:
Tree species composition change: forest soil organism interaction: potential effects of nutrient cycling and conservation processes in interior forests
1819:
Speer, James H; Swetnam, Thomas W; Wickman, Boyd E; Youngblood, Andrew (2001). "Changes in pandora moth outbreak dynamics during the past 622 years".
1303:
1025:. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ponderosa Pine: Issues, Trends, and Management. US Forest Service. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-198.
112:
true forest sites, it occupies low mountains and foothills in many places; yet in mixtures with other species, it is found at moderate elevations.
1872:
360:. The western redcedar PVT is by far the most productive type on which ponderosa pine occurs, and lush and complex vegetation mixes may develop.
863:
793:) defoliates ponderosa pine and scattered outbreaks have occurred in Arizona, California, Colorado, and Oregon during the 20th century. The
823:
939:. Proceedings of the symposium on ponderosa pine: the species and its management. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. pp. 1–6.
194:
In the southern and extreme eastern portion of the range, ponderosa pine grows primarily on ponderosa pine PVTs. On these settings,
1493:"Cheesman Lake a historical ponderosa pine landscape guiding restoration in the South Platte watershed of the Colorado Front Range"
1070:
787:
is more abundant and destructive with some of the severest outbreaks occurring on low-elevation ponderosa pine PVTs. Pandora moth (
257:
are early-seral associates of ponderosa pine on these sites. These ponderosa pine forests occur in the Rocky Mountains along the
146:. In general, in much of the northern area the frost-free period is 120 days, whereas in many foothill areas and in parts of the
1444:
Harvey, Alan E; Graham, Russell T; McDonald, Gerald I (1999). Meurisse, Robert T; Ypsllantis, William G; Seybold, Cathy (eds.).
1055:(Report). Ogden, UT: Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report GTR-INT-187.
1704:
Harvey, Alan E; Graham, Russell T; McDonald, Gerald I; Larsen, Michael J (2000). Neuenschwander, Leon F; Ryan, Kevin C (eds.).
1867:
503:
1630:
1161:(Report). Ogden, UT: Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-144.
1793:(Report). Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, US Forest Service. Research Note RM-515.
828:
370:). A rich understory of shrubs, grasses, and forbs occur in these forests. Early seral-species such as redstem ceanothus (
1069:
Jurgensen, Martin F; Tonn, Jonalea T; Graham, Russell T; Harvey, Alan E; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen (1991). Harvey, AE (ed.).
1040:(Report). Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, US Forest Service. Research Paper RM-276.
84:
forests. Understory species depends on location. Fire suppression has led to insect outbreaks in ponderosa pine forests.
869:
115:
Local topography can be gentle, as on plateau tops and low mountains, or it can be steep, as on canyon walls and faces.
166:. In northern areas precipitation during the growing season may be as high as 40 percent of the evaporation potential.
1808:(Report). Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-327.
1726:(Report). Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-327.
1543:
Cooper, CF (1960). "Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwest pine forests since white settlement".
1513:(Report). Portland, OR: Pacific NorthwestResearch Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-462.
1666:. Vol. 3. Madison, WI: The International Council for Bird Preservation, United States Section. pp. 3–21.
1136:
An assessment of ecosystem components in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins
570:
1832:
1322:
1468:(Report). Ogden, UT: Rocky Mountain Research Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-114.
1038:
Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat type classification
692:
159:
135:
1233:(Report). Ogden, UT: Intermountain Research Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-GTR-363.
743:
662:
558:
534:
447:
410:
330:
276:
179:
1806:
Historical and current roles of insects and pathogens in eastern Oregon and Washington forested landscapes
1721:
Historical and current roles of insects and pathogens in eastern Oregon and Washington forested landscapes
1524:
Schroeder, Herbert (2002). "Experiencing nature in special places: surveys in the north central region".
1197:(Report). Ogden, UT: Intermountain Research Station, US Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-236.
1138:. Vol. II. Portland, OR: Pacific Northwest Research Station, US Forest Service. pp. 338–1055.
234:
163:
24:
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1552:
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1253:
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566:
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372:
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311:
242:
properties which is the process of making elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere available to plants.
776:
451:
378:
1304:"Determining reference conditions for ecosystem management of southwestern ponderosa pine forests"
915:
687:
1649:
Management of ponderosa pine in the southwest as developed by research and experimental practices
1611:
1568:
1380:
1336:
Barrett, SW; Arno, SF (1982). "Indian fires as an ecological influence in the Northern Rockies".
1269:
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789:
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357:
188:
65:
61:
30:
783:. These beetles often kill ponderosa pine on Douglas-fir and grand fir/white fir PVTs. The
521:
The most abundant and important resident birds in the ponderosa pine ecosystem include the
174:
507:
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are the climax species. Additional trees that can occur in such forests include juniper (
239:
199:
151:
49:
1599:
1556:
1368:
1257:
522:
515:
342:
326:
321:
254:
222:
105:
53:
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1846:
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384:
316:
250:
195:
147:
109:
69:
57:
935:
Van Hooser, Dwane; Keegan, Charles E III (1988). Baumgartner, DM; Lotan, JE (eds.).
333:
and ninebark are frequent associates, but tall shrubs such as Rocky Mountain maple (
1631:
Silviculture of ponderosa pine in the Pacific Northwest: the state of our knowledge
1244:
Keith, James O. (1965). "The Abert Squirrel and Its Dependence on Ponderosa Pine".
921:. Washington D.C.: US Forest Service. pp. 21–22. Agriculture Handbook No. 475.
784:
749:
607:
335:
299:
270:
120:
1215:. Pullman, WA: Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. Technical Bulletin 60.
1791:
Stand density and mountain pine beetle-caused tree mortality in ponderosa stands
1720:
1586:
Rasmussen, D Irvin (1941). "Biotic communities of the Kaibab plateau, Arizona".
1507:
1445:
1194:
1158:
1131:
1130:
Hann, Wendel J; Jones, Jeffrey L.; Karl; Sherm, Michael G.; et al. (1997).
1052:
1037:
671:
645:. In northern and eastern California, ponderosa pine stands are associated with
603:
598:
264:
258:
246:
73:
35:
1492:
19:
767:
634:
578:
495:
216:
618:
tend to increase site productivity regardless of the soil type and landform.
610:, soil depth had more influence on tree height than soil parent material. In
511:
499:
467:
405:
394:
293:
288:
284:
143:
81:
77:
1355:
Stewart, OC (1951). "Burning and natural vegetation in the United States".
245:
With increasing moisture, ponderosa pine occurs as a mid-seral species and
1790:
364:
is a frequent associate of ponderosa pine with an occasional paper birch (
108:
has a rather wide range of adaptability and can dominate some of the less
1230:
755:
642:
630:
514:. The Kaibab squirrel is rare and endemic to this ecosystem on Arizona's
139:
119:, low mountain sites are common, but it is difficult to characterize the
116:
1805:
1465:
1143:
1615:
1572:
1273:
798:
733:
696:
658:
654:
646:
638:
611:
422:
283:
Ponderosa pine forests in the north can occur in dry forests where the
210:
204:
155:
39:
1384:
916:"Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems"
806:
802:
794:
487:
475:
459:
228:
72:, while in the more northern part of its range, it can transition to
1607:
1564:
1265:
1376:
1157:
Steele, R; Cooper, SV; Ondov, DM; Roberts, DW; Pfister, RD (1983).
1651:. Washington, DC: US Forest Service; 218. Agriculture Monograph 6.
1179:. Pullman, WA: Cooperative Extension, Washington State University.
719:
686:
446:
427:
341:
173:
91:
29:
18:
138:
season at any location in the ecosystem depends largely upon the
431:
1804:
Hessburg, Paul F; Mitchell, Russel G; Filip, Gregory M (1994).
1719:
Hessburg, Paul F; Mitchell, Russel G; Filip, Gregory M (1994).
1706:
Fire/decay: managing codependent processes across the landscape
1195:
Forest habitat types of northern Idaho: a second approximation
691:
Result of prescribed burn in the ponderosa pine forest of the
1491:
Kaufmann, MR; Fornwalt, PJ; Huckaby, LS; Stoker, JM (2001).
1099:
Assessment of late successional forests of the Sierra Nevada
1053:
Coniferous forest habitat types of central and southern Utah
1833:
10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[0679:CIPMOD]2.0.CO;2
1323:
10.1890/1051-0761(1997)007[0895:DRCFEM]2.0.CO;2
1231:
Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho
1213:
Forest vegetation of eastern Washington and northern Idaho
1175:
Baumgartner, DM; Boyd, RJ; Breuer, DW; Miller, DL (1986).
1737:
Williams, RE; Shaw, CG III; Wargo, PM; Sites, WH (1986).
1177:
Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West
1106:
Sierra Nevada ecosystem project, final report to Congress
1072:
Nitrogen fixation in forest soils of the inland northwest
238:), a frequent shrub in these forests, stands out for its
593:
Ponderosa pine grows on a variety of soils ranging from
561:. Birds that are common during the summer include the
351:
grows in the understory of some ponderosa pine forests
183:
can aggressively compete with ponderosa pine seedlings
68:. In the south and east, ponderosa pine forest is the
1778:. Ogden, UT: Intermountain Region, US Forest Service.
1159:
Forest habitat types of eastern Idaho-western Wyoming
202:
tree species. Ground-level vegetation includes oaks (
1406:. New York: The Haworth Press Inc. pp. 153–181.
1404:
Assessing forest ecosystem health in the Inland West
1134:. In Quigley, Thomas M; Arbelbide, Sylvia J (eds.).
937:
Distributions and volumes of ponderosa pine forests
1170:
1168:
249:becomes the late-seral species (Douglas-fir PVT).
1853:Temperate coniferous forests of the United States
1206:
1204:
1097:Franklin, Jerry F; Fites-Kaufman, Jo Ann (1996).
1741:. Washington, DC: US Forest Service. leaflet 78.
732:In the western United States domestic livestock
1229:Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C (1997).
1064:
1062:
16:Plant community where Pinus ponderosa is common
1863:Natural history of the California Coast Ranges
1858:Plant communities of the Western United States
1642:
1640:
1508:Place assessment: how people define ecosystems
1396:
1394:
454:is only found in mature ponderosa pine forest.
1506:Galliano, Steven J; Loeffler, Gary M (1999).
1188:
1186:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
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988:
986:
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982:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
8:
1878:Forests of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
1774:Gardner, B; Mocettini, P; Halsey, D (1997).
1224:
1222:
1193:Cooper, SV; Neiman, KE; Roberts, DW (1991).
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
948:
946:
930:
928:
123:of the ecosystem because it varies greatly.
1302:Fulé, PZ; Covington, WW; Moore, MM (1997).
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1019:Graham, Russell T; Jain, Theresa B (2005).
819:Maritime Coast Range Ponderosa Pine forests
458:In the ponderosa pine ecosystem, the major
865:General Information: Ponderosa Pine Forest
1289:Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests
848:
846:
844:
478:. Animals of less importance include the
914:Garrison, George A; et al. (1977).
797:prefer loose soils created by weathered
220:spp.), and low shrubs (e.g., snowberry (
1146:. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-405.
899:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
840:
1776:Forest, insect, and disease conditions
1211:Daubenmire, R; Daubenmire, JB (1968).
7:
824:Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine forest
1036:Hoffman, GR; Alexander, RR (1987).
14:
1132:"Landscape dynamics of the Basin"
1051:Youngblood, AP; Mauk, RL (1985).
1013: This article incorporates
1008:
908: This article incorporates
903:
857: This article incorporates
852:
1291:. Washington, DC: Island Press.
1873:Forests of the Rocky Mountains
621:Along the western edge of the
504:golden-mantled ground squirrel
1:
1789:Schmid, JM; Mata, SA (1992).
1679:Forest Ecology and Management
1431:10.1016/S0378-1127(99)00168-1
1419:Forest Ecology and Management
829:California Floristic Province
759:), Douglas-fir tussock moth (
398:spp.) and false huckleberry (
232:spp.)). Russet buffaloberry (
1691:10.1016/0378-1127(88)90125-9
870:United States Forest Service
198:is the most frequent early-
96:Range map of ponderosa pine
48:is a plant association and
1894:
1464:Graham, Russell T (2003).
625:and the east slope of the
1739:Forest insect and disease
1629:Barrett, James W (1979).
1022:Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems
728:affected by bark beetles
724:Ponderosa pine stand in
693:Coconino National Forest
629:, common soil types are
376:), snowbrush ceanothus (
160:Northern Rocky Mountains
1311:Ecological Applications
744:Dendroctonus brevicomis
559:western red-tailed hawk
535:Rocky Mountain nuthatch
411:Chamerion angustifolium
277:Calamagrostis rubescens
180:Calamagrostis rubescens
60:. It is found from the
1466:Hayman Fire case study
1287:Agee, James K (1993).
1015:public domain material
910:public domain material
859:public domain material
805:where they burrow and
729:
699:
571:Williamson's sapsucker
455:
352:
184:
97:
42:
34:Ponderosa forest near
27:
23:Ponderosa forest near
1868:Forests of California
1588:Ecological Monographs
1545:Ecological Monographs
772:trees were stressed.
753:spp.), fir engraver (
723:
690:
450:
345:
235:Shepherdia canadensis
177:
164:evaporation potential
95:
56:and found in western
46:Ponderosa pine forest
33:
25:Forest Lakes, Arizona
22:
1647:Pearson, GA (1950).
785:pine engraver beetle
781:mountain pine beetle
762:Orgyia pseudotsugata
480:bushy-tailed woodrat
401:Menziesia ferruginea
373:Ceanothus sanguineus
348:Ceanothus sanguineus
312:Calocedrus decurrens
297:spp.), pinyon pine (
1600:1941EcoM...11..229R
1557:1960EcoM...30..129C
1526:Journal of Forestry
1369:1951GeoRv..41..317S
1357:Geographical Review
1338:Journal of Forestry
1258:1965Ecol...46..150K
1144:10.2737/PNW-GTR-405
777:western pine beetle
382:) and Sitka alder (
379:Ceanothus velutinus
274:), and pine grass (
756:Scolytus ventralis
747:), pine engraver (
730:
700:
674:are on aridisols.
651:Okanogan Highlands
583:band-tailed pigeon
547:redshafted flicker
539:mountain chickadee
531:sharp-shinned hawk
484:white-footed mouse
464:Rocky Mountain elk
456:
362:Western white pine
353:
309:), incense-cedar (
268:spp.), elk sedge (
226:spp.) and spirea (
185:
134:The length of the
98:
43:
28:
1664:Bird conservation
790:Coloradia pandora
667:Wallowa Mountains
627:Cascade Mountains
567:Audubon's warbler
437:Pacific Northwest
367:Betula papyrifera
306:Pinus lambertiana
1885:
1837:
1836:
1816:
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1753:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1425:(1–3): 207–225.
1414:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1308:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1252:(1/2): 150–163.
1241:
1235:
1234:
1226:
1217:
1216:
1208:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1172:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1127:
1110:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1066:
1057:
1056:
1048:
1042:
1041:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1012:
1011:
1006:
941:
940:
932:
923:
922:
920:
907:
906:
901:
880:
879:
877:
876:
856:
855:
850:
726:British Columbia
705:Cultural burning
623:Columbia Plateau
575:chipping sparrow
563:western bluebird
555:northern goshawk
551:red-backed junco
527:long-crested jay
452:Abert's squirrel
358:British Columbia
319:, Jeffrey pine (
208:spp.), grasses (
189:climax community
62:British Columbia
1893:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1646:
1645:
1638:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1608:10.2307/1943204
1585:
1584:
1580:
1565:10.2307/1948549
1542:
1541:
1537:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1266:10.2307/1935266
1243:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1227:
1220:
1210:
1209:
1202:
1192:
1191:
1184:
1174:
1173:
1166:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1129:
1128:
1113:
1101:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1018:
1009:
1007:
944:
934:
933:
926:
918:
913:
904:
902:
883:
874:
872:
862:
853:
851:
842:
837:
815:
718:
685:
680:
591:
508:Kaibab squirrel
445:
339:) often occur.
303:), sugar pine (
240:nitrogen fixing
172:
152:Gila Wilderness
129:
90:
66:Durango, Mexico
50:plant community
17:
12:
11:
5:
1891:
1889:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1827:(3): 679–697.
1811:
1796:
1781:
1766:
1755:
1744:
1729:
1711:
1696:
1685:(2): 139–153.
1669:
1654:
1636:
1621:
1594:(3): 229–275.
1578:
1551:(2): 129–164.
1535:
1516:
1498:
1483:
1471:
1456:
1436:
1409:
1390:
1377:10.2307/211026
1363:(2): 317–320.
1347:
1344:(10): 647–651.
1328:
1317:(3): 895–908.
1294:
1279:
1236:
1218:
1200:
1182:
1164:
1149:
1111:
1089:
1078:
1058:
1043:
1028:
942:
924:
881:
839:
838:
836:
833:
832:
831:
826:
821:
814:
811:
717:
714:
684:
681:
679:
676:
590:
587:
543:Cassin's finch
523:pygmy nuthatch
516:Kaibab Plateau
444:
441:
421:The impact of
327:lodgepole pine
322:Pinus jeffreyi
255:lodgepole pine
223:Symphoricarpos
171:
168:
128:
125:
106:ponderosa pine
89:
86:
54:ponderosa pine
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1890:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1800:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1759:
1756:
1748:
1745:
1740:
1733:
1730:
1722:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1670:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1494:
1487:
1484:
1480:RMRS-GTR-120.
1475:
1472:
1467:
1460:
1457:
1449:
1448:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1153:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1082:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1016:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
963:
961:
959:
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
947:
943:
938:
931:
929:
925:
917:
911:
900:
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
886:
882:
871:
867:
866:
860:
849:
847:
845:
841:
834:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
816:
812:
810:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
791:
786:
782:
778:
773:
770:
769:
764:
763:
758:
757:
752:
751:
746:
745:
738:
735:
727:
722:
715:
713:
709:
706:
698:
694:
689:
682:
677:
675:
673:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
596:
588:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:rock squirrel
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
472:mountain lion
469:
465:
461:
453:
449:
442:
440:
438:
433:
429:
424:
419:
417:
413:
412:
407:
403:
402:
397:
396:
391:
387:
386:
385:Alnus viridis
381:
380:
375:
374:
369:
368:
363:
359:
350:
349:
344:
340:
338:
337:
332:
328:
324:
323:
318:
317:western larch
314:
313:
308:
307:
302:
301:
296:
295:
290:
286:
281:
279:
278:
273:
272:
267:
266:
260:
256:
252:
251:Quaking aspen
248:
243:
241:
237:
236:
231:
230:
225:
224:
219:
218:
213:
212:
207:
206:
201:
197:
196:quaking aspen
192:
190:
182:
181:
176:
169:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
148:Sierra Nevada
145:
141:
137:
132:
126:
124:
122:
118:
113:
111:
107:
102:
94:
87:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:climax forest
67:
63:
59:
58:North America
55:
52:dominated by
51:
47:
41:
37:
32:
26:
21:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1799:
1784:
1775:
1769:
1758:
1747:
1738:
1732:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1663:
1657:
1648:
1624:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1501:
1486:
1474:
1459:
1446:
1439:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1403:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1314:
1310:
1297:
1288:
1282:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1212:
1176:
1152:
1135:
1105:
1092:
1081:
1071:
1046:
1031:
1021:
936:
873:. Retrieved
864:
788:
774:
766:
760:
754:
748:
742:
739:
731:
710:
701:
678:Disturbances
620:
608:South Dakota
592:
520:
457:
420:
409:
399:
393:
389:
383:
377:
371:
365:
354:
346:
336:Acer glabrum
334:
320:
310:
304:
300:Pinus edulis
298:
292:
282:
275:
271:Carex geyeri
269:
263:
244:
233:
227:
221:
215:
209:
203:
193:
186:
178:
133:
130:
121:physiography
114:
103:
99:
88:Physiography
45:
44:
708:intervals.
672:Great Basin
635:inceptisols
604:Black Hills
599:sedimentary
265:Physocarpus
259:Front Range
247:Douglas-fir
74:Douglas-fir
36:Mormon Lake
1847:Categories
1532:(5): 8–14.
875:2023-06-16
835:References
768:Armillaria
579:horned owl
573:, western
496:cottontail
217:Andropogon
170:Vegetation
136:frost-free
661:. In the
649:. In the
643:aridisols
631:mollisols
512:chipmunks
500:porcupine
468:mule deer
406:pinegrass
395:Vaccinium
331:Pinegrass
294:Juniperus
289:white fir
285:grand fir
144:elevation
82:white fir
78:grand fir
813:See also
799:granites
683:Wildfire
659:entisols
655:alfisols
647:ultisols
639:entisols
595:volcanic
462:are the
150:and the
140:latitude
117:Semiarid
1821:Ecology
1616:1943204
1596:Bibcode
1573:1948549
1553:Bibcode
1365:Bibcode
1274:1935266
1254:Bibcode
1246:Ecology
734:grazing
697:Arizona
616:springs
612:Montana
460:mammals
423:logging
416:mosaics
390:sinuata
325:), and
211:Festuca
205:Quercus
156:Arizona
127:Climate
40:Arizona
1614:
1571:
1385:211026
1383:
1272:
807:pupate
803:pumice
795:larvae
641:, and
581:, and
557:, and
510:, and
488:bobcat
476:coyote
474:, and
430:, and
428:sedges
229:Spirea
104:Since
1724:(PDF)
1612:JSTOR
1569:JSTOR
1511:(PDF)
1451:(PDF)
1381:JSTOR
1307:(PDF)
1270:JSTOR
1102:(PDF)
1017:from
919:(PDF)
912:from
861:from
716:Other
589:Soils
443:Fauna
432:forbs
388:ssp.
200:seral
110:mesic
80:, or
779:and
665:and
663:Blue
657:and
253:and
214:and
142:and
1829:doi
1687:doi
1604:doi
1561:doi
1530:100
1427:doi
1423:129
1373:doi
1319:doi
1262:doi
1140:doi
801:or
750:Ips
606:of
597:to
315:),
287:or
154:in
76:or
64:to
1849::
1825:82
1823:.
1683:25
1681:.
1639:^
1610:.
1602:.
1592:11
1590:.
1567:.
1559:.
1549:30
1547:.
1528:.
1421:.
1393:^
1379:.
1371:.
1361:41
1359:.
1342:80
1340:.
1313:.
1309:.
1268:.
1260:.
1250:46
1248:.
1221:^
1203:^
1185:^
1167:^
1114:^
1104:.
1061:^
945:^
927:^
884:^
868:.
843:^
695:,
637:,
633:,
585:.
577:,
569:,
565:,
553:,
549:,
545:,
541:,
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525:,
518:.
506:,
502:,
498:,
494:,
490:,
486:,
482:,
470:,
466:,
439:.
418:.
329:.
191:.
38:,
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1831::
1693:.
1689::
1618:.
1606::
1598::
1575:.
1563::
1555::
1433:.
1429::
1387:.
1375::
1367::
1325:.
1321::
1315:7
1276:.
1264::
1256::
1142::
878:.
741:(
262:(
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