576:(or MSY). Given a population dynamic model, such as any of the ones above, it is possible to calculate the population size that produces the largest harvestable surplus at equilibrium. While the use of population dynamic models along with statistics and optimization to set harvest limits for fish and game is controversial among some scientists, it has been shown to be more effective than the use of human judgment in computer experiments where both incorrect models and natural resource management students competed to maximize yield in two hypothetical fisheries. To give an example of a non-intuitive result, fisheries produce more fish when there is a nearby
569:
the harvest deaths are substituted for the deaths that would have occurred naturally. Harvest above that level is termed "additive" mortality, because it adds to the number of deaths that would have occurred naturally. These terms are not necessarily judged as "good" and "bad," respectively, in population management. For example, a fish & game agency might aim to reduce the size of a deer population through additive mortality. Bucks might be targeted to increase buck competition, or does might be targeted to reduce reproduction and thus overall population size.
625:(the carrying capacity of a population, density dependent). It is important to understand the difference between density-independent factors when selecting the intrinsic rate and density-dependent for the selection of the carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is only found during a density-dependent population. Density-dependent factors influence the carrying capacity are predation, harvest, and genetics, so when selecting the carrying capacity it is important to understand to look at the predation or harvest rates that influence the population (Stewart 2004). An
762:
resources from their habitats. In addition, metapopulation ecology allows for a deeper understanding of the effects of habitat loss, and can help to predict the future of a habitat. To elaborate, metapopulation ecology assumes that, before a habitat becomes uninhabitable, the species in it will emigrate out, or die off. This information is helpful to ecologists in determining what, if anything, can be done to aid a declining habitat. Overall, the information that metapopulation ecology provides is useful to ecologists in many ways (Hanski 1998).
31:
409:
Parakeets in the United States. Originally from South
America, Monk Parakeets were either released or escaped from people who owned them. These birds experienced exponential growth from the years 1975-1994 and grew about 55 times their population size from 1975. This growth is likely due to reproduction within their population, as opposed to the addition of more birds from South America (Van Bael & Prudet-Jones 1996).
754:
seasonal supply of migrants to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants. In metapopulation terminology there are emigrants (individuals that leave a patch) and immigrants (individuals that move into a patch). Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to answer questions about spatial and demographic ecology. An important concept in metapopulation ecology is the
758:, where small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. Metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks, such as dry years, and become sources when conditions are more favorable. Ecologists utilize a mixture of computer models and field studies to explain metapopulation structure.
654:
offspring after the initial birth or hatching is the survival of the young, the growth rate, and the birthing success of the offspring. There is found to be no effect of the young being raised by the natural parents or foster parents, the offspring need the proper resources to survive (Kristi 2010).
208:
Population size can be influenced by the per capita population growth rate (rate at which the population size changes per individual in the population.) Births, deaths, emigration, and immigration rates all play a significant role in growth rate. The maximum per capita growth rate for a population is
568:
All of these are measured to determine the harvestable surplus, which is the number of individuals that can be harvested from a population without affecting long-term population stability or average population size. The harvest within the harvestable surplus is termed "compensatory" mortality, where
753:
Metapopulation ecology is a simplified model of the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality. Patches are either occupied or they are not. Migrants moving among the patches are structured into metapopulations either as sources or sinks. Source patches are productive sites that generate a
613:
theory. For example, if an animal has the choice of producing one or a few offspring, or to put a lot of effort or little effort in offspring—these are all examples of trade-offs. In order for species to thrive, they must choose what is best for them, leading to a clear distinction between r and K
720:
A Type I survivorship curve is characterized by the fact that death occurs in the later years of an organism's life (mostly mammals). In other words, most organisms reach the maximum expected lifespan and the life expectancy and the age of death go hand-in-hand (Demetrius 1978). Typically, Type I
657:
A study that was conducted on the egg size and offspring quality in birds found that, in summary, that the egg size contributes to the overall fitness of the offspring. This study shows the direct relationship to the survivorship curve Type I in that if the offspring is cared for during its early
653:
The offspring fitness is mainly affected by the size and quality of that specific offspring . Factors that contribute to the relative fitness of offspring size is either the resources the parents provide to their young or morphological traits that come from the parents. The overall success of the
212:
In a population, carrying capacity is known as the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain, which is determined by resources available. In many classic population models, r is represented as the intrinsic growth rate, where K is the carrying capacity, and N0 is the
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Metapopulation ecology allows for ecologists to take in a wide range of factors when examining a metapopulation like genetics, the bottle-neck effect, and many more. Metapopulation data is extremely useful in understanding population dynamics as most species are not numerous and require specific
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For example, if plant populations decreased significantly, the herbivore populations would decrease, which would lead to a carnivore population decreasing too. Therefore, if all of the plants disappeared, then the ecosystem would collapse. Another example would be if there were too many plants
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into fewer offspring. K-selected species generally experience stronger competition, where populations generally live near carrying capacity. These species have heavy investment in offspring, resulting in longer lived organisms, and longer period of maturation. Offspring of K-selected species
408:
When the per capita rate of increase takes the same positive value regardless of population size, the graph shows exponential growth. Exponential growth takes on the assumption that there is unlimited resources and no predation. An example of exponential population growth is that of the Monk
204:
A population is defined as a group of interacting organisms of the same species. A demographic structure of a population is how populations are often quantified. The total number of individuals in a population is defined as a population size, and how dense these individuals are is defined as
658:
stages of life by a parent, it will die off later in life. However, if the offspring is not cared for by the parents due to an increase in egg quantity, then the survivorship curve will be similar to Type III, in that the offspring will die off early and will survive later in life.
629:-selected species (e.g., many kinds of insects, such as aphids) is one that has high rates of fecundity, low levels of parental investment in the young, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favors productivity in r-selected species.
680:
For example, the presence of top carnivores keep herbivore populations in check. If there were no top carnivores in the ecosystem, then herbivore populations would rapidly increase, leading to all plants being eaten. This ecosystem would eventually collapse.
285:
A group of individuals within an investigator-delimited area smaller than the geographic range of the species and often within a population (as defined above). A local population could be a disjunct population as well.
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An ecosystem does not have to be either top-down or bottom-up. There are occasions where an ecosystem could be bottom-up sometimes, such as a marine ecosystem, but then have periods of top-down control due to fishing.
716:
Survivorship curves are graphs that show the distribution of survivors in a population according to age. Survivorship curves play an important role in comparing generations, populations, or even different species.
2157:
Stewart, Kelley M.; Bowyer, R. Terry.; Dick, Brian L.; Johnson, Bruce K.; Kie, John G. (March 2005). "Density-dependent effects on physical condition and reproduction in North
American elk: an experimental test".
2106:
Hubbell, Stephen P. (30 March 1979). "Tree
Dispersion, Abundance, and Diversity in a Tropical Dry Forest: That tropical trees are clumped, not spaced, alters conceptions of the organization and dynamics".
416:, the graph shows logistic growth. Environmental and social variables, along with many others, impact the carrying capacity of a population, meaning that it has the ability to change (Schacht 1980).
727:
Type III curves indicate few surviving the younger years, but after a certain age, individuals are much more likely to survive. Type III survivorship typically characterizes r-selected species.
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If we measure these rates over many time intervals, we can determine how a population's density changes over time. Immigration and emigration are present, but are usually not measured.
537:
636:-selected species (such as humans) has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Evolution in
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Type II survivorship shows that death at any age is equally probable. This means that the chances of death are not dependent on or affected by the age of that organism.
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Bottom-up controls, on the other hand, are driven by producers in the ecosystem. If plant populations change, then the population of all species would be impacted.
604:. It rapidly gets more complicated, but stripping the phenomenon of all its complications, this is the basic principle: two consumers consuming the same resource.
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For the management of many fish and other wildlife populations, the goal is often to achieve the largest possible long-run sustainable harvest, also known as
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ecology, renaming autecology as 'species ecology' (Odum regarded "autecology" as an archaic term), thus that there were four subdivisions of ecology.
3116:
1689:
Lynam, Christopher Philip; Llope, Marcos; Möllmann, Christian; Helaouët, Pierre; Bayliss-Brown, Georgia Anne; Stenseth, Nils C. (21 February 2017).
452:, often recruitment, which means reaching a certain size or reproductive stage. Usually refers to the age a fish can be caught and counted in nets.
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A group of individuals more genetically similar to each other than to other individuals, usually with some degree of spatial isolation as well.
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available, then two herbivore populations may compete for the same food. The competition would lead to an eventual removal of one population.
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458:, which measures the growth of individuals in size and length. More important in fisheries, where population is often measured in biomass.
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population density. There is also a population's geographic range, which has limits that a species can tolerate (such as temperature).
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1904:
2871:
2209:
932:
1293:
Holden, Matthew H; Ellner, Stephen P (2016). "Human judgment vs. Quantitative models for the management of ecological resources".
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In some populations, organisms in lower trophic levels are controlled by organisms at the top. This is known as top-down control.
842:
817:
425:
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A group of conspecific individuals that is demographically, genetically, or spatially disjunct from other groups of individuals.
405:
When describing growth models, there are two main types of models that are most commonly used: exponential and logistic growth.
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464:, which includes harvest mortality and natural mortality. Natural mortality includes non-human predation, disease and old age.
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1355:
394:
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2604:
2085:
Bael, Sunshine Van; Pruett-Jones, Stephen (1996). "Exponential
Population Growth of Monk Parakeets in the United States".
113:
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478:
2202:
802:
390:
4175:
4170:
3834:
2725:
1788:
Levins, R. (1969). "Some
Demographic and Genetic Consequences of Environmental Heterogeneity for Biological Control".
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371:
144:
In the 1940s, ecology was divided into autecology—the study of individual species in relation to the environment—and
3899:
3619:
2823:
2720:
1542:
Whitham, T. G. (1978). "Habitat
Selection by Pemphigus Aphids in Response to Response Limitation and Competition".
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621:(the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size, density independent) and the second variable is
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When the per capita rate of increase decreases as the population increases towards the maximum limit, or
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which makes it possible to predict the long-term probability of a species persisting in a given patch of
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2246:
2167:
2065:
2028:
1971:
Kareiva, Peter (1989). "Renewing the
Dialogue between Theory and Experiments in Population Ecology".
1942:
1851:
1702:
1551:
1312:
1087:
807:
109:
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An arbitrary spatially delimited subset of individuals from within a population (as defined above).
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At its most elementary level, interspecific competition involves two species utilizing a similar
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Brotz, Lucas; Cheung, William W. L; Kleisner, Kristin; Pakhomov, Evgeny; Pauly, Daniel (2012).
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1014:"Populations, metapopulations, and species populations: What are they and who should care?"
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generally have a higher probability of survival, due to heavy parental care and nurturing.
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148:—the study of groups of species in relation to the environment. The term autecology (from
188:, writing in 1953, considered that synecology should be divided into population ecology,
2171:
2128:
Krist, Miloš (August 2011). "Egg size and offspring quality: a meta-analysis in birds".
2069:
2032:
1946:
1855:
1706:
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362:. This principle provided the basis for the subsequent predictive theories, such as the
352:. According to Malthus, assuming that the conditions (the environment) remain constant (
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461:
2019:
Demetrius, Lloyd (September 1978). "Adaptive value, entropy and survivorship curves".
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in the early 19th century, who refined and adjusted the
Malthusian demographic model.
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125:
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The development of population ecology owes much to the mathematical models known as
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2011:
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2179:
1448:
1432:"A prey-predator model with harvesting for fishery resource with reserve area"
1431:
1398:
1231:
Mathematical bioeconomics : the optimal management of renewable resources
894:
877:
449:
363:
338:
245:
A set of spatially disjunct populations, among which there is some migration.
176:, "knowledge"), refers to roughly the same field of study as concepts such as
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102:
94:
90:
82:
1980:
1278:
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1801:
1715:
1604:
437:
193:
35:
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1332:
1174:
770:
The first journal publication of the
Society of Population Ecology, titled
217:
Terms used to describe natural groups of individuals in ecological studies
942:
923:(Second ed.). Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Co. p. 9,
584:, resulting in higher catches than if the whole area was open to fishing.
4085:
4014:
3545:
3052:
2964:
2911:
2866:
2575:
2048:
749:"as a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize."
181:
1691:"Interaction between top-down and bottom-up control in marine food webs"
1383:"An ecological perspective on marine reserves in prey–predator dynamics"
1182:
1158:
4075:
3882:
3752:
3747:
3374:
3322:
2982:
2627:
2098:
1998:
Schacht, Robert M. (December 1980). "Two Models of
Population Growth".
1571:
345:
344:
The beginning of population dynamics is widely regarded as the work of
121:
117:
79:
75:
2194:
2040:
1136:"Notice sur la loi que la population poursuit dans son accroissement"
878:"Increasing jellyfish populations: Trends in Large Marine Ecosystems"
1563:
1324:
1955:
1930:
1639:
1307:
781:
Scientific articles on population ecology can also be found in the
2362:
2329:
2077:
1863:
1612:
1078:
Turchin, P. (2001). "Does Population Ecology Have General Laws?".
1626:
Pianka, E. R. (1972). "r and K Selection or b and d Selection?".
3347:
2600:
2198:
1356:"Sometimes, Even Bad Models Make Better Decisions Than People"
969:
Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology
640:-selected species favors efficiency in the conversion of more
745:" concept. The metapopulation concept was introduced in 1969:
741:
Populations are also studied and conceptualized through the "
389:
are covered as special cases of the general formulation. The
316:
The number of individuals that leave a population over time.
1931:"An ecological theory of changing human population dynamics"
306:
The number of individuals that join a population over time.
184:
as adaptations to the environment by individual organisms.
34:
Map of population trends of native and invasive species of
2056:
Hanski, Ilkka (November 1998). "Metapopulation dynamics".
1842:
Hanski, Ilkka (November 1998). "Metapopulation dynamics".
697:
Do all ecosystems have to be either top-down or bottom-up?
444:, population is affected by three dynamic rate functions.
1262:"Maximum sustained yield: A policy disguised as science"
393:
are another famous example, as well as the alternative
1818:
Extinction. In: Some Mathematical Questions in Biology
1659:
1657:
1467:. Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University Press.
341:
at the end of the 18th and beginning of 19th century.
721:
survivorship curves characterize K-selected species.
562:
the number that emigrated between time 0 and time 1.
481:
385:, in which the models of Gompertz, Verhulst and also
1486:
1484:
1204:"Exponential growth & logistic growth (article)"
4023:
3923:
3848:
3721:
3658:
3518:
3386:
3288:
3167:
3094:
3051:
2973:
2940:
2837:
2749:
2643:
2546:
2503:
2415:
2361:
2324:
2283:
2260:
2232:
1665:"The top-down vs bottom-up control in an ecosystem"
1880:Ecology, genetics and evolution of metapopulations
1521:(4th ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
1515:Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2006).
1381:Chakraborty, Kunal; Das, Kunal; Kar, T. K (2013).
1228:
916:
609:An important concept in population ecology is the
531:
1929:Henderson, Kirsten; Loreau, Michel (March 2019).
377:A more general model formulation was proposed by
1790:Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America
1585:Wilson, Edward O.; MacArthur, Robert H. (2016).
1695:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
598:
120:. Although population ecology is a subfield of
1430:Lv, Yunfei; Yuan, Rong; Pei, Yongzhen (2013).
1159:"A Flexible Growth Function for Empirical Use"
337:, which were originally formulae derived from
3359:
2612:
2210:
8:
475:is the number of individuals at time 1 then
265:A spatially clustered group of individuals.
85:and how these populations interact with the
1883:. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.
1877:Hanski, I.; Gaggiotti, O. E., eds. (2004).
1815:Levins, R. (1970). Gerstenhaber, M. (ed.).
1463:Vandermeer, J. H.; Goldberg, D. E. (2003).
1073:
1071:
3580:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3366:
3352:
3344:
2619:
2605:
2597:
2217:
2203:
2195:
1043:
1041:
907:
905:
1954:
1724:
1714:
1447:
1406:
1306:
1277:
893:
499:
486:
480:
209:known as the intrinsic rate of increase.
3478:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3117:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
956:AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment
546:is the number of individuals at time 0,
215:
29:
3510:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1518:Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems
1122:An Essay on the Principle of Population
868:
358:), a population will grow (or decline)
124:, it provides interesting problems for
3318:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1012:Wells, J. V.; Richmond, M. E. (1995).
580:from human predation in the form of a
391:Lotka–Volterra predator-prey equations
7:
3333:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1465:Population ecology: First principles
3783:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
550:is the number of individuals born,
532:{\displaystyle N_{1}=N_{0}+B-D+I-E}
112:, especially in the development of
3536:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1821:. AMS Bookstore. pp. 77–107.
1354:Collins, Nathan (March 11, 2016).
1051:Introduction to Population Ecology
25:
2872:Generalist and specialist species
1973:Perspectives in Ecological Theory
1587:The Theory of Island Biogeography
1140:Corresp. Mathématique et Physique
1048:Rockwood, Larry L. (2015-06-15).
420:Fisheries and wildlife management
3595:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2142:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00166.x
1100:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.11310.x
993:"Population Dynamics | e-cology"
843:Population dynamics of fisheries
818:Lists of organisms by population
776:Researches on Population Ecology
558:the number that immigrated, and
426:Population dynamics of fisheries
78:that deals with the dynamics of
3615:Relative abundance distribution
3328:Plant defense against herbivory
3195:Competitive exclusion principle
2907:Mesopredator release hypothesis
971:. University of Chicago Press.
662:Top-down and bottom-up controls
401:Exponential vs. logistic growth
108:The discipline is important in
42: Increase (high certainty)
3200:Consumer–resource interactions
1589:. Princeton University Press.
1436:Applied Mathematical Modelling
1266:ICES Journal of Marine Science
1163:Journal of Experimental Botany
235:All individuals of a species.
48: Increase (low certainty)
1:
4046:Biological data visualization
3873:Environmental niche modelling
3600:Population viability analysis
2121:10.1126/science.203.4387.1299
2012:10.1525/aa.1980.82.4.02a00040
1387:Journal of Biological Physics
1157:Richards, F. J. (June 1959).
381:in 1959, further expanded by
114:population viability analysis
3531:Density-dependent inhibition
1027:(3): 458–462. Archived from
803:Density-dependent inhibition
366:studies such as the work of
4000:Liebig's law of the minimum
3835:Resource selection function
2726:Metabolic theory of ecology
4197:
3900:Niche apportionment models
3620:Relative species abundance
2824:Primary nutritional groups
2721:List of feeding behaviours
1754:Nature Education Knowledge
734:
709:
665:
591:
429:
423:
326:
289:
278:
268:
258:
248:
238:
228:
4149:
4081:Ecosystem based fisheries
3693:Interspecific competition
3585:Minimum viable population
3443:Maximum sustainable yield
3428:Intraspecific competition
3423:Effective population size
3303:Anti-predator adaptations
2814:Photosynthetic efficiency
2180:10.1007/s00442-004-1785-y
1907:. John Wiley & Sons.
1748:Rauschert, Emily (2010).
1449:10.1016/j.apm.2012.07.030
1399:10.1007/s10867-013-9329-5
1054:. John Wiley & Sons.
1021:Wildlife Society Bulletin
895:10.1007/s10750-012-1039-7
784:Journal of Animal Ecology
574:maximum sustainable yield
395:Arditi–Ginzburg equations
221:
213:initial population size.
4071:Ecological stoichiometry
4036:Alternative stable state
1981:10.1515/9781400860180.68
1134:Verhulst, P. H. (1838).
1120:Malthus, Thomas Robert.
778:) was released in 1952.
432:Matrix population models
372:Pierre François Verhulst
3915:Ontogenetic niche shift
3778:Ideal free distribution
3688:Ecological facilitation
3438:Malthusian growth model
3408:Consumer-resource model
3265:Paradox of the plankton
3230:Energy systems language
2950:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2917:Optimal foraging theory
2892:Heterotrophic nutrition
2518:Ecological anthropology
2000:American Anthropologist
1913:10.1002/(ISSN)1438-390X
1716:10.1073/pnas.1621037114
1628:The American Naturalist
1295:Ecological Applications
919:Fundamentals of Ecology
833:Population distribution
350:Malthusian growth model
4061:Ecological forecasting
4005:Marginal value theorem
3803:Landscape epidemiology
3738:Cross-boundary subsidy
3673:Biological interaction
3023:Microbial intelligence
2711:Green world hypothesis
2528:Ecological engineering
1279:10.1093/icesjms/fss192
1124:: Library of Economics
967:Kingsland, S. (1995).
751:
617:The first variable is
606:
554:the number that died,
533:
456:Population growth rate
387:Ludwig von Bertalanffy
68:
4066:Ecological humanities
3965:Ecological energetics
3910:Niche differentiation
3773:Habitat fragmentation
3541:Ecological extinction
3488:Small population size
3240:Feed conversion ratio
3220:Ecological succession
3152:San Francisco Estuary
3066:Ecological efficiency
3008:Microbial cooperation
1802:10.1093/besa/15.3.237
1772:"Survivorship Curves"
1750:"Survivorship Curves"
1227:Clark, Colin (1990).
747:
534:
54: Stable/variable
33:
4091:Evolutionary ecology
4056:Ecological footprint
4051:Ecological economics
3975:Ecological threshold
3970:Ecological indicator
3840:Source–sink dynamics
3793:Land change modeling
3788:Insular biogeography
3640:Species distribution
3379:Modelling ecosystems
3038:Microbial metabolism
2877:Intraguild predation
2666:Biogeochemical cycle
2632:Modelling ecosystems
2523:Ecological economics
2450:Evolutionary ecology
2417:Ecological phenomena
2247:Quantitative ecology
1905:"Population Ecology"
1175:10.1093/jxb/10.2.290
1034:on November 4, 2005.
808:Ecological overshoot
793:and other journals.
479:
348:, formulated as the
110:conservation biology
27:Sub-field of ecology
4141:Theoretical ecology
4116:Natural environment
3980:Ecosystem diversity
3950:Ecological collapse
3940:Bateman's principle
3895:Limiting similarity
3808:Landscape limnology
3630:Species homogeneity
3468:Population modeling
3463:Population dynamics
3280:Trophic state index
2569:Restoration ecology
2559:Glossary of ecology
2505:Interdisciplinarity
2252:Theoretical ecology
2226:Branches of ecology
2172:2005Oecol.143...85S
2115:(4387): 1299–1309.
2087:The Wilson Bulletin
2070:1998Natur.396...41H
2033:1978Natur.275..213D
1947:2019PeoNa...1...31H
1856:1998Natur.396...41H
1707:2017PNAS..114.1952L
1556:1978Ecol...59.1164W
1492:"r and K selection"
1317:2016EcoAp..26.1553H
1235:. New York: Wiley.
1092:2001Oikos..94...17T
858:Theoretical ecology
848:Population genetics
838:Population dynamics
774:(originally called
712:Survivorship curves
706:Survivorship curves
442:wildlife management
335:population dynamics
329:Population dynamics
323:Population dynamics
218:
168:, "household"; and
134:population dynamics
4176:Applied statistics
4171:Population ecology
4152:Outline of ecology
4101:Industrial ecology
4096:Functional ecology
3960:Ecological deficit
3905:Niche construction
3868:Ecosystem engineer
3645:Species–area curve
3566:Introduced species
3381:: Other components
3313:Deimatic behaviour
3215:Ecological network
3147:North Pacific Gyre
3132:hydrothermal vents
3071:Ecological pyramid
3018:Microbial food web
2829:Primary production
2774:Foundation species
2554:History of ecology
2460:Functional ecology
2425:Behavioral ecology
2304:Population ecology
2130:Biological Reviews
1975:. pp. 68–88.
828:Population density
772:Population Ecology
685:Bottom-up controls
614:selected species.
529:
231:Species population
216:
74:is a sub-field of
72:Population ecology
69:
18:Population Ecology
4158:
4157:
4041:Balance of nature
3798:Landscape ecology
3683:Community ecology
3625:Species diversity
3561:Indicator species
3556:Gradient analysis
3433:Logistic function
3341:
3340:
3298:Animal coloration
3275:Trophic mutualism
3013:Microbial ecology
2804:Photoheterotrophs
2789:Myco-heterotrophy
2701:Ecosystem ecology
2686:Carrying capacity
2651:Abiotic component
2594:
2593:
2533:Political ecology
2475:Molecular ecology
2470:Landscape ecology
2338:Microbial ecology
2314:Ecosystem ecology
2309:Community ecology
2027:(5677): 213–214.
1990:978-1-4008-6018-0
1935:People and Nature
1890:978-0-12-323448-3
1828:978-0-8218-1152-8
1609:Project MUSE
1596:978-1-4008-8137-6
1528:978-1-4051-1117-1
1474:978-0-691-11440-8
1061:978-1-118-94757-9
978:978-0-226-43728-6
853:Population growth
673:Top-down controls
649:Offspring Quality
414:carrying capacity
368:Benjamin Gompertz
320:
319:
190:community ecology
16:(Redirected from
4188:
3858:Ecological niche
3830:selection theory
3650:Umbrella species
3635:Species richness
3571:Invasive species
3551:Flagship species
3458:Population cycle
3453:Overexploitation
3418:Ecological yield
3368:
3361:
3354:
3345:
3250:Mesotrophic soil
3190:Climax community
3122:Marine food webs
3061:Biomagnification
2862:Chemoorganotroph
2716:Keystone species
2676:Biotic component
2621:
2614:
2607:
2598:
2430:Chemical ecology
2402:Tropical ecology
2219:
2212:
2205:
2196:
2191:
2153:
2124:
2102:
2081:
2052:
2041:10.1038/275213a0
2015:
1994:
1960:
1958:
1917:
1916:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1728:
1718:
1701:(8): 1952–1957.
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1676:
1661:
1652:
1651:
1634:(951): 581–588.
1623:
1617:
1616:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1550:(6): 1164–1176.
1539:
1533:
1532:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1410:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1361:Pacific Standard
1351:
1345:
1344:
1310:
1301:(5): 1553–1565.
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1234:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1131:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1045:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1018:
1009:
1003:
1002:
1000:
999:
989:
983:
982:
964:
958:
953:
947:
946:
922:
909:
900:
899:
897:
873:
813:Irruptive growth
538:
536:
535:
530:
504:
503:
491:
490:
281:Local population
219:
65:
59:
53:
47:
41:
21:
4196:
4195:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4145:
4131:Systems ecology
4019:
3990:Extinction debt
3955:Ecological debt
3945:Bioluminescence
3926:
3919:
3888:marine habitats
3863:Ecological trap
3844:
3724:
3717:
3660:
3654:
3610:Rapoport's rule
3605:Priority effect
3546:Endemic species
3514:
3473:Population size
3389:
3382:
3372:
3342:
3337:
3290:
3284:
3270:Trophic cascade
3180:Bioaccumulation
3163:
3090:
3047:
2969:
2936:
2833:
2745:
2706:Ecosystem model
2639:
2625:
2595:
2590:
2581:Natural history
2564:Applied ecology
2542:
2538:Systems ecology
2499:
2495:Thermal ecology
2490:Spatial ecology
2465:Genetic ecology
2435:Disease ecology
2411:
2367:biogeographical
2357:
2320:
2279:
2256:
2228:
2223:
2156:
2127:
2105:
2084:
2064:(6706): 41–49.
2055:
2018:
1997:
1991:
1970:
1967:
1928:
1925:
1923:Further reading
1920:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1850:(6706): 41–49.
1841:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1674:
1672:
1669:Eco-intelligent
1663:
1662:
1655:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1613:book 44254
1597:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1564:10.2307/1938230
1541:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1500:
1498:
1490:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1366:
1364:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1325:10.1890/15-1295
1292:
1291:
1287:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1212:
1210:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1187:
1185:
1169:(29): 290–300.
1156:
1155:
1151:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1115:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1047:
1046:
1039:
1031:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1006:
997:
995:
991:
990:
986:
979:
966:
965:
961:
954:
950:
935:
913:Odum, Eugene P.
911:
910:
903:
875:
874:
870:
866:
799:
768:
739:
733:
714:
708:
699:
687:
675:
670:
668:Trophic cascade
664:
651:
632:In contrast, a
607:
596:
590:
545:
495:
482:
477:
476:
474:
434:
428:
422:
403:
355:ceteris paribus
331:
325:
202:
142:
67:
63:
61:
57:
55:
51:
49:
45:
43:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4194:
4192:
4184:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4163:
4162:
4156:
4155:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4111:Microecosystem
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4027:
4025:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4010:Thorson's rule
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3935:Assembly rules
3931:
3929:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3854:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3820:
3818:Patch dynamics
3815:
3813:Metapopulation
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3729:
3727:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3708:Storage effect
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3664:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3590:Neutral theory
3587:
3582:
3577:
3575:Native species
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3448:Overpopulation
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3363:
3356:
3348:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3294:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3255:Nutrient cycle
3252:
3247:
3245:Feeding frenzy
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3225:Energy quality
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3185:Cascade effect
3182:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3028:Microbial loop
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2993:Lithoautotroph
2990:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2975:Microorganisms
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2932:Prey switching
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2809:Photosynthesis
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2764:Chemosynthesis
2761:
2755:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2656:Abiotic stress
2653:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2616:
2609:
2601:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2561:
2556:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2485:Social ecology
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2392:Forest ecology
2389:
2387:Desert ecology
2384:
2383:
2382:
2380:Arctic ecology
2371:
2369:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2348:Insect ecology
2345:
2340:
2334:
2332:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2154:
2136:(3): 692–716.
2125:
2103:
2093:(3): 584–588.
2082:
2053:
2016:
2006:(4): 782–798.
1995:
1989:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1956:10.1002/pan3.8
1924:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1896:
1889:
1869:
1834:
1827:
1807:
1796:(3): 237–240.
1780:
1763:
1740:
1681:
1653:
1640:10.1086/282798
1618:
1595:
1577:
1534:
1527:
1507:
1480:
1473:
1455:
1442:(5): 3048–62.
1422:
1373:
1346:
1285:
1248:
1242:978-0471508830
1241:
1219:
1195:
1149:
1126:
1113:
1067:
1060:
1037:
1004:
984:
977:
959:
948:
933:
901:
867:
865:
862:
861:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
823:Overpopulation
820:
815:
810:
805:
798:
795:
767:
764:
743:metapopulation
737:Metapopulation
735:Main article:
732:
731:Metapopulation
729:
710:Main article:
707:
704:
698:
695:
686:
683:
674:
671:
666:Main article:
663:
660:
650:
647:
597:
592:Main article:
589:
586:
582:nature reserve
543:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
502:
498:
494:
489:
485:
472:
466:
465:
459:
453:
424:Main article:
421:
418:
402:
399:
379:F. J. Richards
327:Main article:
324:
321:
318:
317:
314:
308:
307:
304:
298:
297:
294:
288:
287:
283:
277:
276:
273:
267:
266:
263:
257:
256:
253:
247:
246:
243:
241:Metapopulation
237:
236:
233:
227:
226:
223:
201:
198:
141:
138:
126:mathematicians
62:
60: Decrease
56:
50:
44:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4193:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4153:
4148:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4136:Urban ecology
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3995:Kleiber's law
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3768:Foster's rule
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3385:
3380:
3376:
3369:
3364:
3362:
3357:
3355:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3086:Trophic level
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3043:Phage ecology
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3033:Microbial mat
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2988:Bacteriophage
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2955:Decomposition
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2902:Mesopredators
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2847:Apex predator
2845:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2681:Biotic stress
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2445:Ecotoxicology
2443:
2441:
2440:Ecophysiology
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2407:Urban ecology
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:Polar ecology
2373:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2353:Human ecology
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2343:Plant ecology
2341:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2262:Spatial scale
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2242:Field ecology
2240:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2078:10.1038/23876
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1892:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1864:10.1038/23876
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1811:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1682:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1511:
1508:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1393:(4): 749–76.
1392:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1374:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1350:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1280:
1275:
1272:(2): 245–50.
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1223:
1220:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1005:
994:
988:
985:
980:
974:
970:
963:
960:
957:
952:
949:
944:
940:
936:
934:9780721669410
930:
926:
921:
920:
914:
908:
906:
902:
896:
891:
887:
883:
882:Hydrobiologia
879:
872:
869:
863:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
800:
796:
794:
792:
791:
786:
785:
779:
777:
773:
765:
763:
759:
757:
756:rescue effect
750:
746:
744:
738:
730:
728:
725:
722:
718:
713:
705:
703:
696:
694:
690:
684:
682:
678:
672:
669:
661:
659:
655:
648:
646:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
615:
612:
611:r/K selection
605:
603:
595:
594:r/K selection
588:r/K selection
587:
585:
583:
579:
575:
570:
566:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
542:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
500:
496:
492:
487:
483:
471:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
447:
446:
445:
443:
439:
433:
427:
419:
417:
415:
410:
406:
400:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
383:Simon Hopkins
380:
375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
360:exponentially
357:
356:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
330:
322:
315:
313:
310:
309:
305:
303:
300:
299:
295:
293:
292:Subpopulation
290:
284:
282:
279:
274:
272:
269:
264:
262:
259:
254:
252:
249:
244:
242:
239:
234:
232:
229:
224:
220:
214:
210:
206:
199:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:Ancient Greek
147:
139:
137:
135:
131:
130:statisticians
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
77:
73:
66: No data
37:
32:
19:
4121:Regime shift
4106:Macroecology
3827:
3823:
3763:Edge effects
3733:Biogeography
3678:Commensalism
3526:Biodiversity
3403:Allee effect
3387:
3142:kelp forests
3095:Example webs
2960:Detritivores
2799:Organotrophs
2779:Kinetotrophs
2731:Productivity
2586:Biogeography
2480:Paleoecology
2455:Fire ecology
2397:Soil ecology
2303:
2285:Organisation
2275:Macroecology
2270:Microecology
2166:(1): 85–93.
2163:
2159:
2133:
2129:
2112:
2108:
2090:
2086:
2061:
2057:
2024:
2020:
2003:
1999:
1972:
1965:Bibliography
1941:(1): 31–43.
1938:
1934:
1899:
1879:
1872:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1817:
1810:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1673:. Retrieved
1671:. 2018-04-26
1668:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1605:j.ctt19cc1t2
1586:
1580:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1517:
1510:
1499:. Retrieved
1496:www2.nau.edu
1495:
1464:
1458:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1390:
1386:
1376:
1365:. Retrieved
1359:
1349:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1269:
1265:
1251:
1230:
1222:
1211:. Retrieved
1208:Khan Academy
1207:
1198:
1186:. Retrieved
1166:
1162:
1152:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1116:
1086:(1): 17–26.
1083:
1079:
1050:
1029:the original
1024:
1020:
1007:
996:. Retrieved
987:
968:
962:
951:
918:
885:
881:
871:
788:
782:
780:
775:
771:
769:
760:
752:
748:
740:
726:
723:
719:
715:
700:
691:
688:
679:
676:
656:
652:
637:
633:
631:
626:
622:
618:
616:
608:
599:
571:
567:
564:
559:
555:
551:
547:
540:
469:
467:
448:Natality or
435:
411:
407:
404:
376:
353:
343:
332:
311:
301:
291:
280:
270:
260:
250:
240:
230:
211:
207:
203:
173:
165:
157:
143:
132:who work in
107:
71:
70:
3758:Disturbance
3661:interaction
3483:Recruitment
3413:Depensation
3205:Copiotrophs
3076:Energy flow
2998:Lithotrophy
2942:Decomposers
2922:Planktivore
2897:Insectivore
2887:Heterotroph
2852:Bacterivore
2819:Phototrophs
2769:Chemotrophs
2741:Restoration
2691:Competition
2513:Agroecology
2234:Methodology
1256:Finley, C;
1188:16 November
888:(1): 3–20.
364:demographic
302:Immigration
261:Aggregation
225:Definition
200:Terminology
186:Eugene Odum
178:life cycles
99:immigration
95:death rates
87:environment
83:populations
4181:Population
4165:Categories
4126:Sexecology
3703:Parasitism
3668:Antibiosis
3503:Resistance
3498:Resilience
3388:Population
3308:Camouflage
3260:Oligotroph
3175:Ascendency
3137:intertidal
3127:cold seeps
3081:Food chain
2882:Herbivores
2857:Carnivores
2784:Mixotrophs
2759:Autotrophs
2638:components
2299:Synecology
2294:Autecology
1675:2021-12-08
1501:2021-12-08
1367:2023-08-20
1308:1603.04518
1258:Oreskes, N
1213:2021-12-08
1146:: 113–121.
998:2021-12-08
864:References
450:birth rate
430:See also:
339:demography
312:Emigration
251:Population
160:, "self";
146:synecology
103:emigration
89:, such as
4031:Allometry
3985:Emergence
3713:Symbiosis
3698:Mutualism
3493:Stability
3398:Abundance
3210:Dominance
3168:Processes
3157:tide pool
3053:Food webs
2927:Predation
2912:Omnivores
2839:Consumers
2794:Mycotroph
2751:Producers
2696:Ecosystem
2661:Behaviour
2160:Oecologia
1760:(10): 18.
642:resources
524:−
512:−
462:Mortality
438:fisheries
194:ecosystem
182:behaviour
97:, and by
36:jellyfish
4086:Endolith
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