1396:
2157:. A pardon is an official forgiveness for an acknowledged crime. Once a pardon is issued, all punishment for the crime is waived. A person seeking executive clemency by pardon, reprieve, commutation of sentence, or remission of fine shall execute a formal petition. The petition shall be addressed to the president of the United States and shall be submitted to the pardon attorney, Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20530, except for petitions relating to military offenses. A person accepting the pardon through execution of a formal petition must, however, acknowledge that the crime did take place. The president can only grant pardons for federal offences. The president maintains the
2343:(PEADs) that assert what one government document described as "extraordinary presidential authority in response to extraordinary situations." These secret powers appear to be exempt from congressional oversight. PEADs undergo periodic revision, and although their current contents were not known as of 2020, previous PEADs included emergency powers to detain "alien enemies" and other "dangerous persons"; invoke various forms of martial law; authorize a general warrant permitting search and seizure of persons and property; suspend production of the
44:
2448:
separation of powers. Unilateral action can be seen as a strategic way of circumventing
Congressional authority, or as a way to act complicitly with the tacit approval of the majority party. Other formal theories focus on agency and relationships between the president, other bureaucratic actors, and the public. Comparative perspectives suggest that factors such as partisan support, ideological polarization, and divided government, may be closely linked to unilateral policy making. No one theoretical approach addresses all important issues.
111:
1959:" has become a prolific source of legislative proposals. The communication is usually in the form of a message or letter from a member of the president's Cabinet, the head of an independent agency, or the president himself, transmitting a draft of a proposed bill to the speaker of the House of Representatives and the president of the Senate. The president may personally propose legislation in annual and special messages to Congress including the annual
116:
1260:
1272:
1598:
1498:
2794:
armed conflict. By the terms of the
Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions.
2258:, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate
2419:" from which to raise issues nationally, for when a president raises an issue, it inevitably becomes subject to public debate. A president's power and influence may have limits, but politically the president is certainly the most important power in Washington and, furthermore, is one of the most famous and influential of all Americans.
2459:
Predictions about the relationship between presidential popularity and numbers of unilateral directives issued are inconclusive. It has been theorized that less popular presents will issue more presidential directives, but results on this question are mixed. In terms of how the public responds to the
2215:
Under the
Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public
2422:
Though constrained by various other laws passed by
Congress, the president's executive branch conducts most foreign policy, and their power to order and direct troops as commander-in-chief is quite significant (the exact limits of a president's military powers without Congressional authorization are
1538:
of 1973, Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending
1791:
itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the priorities of the government. The president can unilaterally issue a variety of rules, regulations, and instructions, whose impact and visibility vary widely. Memoranda and other informal orders may not be published. National
2793:
No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and
Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular
2451:
Empirical research on executive power and its uses is limited, and results are not always consistent. Available results may not align with predictions from separation-of-powers theories: "presidents routinely change status quo policies that theories predict they should not." Evidence suggests that
2431:
provides a system of shared power known as "checks and balances". For example, the president appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can approve bills or veto (deny) them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to
Congress,
2403:
Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities, coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the president's powers. Some have even spoken of "the imperial presidency", referring to the
2280:
The
Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. Some scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution
2119:
of aides, advisers, and assistants. These individuals are political appointments and are not subject to review by the Senate. All members of the staff serve "at the pleasure of the
President". Since 1995, the president has been required to submit an annual report to Congress listing the name and
2161:
in the U.S. Department of
Justice to review all requests for pardons. The president can also commute a sentence which, in effect, changes the punishment to time served. While the guilty party may be released from custody or not have to serve out a prison term, all other punishments still apply.
1881:
suggested that presidential capacity to pursue objectives unilaterally, rather than through
Congress, "virtually defines what is distinctively modern about the modern American presidency." This shift can be linked to other changes, in particular the polarization of political parties, increasing
2455:
With respect to judicial review it appears that presidents may be more likely to issue executive orders when they differ ideologically from the courts. However the courts overwhelmingly tend to support such directives, upholding 83% of the executive orders that were challenged in federal court
2311:
Harry Truman declared the use of emergency powers when he nationalized private steel mills that failed to produce steel because of a labor strike in 1952. With the Korean War ongoing, Truman asserted that he could not wage war successfully if the economy failed to provide him with the material
2291:
without Congressional approval in 1861. Lincoln claimed that the rebellion created an emergency that permitted him the extraordinary power of unilaterally suspending the writ. With Chief Justice Roger Taney sitting as judge, the Federal District Court of Maryland struck down the suspension in
1513:
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout American history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority. There is
2384:
that privilege was not absolute. The Court reasoned that the judiciary's interest in the "fair administration of criminal justice" outweighed President Nixon's interest in keeping the evidence secret. Later President Bill Clinton lost in federal court when he tried to assert privilege in the
2447:
Political scientists have attempted to develop theoretical approaches to describe the use and control of unilateral power, but such theories have not been clearly substantiated by empirical evidence. Some theoretical perspectives emphasize the importance of institutional constraints and the
1732:
governments in both Kabul and Baghdad were toppled by an overwhelming superiority of American and allied forces defied the predictions of many military experts. However, insufficient post-war planning and strategy by Bush and his advisors to rebuild those nations were costly.
2439:
he American Constitution...envisages a strong Presidency within an equally strong system of accountability. When the constitutional balance is upset in favor of Presidential power and at the expense of Presidential accountability, the office can be said to become imperial. –
1375:, and is accorded those foreign-affairs functions not otherwise granted to Congress or shared with the Senate. Thus, the president can control the formation and communication of foreign policy and can direct the nation's diplomatic corps. The president may also appoint
2373:
negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, Washington's action created the precedent for privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed audio tapes to a special prosecutor in the
2301:
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt similarly invoked emergency powers when he issued an order directing that all Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast be placed into internment camps during World War II. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this order in
2281:
remains silent on the issue, the courts cannot grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries to wield them. The courts will only recognize a right of the Executive Branch to use emergency powers if Congress has granted such powers to the president.
1770:
to either supplement regular forces, assist state governments in the case of rebellion or insurrection, or to enforce federal law when such enforcement is impracticable by normal means. Additionally, the president also maintains direct control over the
2426:
The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was primarily designed to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The
2133:
1695:
in modern times. Confronting a major constitutional issue of murky legislation that left the wars in Korea and Vietnam without official declarations of war, Congress quickly authorized sweeping war-making powers for Bush. The leadership of
2035:
which outlines more than 7,000 appointive positions in the government. Many of these appointments are made by the president. The president is also free to appoint a new agency head of ten agencies. For example, it is not unusual for the
2918:
It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the
1778:
In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security of the United States, but these powers were not expressly granted by the Constitution.
1461:
U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status. Before 1947, the president was the only common superior of the Army (under the
2060:
have set terms that will often outlast presidential terms. For example, governors of the Federal Reserve serve for fourteen years to ensure agency independence. The president also appoints members to the boards of directors for
1526:
that "The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that of the
1952:. The process has traditionally been difficult and relatively rare. The threat of a presidential veto has usually provided sufficient pressure for Congress to modify a bill so the president would be willing to sign it.
2324:
claimed in 1976 that the powers of the president to decide the constitutionality of government actions concerning national security was absolute and exclusive: "if the President does it, that means it is not illegal".
1539:
and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including
2460:
president's actions, there is some evidence to suggest that "individuals are less likely to approve of the president following the use of unilateral power" possibly because it is used in place of legislation.
177:
440:
2889:
President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.
2318:, voting 6-3 that neither commander-in-chief powers nor any claimed emergency powers gave the president the authority to unilaterally seize private property without Congressional legislation.
1367:, and receive ambassadors. The president shall take care that the laws are faithfully executed and the president has the power to appoint and remove executive officers. The president may make
154:
143:
2860:
Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.
2489:
1997:
must appoint people to more than 6,000 federal positions. The appointments range from top officials at U.S. government agencies, to the White House staff, and members of the United States
1662:
1937:
with expressions of their opinion on the constitutionality of a bill's provisions. The president may even declare them unenforceable but the Supreme Court has yet to address this issue.
1751:
As the purpose of a military is to combat foreign invaders and adversaries, U.S. troops cannot be deployed on U.S. soil. The only exception to this rule, is if the president invokes the
2049:
2024:. These nominations require Senate confirmation, and this can provide a major stumbling block for presidents who wish to shape the federal judiciary in a particular ideological stance.
1855:
1175:
425:
2619:
1653:
believed in a high amount of civilian leadership of the military, making many tactical and policy decisions based on the recommendations of his advisors—including the decision to use
1303:
2116:
312:
435:
414:
132:
1486:. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated from the president to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through its secretary. The
2499:
205:
1729:
1395:
1134:
1130:
911:
2727:
1873:. Nonetheless, acting independently, a president can heavily influence and redirect the nation's political agenda and reshape its public policies. As early as 1999,
397:
3656:
3233:
861:
3588:
2138:
1457:
Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States
1450:
1440:
1325:
786:
307:
169:
4212:
2328:
Congressional legislation gives the president powers to commandeer states and governors of states, if the president deems they are engaged in insurrection.
1812:
1152:
993:
886:
3386:
2275:
2166:
2041:
1964:
1296:
1008:
430:
3491:
2452:
presidents are more likely to exercise unilateral power with the tacit support of the majority party in Congress, rather than against a hostile Congress.
1233:
1228:
3264:
1091:
420:
1898:
it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes (unless Congress is out of session, in which case the president may rely on a
1238:
3881:
2223:
On occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation. For example, President
2169:
are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket
2085:
1978:
1941:
1654:
1522:
said that the president, although lacking the power to declare war, would have "the direction of war when authorized or begun", further explaining in
874:
776:
227:
216:
4388:
2314:
1894:
from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can
1051:
906:
3516:
2340:
1444:
1042:
55:
2873:
2844:
1744:), even though the positions were in fact already statutorily designated as "combatant commander" (CCDR). On 24 October 2002, Defense Secretary
2358:
gives the president the ability to withhold information from the public, Congress, and the courts in national security and diplomatic affairs.
1945:
1376:
1289:
1104:
1073:
1029:
1003:
943:
923:
821:
806:
449:
325:
124:
1701:
4171:
2813:
1994:
1531:
extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all which ... would appertain to the legislature".
1487:
1064:
948:
795:
244:
1578:—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay excise tax on spirits. According to historian
1990:
1467:
1432:
1165:
165:
2663:
2284:
Emergency presidential power is not a new idea. However, the way in which it is used in the twenty-first century presents new challenges.
1621:, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as
3002:
2773:
2092:, a disgruntled office seeker, Congress instituted a merit-based civil service in which positions are filled on a nonpartisan basis. The
2668:
2255:
1906:
1772:
1479:
1471:
1436:
1081:
958:
478:
269:
194:
3953:
Banks, William C.; CarriĂł, Alejandro D. (1993). "Presidential Systems in Stress: Emergency Powers in Argentina and the United States".
1882:
tendencies for congressional dysfunction, and the delegation of authority to the executive branch to implement legislative provisions.
1223:
1203:
3814:
3789:
3118:
2694:
2647:
2632:
2057:
1483:
978:
973:
928:
616:
498:
341:
333:
81:
3705:
1218:
1213:
1208:
4306:
4137:
3091:
3065:
3012:
2580:
2251:
1839:
1827:
1111:
1086:
1047:
938:
881:
846:
561:
63:
4027:
3831:
2217:
1571:
1157:
1142:
1118:
1033:
851:
833:
828:
1930:
for New York City to be unconstitutional because only a constitutional amendment could give the president line-item veto power.
4187:
2017:
1835:
1793:
1348:
1170:
1021:
963:
918:
746:
405:
1967:
of Congress. If Congress has adjourned without acting on proposals, the president may call a special session of the Congress.
2336:
2093:
1970:
Beyond these official powers, the U.S. president, as a leader of his political party and the United States government, holds
1528:
1463:
1321:
988:
983:
483:
463:
286:
252:
3632:
1955:
Much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at the initiative of the executive branch. In modern times, the "
4364:
Yu Ouyang and Michael A. Morgan. 2019. "The Contemporary Presidency: How Presidents Utilize Their Emergency Powers."
3411:
3137:
2312:
resources necessary to keep the troops well-equipped. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, refused to accept that argument in
2158:
2062:
1482:
and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to the "authority, direction and control" of the
1475:
968:
953:
671:
76:
31:
2987:
1792:
security directives may be classified. Public proclamations and international agreements are more easily tracked, as are
1748:
announced his decision that the use of the commander-in-chief title would thereafter be reserved for the president only.
3354:
3329:
3240:
2228:
1831:
1759:
1356:
1317:
410:
302:
1796:, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress.
1243:
2479:
2077:
2013:
1914:
1859:
1847:
1843:
1515:
1057:
841:
766:
711:
676:
4372:
3578:
3534:
2247:; and every president sits down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach agreements.
1724:
due to Iraq's alleged sponsorship of terrorism and possession of weapons of mass destruction, the speed at which the
1403:, in his capacity as commander-in-chief, salutes the caskets of 18 individual soldiers killed in Afghanistan in 2009.
3552:
3081:
2332:
2304:
2181:
2142:
2101:
1960:
1804:
1412:
1352:
1329:
751:
656:
2441:
1820:
1737:
1692:
716:
706:
701:
681:
3055:
43:
2713:
2494:
2435:
An essential factor, then, to counter the abuse of unilateral executive power, is presidential accountability:
2271:
1919:
1752:
781:
631:
546:
71:
3857:"The Supreme Court . Law, Power & Personality . Famous Dissents . Korematsu v. United States (1944) | PBS"
2031:, the president appoints the top officials for nearly all federal agencies. These positions are listed in the
3856:
2154:
2109:
1956:
1924:
1870:
666:
661:
536:
2902:
2547:
4101:
2556:
To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water
2522:
2380:
2240:
2105:
1788:
1736:
During the 20th century, certain regional commanders came to be called "commander-in-chief". Before 2002,
1360:
1147:
756:
721:
626:
601:
102:
94:
1419:
and may exercise supreme operational command and control over them. The president has, in this capacity,
2709:
2405:
2236:
2053:
1758:
The president can – with certain limitations – call into federal service all or individual units of the
1721:
1642:
1587:
1535:
1416:
741:
691:
646:
636:
621:
611:
596:
576:
551:
541:
531:
388:
110:
2001:. Many, but not all, of these positions at the highest levels are appointed by the president with the
1566:
The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied dramatically.
3614:
2551:
2428:
2006:
1949:
1838:
to assist the president with the preparation of the budget. Previous presidents had the privilege of
1741:
1709:
1372:
1264:
761:
736:
641:
581:
556:
526:
516:
186:
2610:
2104:
attempted to partially override this change via Executive Order, creating the job classification of
1854:. The power was available to all presidents and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The
1582:, this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", although
2355:
2259:
1927:
1858:
was passed in response to large-scale power exercises by President Nixon. The act also created the
1428:
696:
651:
591:
566:
521:
3905:
2821:
3470:
3299:
2752:
2412:
2121:
2089:
2070:
2021:
2002:
1851:
1745:
1680:
1618:
1606:
1540:
1519:
1424:
1408:
1384:
1380:
891:
726:
606:
571:
4127:
2947:
1574:. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militiamen to quell the
4077:
2673:
4302:
4167:
4133:
3810:
3785:
3362:
3258:
3087:
3061:
3008:
2777:
2576:
2359:
2294:
2184:. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of
1934:
1878:
1800:
1688:
1669:
1665:
1637:, who had a high degree of autonomy as commander of the armies in France. As president during
1575:
1567:
1523:
1506:
1502:
1494:
assist with operations as outlined in the presidentially-approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).
1491:
901:
771:
731:
686:
586:
488:
383:
4363:
4323:
4161:
3929:
3657:"Statement from the Press Secretary Regarding Executive Grants of Clemency – The White House"
2347:; and censor news reports. The Brennan Center found that 56 PEADs were in effect as of 2018.
2052:
to be changed by the president. Other agencies that deal with federal regulation such as the
1977:
To improve the working relationship with Congress, presidents in recent years have set up an
4335:
4272:
4260:
3462:
3435:
3291:
3213:
3133:
2484:
2391:
2344:
2028:
1998:
1799:
Early examples of unilateral directives to enact politically controversial policies include
1646:
1634:
1622:
1333:
493:
115:
4246:
The enigma of presidential power: Parties, policies and strategic uses of unilateral action
3633:"Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Executive Clemency | PARDON | Department of Justice"
3553:"Executive Order 11183--Establishing the President's Commission on White House Fellowships"
2287:
A claim of emergency powers was at the center of President Abraham Lincoln's suspension of
2173:
to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to
2165:
Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the
3709:
3218:
3201:
2386:
2321:
1866:
1816:
1650:
1617:
was deeply involved in strategy development and day-to-day military operations during the
1614:
1602:
1276:
896:
378:
361:
351:
294:
230:
157:
3732:
3807:
Emergency Presidential Power: From the Drafting of the Constitution to the War on Terror
3756:
3041:
4129:
The Myth of the Imperial Presidency: How Public Opinion Checks the Unilateral Executive
3583:
2469:
2224:
2192:
1808:
1697:
1626:
1337:
1195:
1122:
2732:
National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required)
1271:
4382:
3325:
3106:
2935:
2363:
2288:
2191:
Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President
2185:
2177:
2081:
1763:
1740:
were referred to as commanders-in-chief on a daily basis (e.g. Commander in Chief of
1717:
1583:
1420:
1368:
277:
219:
197:
146:
2903:"U.S. troops move in panama in effort to seize noriega; gunfire is heard in capital"
1597:
3978:"10 U.S. Code § 252 - Use of militia and armed forces to enforce Federal authority"
2776:. The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from
2474:
2416:
2244:
2200:
2012:
The president also nominates persons to fill federal judicial vacancies, including
1971:
1910:
1874:
1638:
1579:
1400:
373:
356:
344:
208:
135:
3882:"Executive Orders Are Normal; Trump's Are Only Appalling Because of What They Say"
3680:
3150:
1383:
of the U.S. Senate. In the condition of a Senate recess, the president may make a
4163:
Perspectives on Presidential Leadership: An International View of the White House
4002:
3977:
3122:
2698:
2651:
2636:
2134:
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
2232:
2204:
2196:
2174:
2097:
1981:. Presidential aides have kept abreast of all important legislative activities.
1913:
a line-item veto over parts of a bill that required spending federal funds. The
1899:
1891:
1673:
1630:
1591:
1552:
366:
2756:
1497:
2370:
1775:. As opposed to military forces, militia units can operate on American soil.
1767:
1658:
1548:
1341:
3366:
2989:
Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War
1830:
put additional responsibilities on the presidency for the preparation of the
4324:"The Public Cost of Unilateral Action: THE PUBLIC COST OF UNILATERAL ACTION"
3295:
2375:
2188:. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.
2032:
260:
3579:"2011 Annual Report to Congress on White House Staff | whitehouse.gov"
2084:
allowed presidents to reward political supporters with jobs. Following the
4299:
Power without persuasion : the politics of direct presidential action
4053:
2366:
2146:
1713:
1705:
1684:
4160:
Cullinane, Michael Patrick; Elliott, Clare Frances (February 18, 2014).
3303:
2948:"George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief"
2220:, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.
4339:
3475:
3279:
2170:
1933:
When a bill is presented for signature, the president may also issue a
1725:
1556:
1347:
The Constitution explicitly assigns the president the power to sign or
4276:
1862:
as a legislative counterpoint to the Office of Management and Budget.
1518:
intended Congress to declare war and the president to direct the war;
3706:"War and International Law America's Foreign Policy: A Brief History"
2150:
2096:
now oversees the staffing of 2.8 million federal jobs in the federal
2066:
1834:, although Congress was required to approve it. The act required the
1560:
1544:
1364:
3466:
3453:
Fairlie, John (1903). "The Administrative Powers of the President".
2597:
Presidents and Their Generals: An American History of Command in War
1645:
worked closely with his generals and admirals, and assigned Admiral
1633:
and had very little contact with the War Department or with General
2073:
if a position needs to be filled while Congress is not in session.
1596:
1496:
1394:
2573:
Commanders in chief : presidential leadership in modern wars
2262:
with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation.
3599:
2045:
1905:
Presidents are required to approve all of a bill or none of it;
1895:
1185:
3906:"Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer 343 U.S. 579 (1952)"
4003:"10 U.S. Code § 253 - Interference with State and Federal law"
2037:
1629:
paid very little attention to operational military details of
1190:
3492:"How the Assassination of James A. Garfield Haunts VA Reform"
2874:"The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True"
2845:"The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True"
2395:, which denied the use of privilege in cases of civil suits.
2112:
removed the classification prior to its full implementation.
1974:
over public opinion whereby they may influence legislation.
1672:
kept a very tight personal control of operations during the
42:
3782:
Constitutional Conflicts Between Congress and the President
2149:. The two most commonly used clemency powers are those of
2490:
Separation of powers under the United States Constitution
3004:
The Awesome Power: Harry S. Truman as Commander in Chief
2618:(reprint). Military Affairs. Charlottesville, Virginia:
1890:
The president has several options when presented with a
1856:
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
2362:
first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see
2339:, administrations since Eisenhower have drafted secret
1909:
have been prohibited. In 1996, Congress gave President
1755:
to quell civil turmoils, rebellions and insurrections.
1478:, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the
3029:
Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate in Vietnam
4261:"The President, the Court, and Policy Implementation"
2076:
In the past, presidents could appoint members of the
3280:"Unilateral Action and Presidential Power: A Theory"
3604:
2011 Annual Report to Congress on White House Staff
3517:"Trump plan to gut civil service triggers pushback"
3044:. University of North Carolina School of Education.
2962:
Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief
3708:. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Archived from
3436:"Presidential Powers - LawShelf Educational Media"
3200:Lowande, Kenneth; Rogowski, Jon C. (11 May 2021).
2772:Christopher, James A.; Baker, III (July 8, 2008).
2728:"Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause"
2500:Powers of the prime minister of the United Kingdom
1505:and his troops before their march to suppress the
4126:Christenson, Dino P.; Kriner, Douglas L. (2020).
3060:. Edinburgh University Press. 2009. p. 261.
2932:Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War
1676:, which some historians have sharply criticized.
1371:, which need to be ratified by two-thirds of the
441:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review
4078:"Summary of the Decision United States v. Nixon"
3784:. University Press of Kansas. pp. 249–272.
1708:achieved mixed results. In the aftermath of the
4322:Reeves, Andrew; Rogowski, Jon C. (April 2018).
4301:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
4102:"Presidential Immunity From Judicial Direction"
2437:
1649:as "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief".
1586:briefly took control of artillery units in the
1572:military subordination under civilian authority
1570:, the first U.S. president, firmly established
1455:
4224:
4222:
2620:The Judge Advocate General's School, U.S. Army
3930:"C-SPAN Landmark Cases | Youngstown V Sawyer"
3515:Reid, Tim; Layne, Nathan (22 December 2023).
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2195:commuted the sentence of White House staffer
1297:
8:
4371:Kenneth Lowande and Jon C. Rogowski. 2021. "
2575:. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
2203:commuted the sentence of and later pardoned
3687:. Cornell University Law School. 2007-08-06
3195:
3193:
3191:
3157:. Cornell University Law School. 2007-08-06
3140:, 25 October 2002. Retrieved on 2016-05-04.
3007:. LSU Press. March 1999. pp. 265–269.
2774:"The National War Powers Commission Report"
2276:International Emergency Economic Powers Act
3535:"Serving at the Pleasure of the President"
3355:"Bush's Tactic of Refusing Laws Is Probed"
3278:Moe, Terry M.; Howell, William G. (1999).
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3171:
1304:
1290:
20:
4028:"Presidential Emergency Action Documents"
3474:
3217:
2315:Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer
2086:assassination of President James Garfield
1443:. However, the constitutional ability to
2901:Gordon, Michael R. (December 20, 1990).
2664:"DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011"
2566:
2564:
2124:. The 2011 report listed 454 employees.
3057:Accessing the George W. Bush Presidency
2950:. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
2511:
2341:Presidential Emergency Action Documents
2331:According to research conducted by the
1453:expressly designates the president as:
1355:, ask for the written opinion of their
436:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
426:Multidistrict Litigation Judicial Panel
30:
25:This article is part of a series on the
3809:. University of Wisconsin. p. 6.
3412:"How Our Laws Are Made - Congress.gov"
3263:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3256:
2298:, although Lincoln ignored the order.
1605:advising with his Generals during the
16:Constitutional, legal, and soft powers
4375:." Annual Review of Political Science
4328:American Journal of Political Science
4233:. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. ix.
3955:Michigan Journal of International Law
3615:"Pardon Information and Instructions"
3219:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102043
2814:"The Law: The President's War Powers"
2762:(reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.
2389:. The Supreme Court affirmed this in
1691:assemble and lead one of the largest
1488:chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
796:Elections in the District of Columbia
7:
3042:"The Presidency of George H.W. Bush"
2517:
2515:
2378:scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in
2115:The president must also appoint his
1435:, and form military policy with the
1344:that is attached to the presidency.
1324:include those explicitly granted by
1166:United States and the United Nations
398:Inferior Courts of the United States
3330:"Court Strikes Down Line-Item Veto"
2726:Ramsey, Michael; Vladeck, Stephen.
2669:United States Department of Defense
2571:Dawson, Joseph G. III, ed. (1993).
2523:"Annotated Constitution Article II"
2227:led the American delegation to the
1944:with a two-thirds vote in both the
1842:funds as they saw fit, however the
1773:District of Columbia National Guard
1657:, to commit American forces in the
1451:Article II of the U.S. Constitution
270:Vice President of the United States
4244:Chiou, FY; Rothenberg, LS (2017).
3353:Abramowitz, Michael (2006-07-24).
3206:Annual Review of Political Science
2415:famously called the presidency a "
2058:Securities and Exchange Commission
334:Supreme Court of the United States
14:
2404:expanded role of the office that
2399:Constraints on presidential power
2145:gives the president the power of
1828:Budget and Accounting Act of 1921
64:Constitution of the United States
3757:"Treaty vs. Executive Agreement"
2934:(Oxford University Press, 2012)
2872:Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999).
2843:Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999).
2120:salary of every employee of the
2069:. The president can also make a
1865:Executive orders are subject to
1423:to launch, direct and supervise
1270:
1258:
509:Elections by State and Territory
114:
109:
4389:Presidency of the United States
4366:Presidential Studies Quarterly.
4259:Thrower, Sharece (March 2017).
4231:War and the American Presidency
4132:. University of Chicago Press.
4108:. Cornell University Law School
3830:Greenberg, David (2001-11-30).
3591:from the original on 2017-01-20
3202:"Presidential Unilateral Power"
2714:About the Joint Chiefs of Staff
2672:. April 8, 2011. Archived from
2529:. Cornell University Law School
2018:United States courts of appeals
1836:Office of Management and Budget
1501:A painting depicting president
1171:United Nations Security Council
1074:District of Columbia Government
4265:Presidential Studies Quarterly
3284:Presidential Studies Quarterly
3083:Presidential Decisions for War
2820:. June 1, 1970. Archived from
2734:. National Constitution Center
2716:. Retrieved February 25, 2013.
2337:New York University Law School
2094:Office of Personnel Management
1693:military coalitions of nations
1322:president of the United States
287:United States Attorney General
253:President of the United States
1:
4373:Presidential Unilateral Power
3138:American Forces Press Service
2432:which can override the veto.
2167:Federal Sentencing Guidelines
2159:Office of the Pardon Attorney
2063:government-owned corporations
1979:Office of Legislative Affairs
1886:Powers related to legislation
1476:National Security Act of 1947
431:Alien Terrorist Removal Court
4248:. UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
4192:National Constitution Center
3661:trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov
2548:"United States Constitution"
2408:maintained during his term.
1832:United States federal budget
1447:is vested only in Congress.
1332:as well as those granted by
421:Court of International Trade
4297:Howell, William G. (2003).
4166:. Routledge. pp. 80–.
4106:Legal Information Institute
3880:Schwarz, Jon (2017-01-26).
3685:Legal Information Institute
3155:Legal Information Institute
3086:. JHU Press. October 2010.
2975:Woodrow Wilson: A Biography
2527:Legal Information Institute
2480:Fourth branch of government
2369:'s notes from an unpopular
2078:United States civil service
1860:Congressional Budget Office
1844:United States Supreme Court
1516:framers of the Constitution
1415:as well as all federalized
1379:and some officers with the
1340:, and also a great deal of
4405:
4213:"Federalist Papers No. 51"
4032:Brennan Center for Justice
2305:Korematsu v. United States
2269:
2143:United States Constitution
2131:
1989:Before taking office, the
1961:State of the Union address
1923:, found Clinton's veto of
1813:Nullification Proclamation
1805:Proclamation of Neutrality
1588:defense of Washington D.C.
1413:United States Armed Forces
1330:United States Constitution
3393:. University of Groningen
2609:King, Archibald (1960) .
2442:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
2016:, such as members of the
1821:Emancipation Proclamation
1427:, order or authorize the
862:List of political parties
4229:Schlesinger, A. (2004).
4054:"United States v. Nixon"
3967:10 USC Sections 252, 253
3934:landmarkcases.c-span.org
3761:U.S. Department of State
2495:Unitary executive theory
2272:National Emergencies Act
1920:Clinton v. New York City
1753:Insurrection Act of 1807
1683:in 1990 and the ensuing
1625:. On the other extreme,
1265:United States portal
777:Northern Mariana Islands
125:House of Representatives
3805:Chris, Edelson (2013).
3296:10.1111/1741-5705.00070
2456:between 1942 and 1998.
2106:Schedule F appointments
1957:executive communication
1720:that followed, and the
1655:atomic weapons on Japan
1555:, and the invasions of
994:Individualist anarchism
166:Congressional districts
4034:. NYU Law. May 6, 2020
3780:Louis, Fisher (2007).
2554:. September 17, 1787.
2445:
2381:United States v. Nixon
2229:Paris Peace Conference
1850:as a violation of the
1846:revoked the privilege
1610:
1543:'s military move into
1510:
1459:
1431:, unilaterally launch
1404:
1363:, grant reprieves and
1131:Diplomatic missions of
1009:Political polarization
479:Presidential elections
103:United States Congress
47:
3832:"Lincoln's Crackdown"
3387:"Presidential Powers"
2710:Joint Chiefs of Staff
2406:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2256:Department of Defense
2237:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2197:Lewis "Scooter" Libby
2054:Federal Reserve Board
1985:Powers of appointment
1722:2003 invasion of Iraq
1643:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1600:
1536:War Powers Resolution
1500:
1480:Department of Defense
1472:secretary of the navy
1468:Navy and Marine Corps
1437:Department of Defense
1417:United States Militia
1407:The president is the
1398:
1385:temporary appointment
1359:, convene or adjourn
206:President Pro Tempore
46:
4188:"Declare War Clause"
2973:John Milton Cooper,
2960:James M. McPherson,
2783:on November 26, 2010
2552:United States Senate
2429:separation of powers
2260:executive agreements
2216:officials. With the
2110:Biden administration
2102:Trump administration
2007:United States Senate
1742:U.S. Central Command
1738:combatant commanders
1710:September 11 attacks
1484:secretary of defense
1429:deployment of troops
1135:in the United States
875:Political ideologies
499:Presidential primary
3455:Michigan Law Review
3359:The Washington Post
3334:The Washington Post
2753:Hamilton, Alexander
2612:Command of the Army
2356:Executive privilege
2351:Executive privilege
2252:Department of State
1514:consensus that the
1425:military operations
1277:Politics portal
1112:Department of State
787:U.S. Virgin Islands
4340:10.1111/ajps.12340
4007:Cornell Law School
3982:Cornell Law School
3737:historycentral.com
3712:on 4 November 2019
3621:. 12 January 2015.
3541:. August 15, 2016.
2930:Andrew J. Polsky,
2907:The New York Times
2878:The New York Times
2849:The New York Times
2824:on January 7, 2008
2413:Theodore Roosevelt
2218:secretary of state
2128:Executive clemency
2122:White House Office
2090:Charles J. Guiteau
2080:. This use of the
2071:recess appointment
2022:U.S. Supreme Court
2003:advice and consent
1852:Presentment Clause
1746:Donald H. Rumsfeld
1702:War in Afghanistan
1681:invasion of Kuwait
1668:from his command.
1619:American Civil War
1611:
1607:American Civil War
1541:Theodore Roosevelt
1520:Alexander Hamilton
1511:
1492:combatant commands
1409:commander-in-chief
1405:
1391:Commander-in-chief
1381:advice and consent
1377:Article III judges
1119:Secretary of State
489:Off-year elections
471:National Elections
178:Non-voting members
56:Federal government
48:
4277:10.1111/psq.12348
4173:978-1-135-07903-1
4082:landmarkcases.org
3681:"Executive Power"
3600:National Archives
3539:National Archives
3151:"Executive Power"
2423:open to debate).
2360:George Washington
2295:Ex parte Merryman
1935:signing statement
1879:William G. Howell
1801:George Washington
1716:, the subsequent
1689:George H. W. Bush
1670:Lyndon B. Johnson
1666:Douglas MacArthur
1576:Whiskey Rebellion
1568:George Washington
1524:Federalist No. 69
1507:Whiskey Rebellion
1503:George Washington
1441:Homeland Security
1314:
1313:
1153:Visa requirements
1105:Foreign relations
1004:Political culture
944:Constitutionalism
822:Political parties
807:List of Elections
494:Primary elections
484:Midterm elections
406:Courts of appeals
34:
4396:
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3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3731:Schulman, Marc.
3728:
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3569:
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3566:
3564:
3559:. 15 August 2016
3557:Federal Register
3549:
3543:
3542:
3531:
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3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3490:Ornstein, Norm.
3487:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3416:www.congress.gov
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3374:
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3344:
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3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3262:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3245:
3239:. Archived from
3238:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3197:
3166:
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3141:
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2587:
2586:
2568:
2559:
2558:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2519:
2485:Madisonian Model
2392:Clinton v. Jones
2345:Federal Register
2266:Emergency powers
2029:executive branch
1999:diplomatic corps
1907:selective vetoes
1794:executive orders
1789:executive branch
1783:Executive powers
1647:William D. Leahy
1635:John J. Pershing
1623:Ulysses S. Grant
1534:Pursuant to the
1464:secretary of war
1349:veto legislation
1334:Acts of Congress
1306:
1299:
1292:
1275:
1274:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1082:District Council
1065:Local government
949:Environmentalism
313:Executive Office
308:Federal agencies
118:
113:
33:Politics of the
32:
21:
4404:
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4358:Further reading
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3879:
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3874:
3865:
3863:
3855:Konkoly, Toni.
3854:
3853:
3849:
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3838:
3829:
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3639:
3637:www.justice.gov
3631:
3630:
3626:
3619:www.justice.gov
3613:
3612:
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3500:
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3489:
3488:
3484:
3467:10.2307/1273781
3452:
3451:
3447:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3420:
3418:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3396:
3394:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3371:
3369:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3338:
3336:
3324:Dewar, Hellen;
3323:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3306:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3255:
3249:
3247:
3243:
3236:
3234:"Archived copy"
3232:
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3227:
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3015:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2986:Eric Larrabee,
2985:
2981:
2972:
2968:
2959:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2929:
2925:
2919:Administration.
2911:
2909:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2882:
2880:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2853:
2851:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2812:
2811:
2800:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2735:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2708:
2704:
2693:
2689:
2679:
2677:
2676:on May 13, 2011
2662:
2661:
2657:
2646:
2642:
2631:
2627:
2615:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2595:Matthew Moten,
2594:
2590:
2583:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2532:
2530:
2521:
2520:
2513:
2508:
2466:
2401:
2387:Lewinsky affair
2353:
2322:President Nixon
2278:
2268:
2243:leaders during
2213:
2211:Foreign affairs
2136:
2130:
2100:. In 2020, the
2027:As head of the
1995:transition team
1991:president-elect
1987:
1942:override vetoes
1888:
1867:judicial review
1817:Abraham Lincoln
1785:
1760:National Guards
1651:Harry S. Truman
1615:Abraham Lincoln
1603:Abraham Lincoln
1433:nuclear weapons
1393:
1310:
1281:
1269:
1259:
1257:
1249:
1248:
1200:
1182:
1162:
1143:Nationality law
1139:
1127:
1107:
1097:
1096:
1069:
1024:
1014:
1013:
1000:
935:
877:
867:
866:
858:
838:
824:
814:
813:
801:
791:
513:
505:
475:
466:
456:
455:
450:Other tribunals
445:
411:District courts
393:
328:
318:
317:
299:
295:Merrick Garland
247:
237:
236:
231:Mitch McConnell
228:Minority Leader
217:Majority Leader
182:
158:Hakeem Jeffries
155:Minority Leader
144:Majority Leader
120:
97:
87:
86:
58:
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4402:
4400:
4392:
4391:
4381:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4369:
4359:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4334:(2): 424–440.
4314:
4307:
4289:
4271:(1): 122–145.
4251:
4236:
4218:
4204:
4179:
4172:
4152:
4138:
4118:
4093:
4069:
4045:
4019:
3994:
3969:
3960:
3945:
3921:
3897:
3872:
3847:
3822:
3816:978-0700615346
3815:
3797:
3791:978-0299295301
3790:
3772:
3748:
3723:
3697:
3672:
3648:
3624:
3606:
3584:whitehouse.gov
3570:
3544:
3526:
3507:
3482:
3461:(3): 190–210.
3445:
3427:
3403:
3391:www.let.rug.nl
3378:
3345:
3328:(1998-06-26).
3326:Biskupic, Joan
3316:
3270:
3225:
3167:
3142:
3134:"CINC" Is Sunk
3126:
3119:10 U.S.C.
3111:
3099:
3092:
3073:
3066:
3047:
3033:
3027:Larry Berman,
3020:
3013:
2994:
2979:
2966:
2953:
2939:
2923:
2893:
2864:
2835:
2798:
2764:
2758:The Federalist
2745:
2718:
2702:
2695:10 U.S.C.
2687:
2655:
2648:10 U.S.C.
2640:
2633:50 U.S.C.
2625:
2601:
2588:
2581:
2560:
2539:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2470:Abuse of power
2465:
2462:
2400:
2397:
2352:
2349:
2333:Brennan Center
2267:
2264:
2231:in 1919 after
2212:
2209:
2199:and President
2193:George W. Bush
2182:fled to Canada
2129:
2126:
2014:federal judges
1986:
1983:
1965:joint sessions
1928:appropriations
1887:
1884:
1871:interpretation
1809:Andrew Jackson
1784:
1781:
1764:naval militias
1698:George W. Bush
1627:Woodrow Wilson
1392:
1389:
1351:, command the
1338:implied powers
1312:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1301:
1294:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1267:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1234:European Union
1231:
1229:United Kingdom
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1138:
1137:
1126:
1125:
1123:Antony Blinken
1115:
1114:
1108:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1092:Superior Court
1089:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1068:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1055:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1025:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1006:
999:
998:
997:
996:
991:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
959:Libertarianism
956:
951:
946:
941:
934:
933:
932:
931:
926:
916:
915:
914:
912:Traditionalist
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
878:
873:
872:
869:
868:
865:
864:
857:
856:
855:
854:
849:
837:
836:
831:
825:
820:
819:
816:
815:
812:
811:
800:
799:
790:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
767:American Samoa
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
712:South Carolina
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
677:North Carolina
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
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549:
544:
539:
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519:
512:
511:
504:
503:
502:
501:
491:
486:
481:
474:
473:
467:
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461:
458:
457:
454:
453:
444:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
408:
402:
401:
392:
391:
386:
381:
376:
370:
369:
364:
359:
354:
348:
347:
338:
337:
329:
324:
323:
320:
319:
316:
315:
310:
305:
298:
297:
291:
290:
282:
281:
274:
273:
265:
264:
257:
256:
248:
243:
242:
239:
238:
235:
234:
224:
223:
213:
212:
202:
201:
191:
190:
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174:
173:
162:
161:
151:
150:
140:
139:
129:
128:
107:
106:
98:
93:
92:
89:
88:
85:
84:
79:
74:
68:
67:
59:
54:
53:
50:
49:
39:
38:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4401:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4374:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4361:
4357:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4318:
4315:
4310:
4308:9780691102702
4304:
4300:
4293:
4290:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4255:
4252:
4247:
4240:
4237:
4232:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4208:
4205:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4180:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4164:
4156:
4153:
4141:
4139:9780226704531
4135:
4131:
4130:
4122:
4119:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4094:
4083:
4079:
4073:
4070:
4059:
4055:
4049:
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4033:
4029:
4023:
4020:
4008:
4004:
3998:
3995:
3983:
3979:
3973:
3970:
3964:
3961:
3956:
3949:
3946:
3935:
3931:
3925:
3922:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3898:
3887:
3886:The Intercept
3883:
3876:
3873:
3862:
3858:
3851:
3848:
3837:
3833:
3826:
3823:
3818:
3812:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3787:
3783:
3776:
3773:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3738:
3734:
3733:"Recognition"
3727:
3724:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3649:
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3601:
3590:
3586:
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3522:
3518:
3511:
3508:
3497:
3493:
3486:
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3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3428:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3404:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3379:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3317:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3290:(4): 850–72.
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3271:
3266:
3260:
3246:on 2011-06-07
3242:
3235:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3196:
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3192:
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3182:
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3168:
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3139:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3093:9780801895784
3089:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3074:
3069:
3067:9780748627417
3063:
3059:
3058:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3016:
3014:9780807125151
3010:
3006:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2954:
2949:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2936:online review
2933:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2836:
2828:September 28,
2823:
2819:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2805:
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2799:
2795:
2779:
2775:
2768:
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2759:
2754:
2749:
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2729:
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2703:
2700:
2696:
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2675:
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2665:
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2656:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2614:
2613:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2582:9780700605798
2578:
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2398:
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2394:
2393:
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2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2365:
2364:Chief Justice
2361:
2357:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2290:
2289:habeas corpus
2285:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2178:draft dodgers
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:spoils system
2079:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2050:administrator
2047:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1940:Congress may
1938:
1936:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1915:Supreme Court
1912:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1790:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1718:War on Terror
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1584:James Madison
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1547:in 1903, the
1546:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1421:plenary power
1418:
1414:
1410:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1266:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1239:Latin America
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
995:
992:
990:
987:
986:
985:
982:
980:
979:Republicanism
977:
975:
974:Protectionism
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
936:
930:
929:Progressivism
927:
925:
922:
921:
920:
917:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
884:
883:
880:
879:
876:
871:
870:
863:
860:
859:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
843:
842:Third parties
840:
839:
835:
832:
830:
827:
826:
823:
818:
817:
810:
808:
803:
802:
798:
797:
793:
792:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
752:West Virginia
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
657:New Hampshire
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
617:Massachusetts
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
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