Prenatal nutrition

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the body undergo long-term changes as a result of restricted growth. When the living environment switches from the condition of malnutrition to a society of abundant supply of nutrients, this exposes the baby to a bountiful environment that goes against what its body is designed for and this places the baby at a higher risk of adult diseases later in adulthood. By the same token, if the fetus growing in the womb of a healthy mother is exposed to prolonged famine after birth, the infant would be less adaptive to the harsh environment than low-birth-weight babies.

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Even though pregnant and lactating women had extra food during the famine, these extra supplies could no longer be provided peaking the famine. In the early May 1945, the liberation of the Netherlands restored the food supply. The daily ration had increased to more than 2000 calories in June 1945. What is unique about Dutch Famine as an experimental study on the effects of maternal malnutrition is that the population was strictly circumscribed in time and place and the sudden onset and relief of the famine was imposed on a previously well-nourished population.

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was not enough information to recommend weight gain cutoffs and guidelines for women carrying three or more babies, women of short stature (<157 centimetres), and pregnant teens. Estimated energy requirements (EER) for overweight/obese women are unavailable so more research is needed to evaluate on that. There are also important links between nutrition and mental health across pregnancy. For example, a woman experiencing low mood may be more likely to smoke, use alcohol or neglect her diet

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type of body weight, and the third column presents the corresponding weekly weight gain during the period when the fetus undergoes rapid growth (during second and third trimesters). In extreme cases, the amount of total and weekly weight gain can vary by a factor of two depending on a woman's pre-pregnant weight. For example, a woman in the obese category is recommended to gain a total of 5~9 kilograms, whereas an underweight woman needs to gain up to 18 kilograms in weight.

740: 534:, defined as having a BMI of 25 or above. Women with BMI between 25 and 29.9 are in the overweight category and should gain between 7.0 and 11.5 kilograms in total, corresponding to approximately 0.28 kilogram each week during the second and third trimesters. Whereas women with BMI of 30 or above are in the obese category and should gain only between 5.0 and 9.0 kilograms overall, which equates to roughly 0.2 kilogram per week in the second and third trimesters. 694:, which is the length from the top portion of the uterus to the pubic bone. The length measured in centimeters should correspond to the number of weeks that the mother has been pregnant. If the measured number is higher or lower than 2 centimeters, further tests using ultrasound would be needed to check the results. Another way to estimate fetal size is to look at the mother's weight gain. How much weight the mother gains can be used to indicate fetal size. 231: 473: 420: 703: 143:". The word "programming" illustrates the idea that during critical periods in early fetal development, there are persisting changes in the body structure and function that are caused by environmental stimuli. This relates to the concept of developmental plasticity where our genes can express different ranges of physiological or morphological states responding to the environmental conditions during fetal development. 68:, overeating excessively will compromise the baby's health as the infant will have to work extra hard to become healthy in the future. Compared with the infant, the mother possesses the least biological risk. Therefore, excessive calories, rather than going to the infant, often get stored as fat in the mother. On the other hand, insufficient consumption will result in lower birth weight. 460:(BMI) which is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters. While pregnant, body weight should be managed within the recommended gestational weight gain range as it is shown to have a positive effect on pregnancy outcomes. Gestational weight gain should also be progressive and the recommended weight depends on pre-pregnant body weight. 453:(late embryonic and fetal stages), the fetus undergoes rapid weight growth and the weight increases to about 3000~4000 grams. It is also in this period that the mother experiences the bulk of her gestational weight gain but the amount of weight gain varies greatly. The amount of weight gain depends strongly on their pre-pregnant weight. 124:. Babies born lighter in weight appear to have an increased rate of mortality than babies born at a heavier weight. This does not mean that heavy babies are less of a concern. Death rate would rise as birth weight increases beyond normal birth weight range. Therefore, it is important to maintain a healthy 813:

systems. Placentae from mothers fed a high fat diet appeared to adapt to excessive nutrient supply, while placentae from undernourished mothers were less mature with impaired transport. These placental adaptations could help to explain why offspring from malnourished pregnancies experience altered growth.

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Many factors, including maternal, placental, and fetal factors, contribute to the cause of impaired fetal growth. There are several maternal factors, which include age, nutritional status, alcohol use, smoking, and medical conditions. Insufficient uteroplacental perfusion is an example of a placental

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The following table summarizes the recommended rate of weight gain and total weight gain according to pre-pregnancy BMI for singleton pregnancies. The first column categorizes the type of body weight based on the Body Mass Index. The second column summarizes the total recommended weight gain for each

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Diet, exercise or a combination of both has been seen to reduce weight gain in pregnancy by 20% and reduce high blood pressure. Diet with exercise may reduce the risk of caesarean section, having a large baby and having a baby with serious breathing problems. Diet and exercise help pregnant women not

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If the mother has an inadequate diet then it signals the baby that the living condition in the long term will be impoverished. Consequently, the baby adapts by changing its body size and metabolism to prepare for harsh conditions of food shortages after birth. Physiological and metabolic processes in

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There are ways to help prevent LGA babies. It is necessary to monitor fetal growth and perform pregnancy examinations to determine health status and detect any possibility of unrecognized diabetes. For diabetic mothers, careful management of diabetes during pregnancy period would be helpful in terms

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Complications for the infant include limitations in body growth since the number and size of cells in tissues is smaller. The infant likely did not receive enough oxygen during pregnancy so the oxygen level is low. It is also more difficult to maintain body temperature since there is less blood flow

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as well as other chronic diseases later in life. These findings agree well with Barker's hypothesis; it supports the theory that maternal under-nutrition leads to a lower birth weight due to restricted intrauterine development and ultimately leads to higher risks of chronic conditions in adult life.

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The following general tips can be helpful to pregnant women. It would be beneficial to maintain adequate physical activity to meet energy needs from the food consumed. Eating a balanced diet would be optimal for healthy pregnancy results. To prevent problems like dehydration and constipation, it is

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As such, it is necessary to monitor oxygen level to make sure that it doesn't go too low. If the baby can't suck well, then it may be necessary for tube-feed. Since the baby cannot maintain body temperature sufficiently, a temperature-controlled bed would help to keep their bodies from losing heat.

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body weight. This group has the lowest risk of adverse birth outcomes. Their babies are least likely to either be low-birth weight or high-birth weight. It is advised that women with a normal weight before pregnancy should gain a total of 11.5 kilograms to 16.0 kilograms throughout gestation, which

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for the general adult population gradually decreased from 1800 calories in December 1943 to 1400 calories in October 1944 to below 1000 calories in the late November 1944. December 1944 to April 1945 was the peak of the famine where the official daily ration fell abruptly to about 400~800 calories.

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in the diet. High glucose concentrations in the blood of pregnant women cause an intensified transfer of nutrient to the fetus, increasing fetal growth. Studies could link higher maternal glucose to an increase in infant birth weight as well as different extents of morbidity, among other things the

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variables such as environmental factors could attribute to many of the chronic diseases such that low birth weight alone should not be dictated as an independent risk factor. Subsequent research studies supporting the theory attempted to adjust these environmental factors and in turn, provided more

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If the fetus is predicted to have low birth weight, in addition to the general recommendations, it would be ideal to increase caloric intake, which can be done by having extra Food Guide Servings daily. If the fetus is predicted to have high birth weight, smaller and more frequent meals should be

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It is reasonable to expect higher weight gain for multiple gestations. Recommendations for women carrying twins are given but more research should be done to precisely determine the total weight gain, as these ranges are wide. Also, the ranges for underweight women carrying twins is unknown. There

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or more below the mean of the infant's gestational age, based on data consisting of a reference population. Other studies classify SGA babies as those with birth weight values below the 10th percentile of the growth chart for babies of the same gestational age. This indicates that these babies are

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that is used to examine the effects of maternal under-nutrition during different gestational stages. The famine was a period (roughly five to six months) of extreme food shortage in the west of the Netherlands. The famine was imposed on a previously well-nourished population and the official daily

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Crown-rump length can be used as the best ultrasonographic measurement for correct diagnosis of gestational age during the first trimester. This correlation between crown-rump length and gestational age would be most effectively shown when no growth defects are observed in the first trimester. If

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In general, walking is encouraged for mothers classified in this category. Unfortunately, estimated energy requirements for them are not available. As such, they are encouraged to record activity and intake level. This can be done with the help of tools such as My Food Guide Servings Tracker from

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Underweight women usually have inadequate nutrient stores that are not enough to provide for both herself and the fetus. While exercise and a proper diet are both needed to maintain the recommended weight gain, a balance between the two is very important. As such, underweight mothers should seek

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if they have a pre-pregnant BMI of 18.5 or below. Low pre-pregnancy BMI increases the risk of low birth weight infants, but the risk can be balanced by an appropriate gestational weight gain from 12.5 to 18.0 kilograms in total, or about 0.5 kilogram each week in the second and third trimesters.

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A proper diet is also essential to healthy weight gain. The common saying "a woman is eating for two" often leads to mothers thinking that they should eat twice as much. In reality, only a small increase in caloric intake is needed to provide for the fetus; approximately 350 calories more in the

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Since conditions during pregnancy will have long-term effects on adult health, "moderation" should be considered for both dietary and physical activity recommendations. Most importantly, the total recommended pregnancy weight gain depends on pre-pregnant body weight, and weight issues should be

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The Dutch Famine during World War II had a profound effect on the health condition of the general public, especially women who conceived during the period of time. The period of maternal starvation is shown to have limited intrauterine growth and has been identified as one of the most important

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The placenta may adapt to maternal malnutrition in an effort to support fetal development and protect against adverse nutritional exposures. In pregnant mice, undernutrition and high fat diets have been shown to alter both placental size and structure, including the expression of key transport

668: 767:. Many complications are observed for LGA babies and their mothers. A longer delivery time may be expected since it is a difficult birth. The infant would likely suffer hypoglycemia (low glucose level in the blood) after birth. The infant would also have difficulty breathing. 247:

Since small birth weight is associated with an increased risk of chronic diseases in later life, and poor maternal nutrition during gestation contributes to restricted fetal development, maternal malnutrition may be a cause of increased disease susceptibility in adulthood.

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and further development of the infant. A study at the National Institution of Health found that babies born from an obese mother have a higher probability to fail tests of fine motor skills which is the movement of small muscles such as the hands and fingers.

310:, a nutrition program for pregnant women and small children with the aim of strengthening future generations of soldiers was introduced by the French Government. This might be one explanation for positive health-outcomes in following generations. 305:

One explanation suggested for the paradox is the potential impact of nutritional enhancements during pregnancy and the first months and years of life that would positively influence the health of following generations: After the defeat in the

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Since the total weight gain depends on pre-pregnant body weight, it is recommended that underweight women should undergo a larger weight gain for healthy pregnancy outcomes, and overweight or obese women should undergo a smaller weight gain.

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Lee, PA; Chernausek, SD; et al. (2003). "International Small for Gestational Age Advisory Board Consensus Development Conference Statement: Management of Short Children Born Small for Gestational Age, April 24 – October 1, 2001".

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A common saying that a woman "is eating for two" while pregnant implies that a mother should consume twice as much during pregnancy, but is misleading. Although maternal consumption will directly affect both herself and the growing

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activities such as walking and swimming 3 to 4 times a week is usually adequate. Vigorous physical activity is not recommended since an excessive loss of calories is induced which is not sufficient to support fetal development.

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and monitoring of motherly glucose was nevertheless stressed. Recent studies pointed out that diabetes in the mother could foster even more lasting effects on the child's health than previously thought, even raising the risk of

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and excessive nutrient supply. It seems that a common factor for LGA babies is whether or not the mother has diabetes when she is pregnant. An indicator for excessive growth, regardless of gestational age, is the appearance of

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growth defects were observed in the first trimester, then the measurement of the date of last menstrual period becomes quite important since the crown-heel length has become less of a reliable indicator of gestational age.

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would be needed. Since the baby is bigger, there's a higher chance of injury when coming out of the mother's body. To increase the blood glucose level in blood, a glucose/water solution can be offered to the infant.

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The pattern and amount of weight gain is closely associated with gestational stages. Additional energy is required during pregnancy due to the expansion of maternal tissues and stored to support fetal development.

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important to drink enough fluids, especially water, to support blood volume increases during pregnancy. It is recommended to accompany regular meals with a daily prenatal vitamin supplement that has sufficient

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is the stage from fertilization to about 2 weeks. The fertilized egg or the zygote becomes a blastocyst where the outer layer and the inner cell mass differentiate to form placenta and the fetus respectively.

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There are ways to help prevent SGA babies. Monitoring fetal growth can help identify the problem during pregnancy well before birth. It would be beneficial to seek professional help and counseling.

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Early life programming as a target for prevention of child and adolescent mental disorders: intervention and research directions. BMC Medicine: Special issue on Prevention of Mental Disorders

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consumed to allow better weight management. Moderate sugar intake, such as fruit juices, is also suggested. It is essential to limit food and beverages with high calories and salt content.

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incidence of congenital malformations, supporting the Hypothesis, that even moderately increased blood glucose in the absence of diabetes positively influences growth in the fetus.

2028: 338:, each spanning 3 months. Gestational stages, on the other hand, are based on physiological fetal development, which include the germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. 456:

Generally, a normal weight is strongly recommended for mothers when entering gestation, as it promotes overall health of infants. Maternal body weight is determined by the

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The goal of pregnancy is to have a healthy baby. Maintaining healthy and steady weight gain during pregnancy promotes overall health and reduces the incidence of prenatal

1669: 52:. This is a rather critical time for healthy development since infants rely heavily on maternal stores and nutrient for optimal growth and health outcome later in life. 683:

during pregnancy and the date of last menstrual period are needed. Measured values from ultrasonography are compared with the growth chart to estimate fetal weight.

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gain too much weight during pregnancy when compared with giving the women no help to control weight gain or routine care (usually one session in the pregnancy).

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Connor, Kristin L; Kibschull, Mark; Matysiak-Zablocki, Elzbieta; Nguyen, Tina Tu-Thu Ngoc; Matthews, Stephen G; Lye, Stephen J; Bloise, Enrrico (1 April 2020).

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Farmer, G.; Russell, G.; Hamilton-Nicol, D. R.; Ogenbede, H. O.; Ross, I. S.; Pearson, D. W. M.; Thom, H.; Kerridge, D. F.; Sutherland, H. W. (1988).

883: 1789:"Nutritional Interventions during Pregnancy for the Prevention or Treatment of Impaired Fetal Growth: An Overview of Randomized Controlled Trials" 1593: 1289:"Many HAPO Returns: Maternal Glycemia and Neonatal Adiposity: New Insights from the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) Study" 2795: 2725: 1402: 167:, thus exposing the fetus to elevated insulin levels. This would result in an increased risk of fetal macrosomia and neonatal hypoglycemia. 2300: 1988: 1182:"The influence of maternal glucose metabolism on fetal growth, development and morbidity in 917 singleton pregnancies in nondiabetic women" 497:

second trimester and 450 calories more in the third trimester. Also, healthy choices should be emphasized for these extra calories such as

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regards the seemingly paradoxical fact that people living in France since many generations suffer from a relatively little incidence of

2765: 1550: 1509: 1468: 403: 391: 379: 108:, states that conditions during pregnancy will have long-term effects on adult health. Associated risk of lifelong diseases includes 2800: 2665: 438:(blastogenesis and early embryonic stages), the mother experiences a minimal weight gain (approximately 0.5-2 kilograms), while the 2904: 2604: 2129: 1353:

Roseboom, Tessa; Rooij, Susanne de; Painter, Rebecca (2006). "The Dutch famine and its long-term consequences for adult health".

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occurred time and again in different societies at different times, and thus in some cases epidemiological studies have exposed a

2956: 2670: 1673: 2720: 714:(SGA) infants. Many research studies agree that SGA babies are those with birth weight or crown-heel length measured at two 131:

When this theory was first proposed, it was not well accepted and was met with much skepticism. The main criticism was that

91:(CVD). Ideally, the rate of weight gain should be monitored during pregnancy to support the most ideal infant development. 2745: 2652: 2154: 2750: 2710: 2209: 1557:(Image from gestational age of 40 weeks). Retrieved 13 December 2010. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available 1516:(Image from gestational age of 20 weeks). Retrieved 13 December 2010. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available 1475:(Image from gestational age of 10 weeks). Retrieved 13 December 2010. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available 2579: 2390: 989: 346: 327: 2363: 476:

Health choices such as low-fat milk and alternatives, fruits, and vegetables should be emphasized for pregnant women.

1892:"Maternal malnutrition impacts placental morphology and transporter expression: an origin for poor offspring growth" 3027: 2785: 2622: 2380: 2305: 2275: 2005: 224: 488:

In order to maintain a steady weight gain, the mother should engage in mild physical activities. Participating in

2835: 2447: 2187: 2111: 752: 711: 1868: 3022: 2197: 858: 160: 986:"Draft Prenatal Nutrition Guidelines for Health Professionals – Maternal Weight and Weight Gain in Pregnancy" 2770: 2635: 2373: 2134: 2101: 2060: 853: 125: 755:

or LGA. This indicates that these babies are weighing more than 90% of babies of the same gestational age.

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and EATracker that are available online. In extreme cases where the BMI exceeds 35, help from a registered

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is approximately from 2 weeks to 8 weeks. It is also in this stage where the blastocyst develops into an

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between the nutritional status of pregnant women and the health of their children or even grandchildren.

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After the 20th week of pregnancy, the mother would need to visit the doctor for the measurement of

17: 3017: 2780: 2675: 2499: 2348: 2260: 2225: 2106: 2053: 1927: 1440: 1099: 140: 1221:"Maternal Glucose Concentration Influences Fetal Growth, Gestation, and Pregnancy Complications" 156: 369:

is from 9 weeks to term. During this period of time, the embryo develops rapidly and becomes a

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Research shows that when birth weights of infants are greater than the 90th percentile of the

667: 230: 105: 41: 1569: 1528: 1487: 1428: 2830: 2442: 2315: 2310: 2204: 1972:"Prenatal Nutrition Guidelines for Health Professionals – Background on Canada's Food Guide" 1949: 1903: 1800: 1788: 1722: 1641: 1633: 1362: 1318: 1300: 1232: 1193: 1168: 1141: 1133: 1083: 1027: 554: 489: 446: 175: 1547: 1506: 1465: 472: 363:, where all major features of humans are present and operational by the end of this stage. 163:, formulated the hypothesis that maternal hyperglycemia during pregnancy might cause fetal 2879: 2594: 2489: 2358: 2250: 2139: 2088: 2032: 1576: 1565: 1554: 1535: 1524: 1513: 1494: 1483: 1472: 676: 457: 450: 435: 423: 216: 204: 195: 113: 150: 1851: 2925: 2840: 2546: 2494: 2192: 1646: 1621: 1323: 1288: 1181: 1146: 1121: 1071: 792: 295: 287: 723:

factor. Chromosomal abnormalities and genetic diseases are examples of fetal factors.

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Pedersen's hypothesis – influences of maternal glucose concentration on fetal growth

2971: 2551: 2504: 2452: 2410: 1637: 1087: 748: 256: 220: 179: 121: 56: 1907: 2961: 2556: 2514: 2432: 591: 498: 350: 307: 132: 1945: 1417: 99: 2966: 2484: 2406: 2285: 2080: 1622:"Diet or exercise, or both, for preventing excessive weight gain in pregnancy" 832: 770:

There might be a need for early delivery if the baby gets too big and perhaps

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addresses nutrient recommendations before and during pregnancy. Nutrition and

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Scholl, Theresa O.; Sowers, Maryfran; Chen, Xinhua; Lenders, Carine (2001).

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Size Matters: How Height Affects the Health, Happiness, and Success of Boys

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is approximately 0.4 kilogram per week in the second and third trimesters.

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to birth. Gestation is about 40 weeks in humans and is divided into three

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pregnancy were taken into account, too, but the crucial role of the fetal

2845: 2561: 884:"Parent obesity linked to delays in child development, NIH study suggest" 759: 191: 187: 84: 1620:

Muktabhant, B; Lawrie, TA; Lumbiganon, P; Laopaiboon, M (15 June 2015).

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Macfarlane CM, Tsakalakos N (1988). "The extended Pedersen hypothesis".

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Barker's hypothesis – influences of birth weight on health in later life

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throughout pregnancy for achieving the optimal infant birth weight.

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occurs at this stage where the blastocyst becomes buried in the

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Subsequently, alterations of Pedersen's Hypothesis took place:

1590:"Canadian Guidelines for Body Weight Classification in Adults" 911:"Weight Problems During Pregnancy and the Effect on Your Baby" 719:

weighing less than 90% of babies of the same gestational age.

1122:"Fetal origins of adult disease: epidemiology and mechanisms" 795:. This, in turn, has a positive effect on the baby's health. 751:

for babies of the same gestational age, they are considered

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Erhöhte Blutzuckerwerte bei Schwangeren gefährden das Kind

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Women having a BMI of 18.5~24.9 are classified as having a

1670:"Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines" 522:

individualized advice tailored especially for themselves.

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other than sugar and their linkage to fetal overgrowth in

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Hornstra, Gerard; Uauy, Ricardo; Yang, Xiaoguang (2004).

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Women with a high pre-pregnancy weight are classified as

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convincing results with minimal confounding variables.

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and vegetables as well as low-fat dairy alternatives.

79:, as well as chronic conditions in adulthood such as 178:, especially energy-ingestion and the percentage of 2984: 2949: 2913: 2867: 2858: 2818: 2613: 2570: 2539: 2532: 2399: 2324: 2293: 2284: 2218: 2175: 2120: 2087: 1395:The impact of maternal nutrition on the offspring 415:Pre-pregnancy weight and gestational weight gain 758:Many factors account for LGA babies, including 174:concentration in humans is mainly dependent on 215:Various nutritional conditions, both times of 2061: 2026:"Prediabetes or Impaired Glucose Intolerance" 1787:Merialdi, M; Carroli, G; et al. (2003). 1672:. Institute of Medicine. 2009. Archived from 1615: 1613: 1611: 658:Recommendations for low and high birth weight 55:Prenatal nutrition has a strong influence on 8: 1846: 1844: 1076:Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1072:"The Developmental Origins of Adult Disease" 48:has a profound effect on the development of 1869:"Labor complication: Big baby (macrosomia)" 1842: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1626:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 555:Parental obesity § Modifying the risks 373:. Pregnancy becomes visible at this stage. 2864: 2536: 2290: 2068: 2054: 2046: 2020: 2018: 1766: 1764: 671:Ultrasound of fetus (~3 inches in length). 567: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1804: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1645: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1322: 1304: 1236: 1145: 1031: 1009: 1007: 675:To have a good estimate of birth weight, 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1051: 1016:"Fetal experience and good adult design" 980: 978: 976: 974: 972: 970: 968: 966: 964: 962: 960: 958: 956: 139:"Barker's Hypothesis" is also known as " 75:lowers adverse risks on infants such as 1896:The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 1445:Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition 1115: 1113: 954: 952: 950: 948: 946: 944: 942: 940: 938: 936: 875: 375: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1691: 1418:BBC News: Health French health mystery 779:of lowering some of the risks of LGA. 1885: 1883: 1881: 1856:Children's Hospital and Health System 1592:. Health Canada. 2003. Archived from 1020:International Journal of Epidemiology 988:. Health Canada. 2009. Archived from 409:Fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization 397:Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization 385:Embryo at 8 weeks after fertilization 7: 71:Maintaining a healthy weight during 2900:Psychiatric disorders of childbirth 2039:, 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2010. 2012:, 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010. 1995:, 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2010. 1978:, 2009. Retrieved 23 November 2010. 1867:BabyCenter Medical Advisory Board, 18:Prenatal nutrition and birth weight 1989:"Staying Healthy During Pregnancy" 1875:, 2006. Retrieved 5 November 2010. 1858:, 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 1850:Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, 1777:, 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 1775:Lucile Packard Children's Hospital 629:7.0~ 11.5 kg (15~25 lb) 314:Recommendations for pregnant women 25: 2905:Postpartum physiological changes 2605:Postpartum physiological changes 2130:Assisted reproductive technology 1367:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.07.001 1225:American Journal of Epidemiology 1120:Byrne, CD; Phillips, DI (2000). 710:There are two ways to determine 645:5.0~9.0 kg (11~20 lb) 613:11.5~16 kg (25~35 lb) 599:12.5~18 kg (28~40 lb) 402: 390: 378: 2957:Adaptation to extrauterine life 577:Recommendated Total Weight Gain 2600:Maternal physiological changes 2004:Ministry of Health Promotion, 1638:10.1002/14651858.CD007145.pub3 1088:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719428 255:or the "Hunger Winter" during 155:In 1952, the Danish physician 1: 2155:partner-assisted reproduction 1908:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.108329 888:National Institutes of Health 817:Future direction for research 808:Malnutrition and the placenta 300:high in saturated fatty acids 1568:, and a sketch is available 1527:, and a sketch is available 1486:, and a sketch is available 826:Practical advice for mothers 799:addressed before pregnancy. 141:Fetal Programming Hypothesis 104:The "Barker Hypothesis", or 2391:Traditional birth attendant 2010:Queen's Printer for Ontario 2006:"The Juicy Story on Drinks" 1852:"Large for Gestational Age" 1771:"Small for Gestational Age" 1287:Lindsay, Robert S. (2009). 442:weighs only 6 grams. 294:, although the traditional 238:tribute to the Dutch Famine 3044: 3013:Health issues in pregnancy 2623:Brain health and pollution 2024:Alberta clinical experts, 648:0.2 kg (0.5 lb) 632:0.3 kg (0.6 lb) 616:0.4 kg (1.0 lb) 602:0.5 kg (1.0 lb) 572:Pre-pregnancy BMI Category 552: 526:Overweight and obese women 2836:Chorionic villus sampling 2188:Obstetric ultrasonography 2112:Pre-conception counseling 1575:27 September 2007 at the 1564:16 September 2007 at the 1553:27 September 2007 at the 1534:27 September 2007 at the 1523:16 September 2007 at the 1512:27 September 2007 at the 1493:27 September 2007 at the 1482:16 September 2007 at the 1471:27 September 2007 at the 753:large for gestational age 712:small for gestational age 2726:Intrahepatic cholestasis 1793:The Journal of Nutrition 859:Fetal Origins Hypothesis 513:Women are classified as 161:University of Copenhagen 2796:Motor vehicle emissions 2657:Concomitant conditions 2631:environmental toxicants 2374:Auxiliary nurse midwife 2135:artificial insemination 2102:Natural family planning 2031:2 February 2010 at the 1954:10.1186/1741-7015-12-33 1727:10.1542/peds.111.6.1253 1355:Early Human Development 915:Losing Pregnancy Weight 854:Nutrition and pregnancy 743:Ultrasound examination. 727:within the small body. 126:gestational weight gain 2890:Postpartum confinement 2150:in vitro fertilisation 1993:The Nemours Foundation 1806:10.1093/jn/133.5.1626S 744: 707: 672: 477: 427: 275:coronary heart disease 239: 110:cardiovascular disease 89:cardiovascular disease 34: 2885:Postpartum depression 2766:Pruritic folliculitis 2510:Unassisted childbirth 1238:10.1093/aje/154.6.514 1138:10.1136/jcp.53.11.822 849:Smoking and pregnancy 742: 705: 670: 475: 422: 261:epidemiological study 233: 32: 2992:Gravidity and parity 2972:Congenital disorders 2931:Lactation consultant 2801:Pre-existing disease 2480:Childbirth positions 2470:Rupture of membranes 2167:Unintended pregnancy 2145:fertility medication 1262:Clin Physiol Biochem 1070:Barker, DJP (2004). 1033:10.1093/ije/30.5.928 253:Dutch famine of 1944 2895:Sex after pregnancy 2702:Endocrine diseases 2648:Prenatal depression 2520:Placental expulsion 2438:Uterine contraction 2421:cervical effacement 2162:Fertility awareness 1397:. New York: Basel. 1014:Bateson, P (2001). 992:on 29 November 2010 909:De Leon, Victoria. 835:and iron content. 716:standard deviations 706:Birth weight chart. 582:Weekly Weight Gain 532:overweight or obese 468:Normal weight women 2671:Hypercoagulability 2500:Natural childbirth 2349:Postterm pregnancy 2107:Male contraceptive 2037:HealthLink Alberta 1873:BabyCenter, L.L.C. 1799:(5): 1626S–1631S. 1676:on 23 October 2009 1198:10.1007/BF00276845 783:Points to consider 745: 708: 673: 478: 428: 328:embryo development 282:The French paradox 240: 44:before and during 38:Prenatal nutrition 35: 3028:Nutrition by type 3000: 2999: 2985:Obstetric history 2980: 2979: 2941:Confinement nanny 2854: 2853: 2721:Acute fatty liver 2528: 2527: 2416:cervical dilation 1404:978-3-8055-7780-9 1306:10.2337/db08-1562 864:Fetal Programming 772:Caesarean section 735:High birth weight 652: 651: 585:(after 12 weeks) 509:Underweight women 482:normal or healthy 326:is the period of 308:Franco-German War 106:Thrifty phenotype 42:weight management 16:(Redirected from 3035: 2865: 2831:Cardiotocography 2537: 2443:Vaginal delivery 2316:Nesting instinct 2291: 2276:Rudimentary horn 2205:Prenatal testing 2070: 2063: 2056: 2047: 2040: 2022: 2013: 2002: 1996: 1987:Larissa Hirsch, 1985: 1979: 1969: 1956: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1887: 1876: 1865: 1859: 1848: 1819: 1818: 1808: 1784: 1778: 1768: 1739: 1738: 1721:(6): 1253–1261. 1709: 1686: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1649: 1617: 1606: 1605: 1603: 1601: 1596:on 25 March 2010 1586: 1580: 1545: 1539: 1504: 1498: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1441:"germinal stage" 1437: 1431: 1426: 1420: 1415: 1409: 1408: 1390: 1379: 1378: 1350: 1337: 1336: 1326: 1308: 1284: 1278: 1277: 1257: 1251: 1250: 1240: 1216: 1210: 1209: 1177: 1171: 1166: 1160: 1159: 1149: 1117: 1108: 1107: 1082:(6): 588S–595S. 1067: 1046: 1045: 1035: 1011: 1002: 1001: 999: 997: 982: 931: 930: 928: 926: 917:. Archived from 906: 900: 899: 897: 895: 890:. 3 January 2017 880: 698:Low birth weight 568: 550:is recommended. 447:second trimester 406: 394: 382: 319:Gestation stages 273:contributors to 243:The Dutch famine 211:Historical cases 21: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3033: 3032: 3023:Human nutrition 3003: 3002: 3001: 2996: 2976: 2945: 2909: 2880:Postpartum care 2850: 2814: 2717:Liver diseases 2711:Thyroid disease 2609: 2595:Gestational age 2566: 2524: 2490:Labor induction 2395: 2386:Perinatal nurse 2359:Birth attendant 2320: 2280: 2214: 2210:Medical imaging 2171: 2140:fertility fraud 2116: 2083: 2074: 2044: 2043: 2033:Wayback Machine 2023: 2016: 2003: 1999: 1986: 1982: 1970: 1959: 1943: 1939: 1889: 1888: 1879: 1866: 1862: 1849: 1822: 1786: 1785: 1781: 1769: 1742: 1711: 1710: 1689: 1679: 1677: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1632:(6): CD007145. 1619: 1618: 1609: 1599: 1597: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1577:Wayback Machine 1566:Wayback Machine 1555:Wayback Machine 1546: 1542: 1536:Wayback Machine 1525:Wayback Machine 1514:Wayback Machine 1505: 1501: 1495:Wayback Machine 1484:Wayback Machine 1473:Wayback Machine 1464: 1460: 1450: 1448: 1439: 1438: 1434: 1427: 1423: 1416: 1412: 1405: 1392: 1391: 1382: 1352: 1351: 1340: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1218: 1217: 1213: 1179: 1178: 1174: 1167: 1163: 1132:(11): 822–828. 1119: 1118: 1111: 1069: 1068: 1049: 1013: 1012: 1005: 995: 993: 984: 983: 934: 924: 922: 921:on 4 March 2011 908: 907: 903: 893: 891: 882: 881: 877: 872: 845: 828: 819: 810: 805: 785: 737: 700: 677:ultrasonography 665: 660: 625:BMI 25.0~ 29.9 609:BMI 18.5~ 24.9 607:Healthy weight 562: 557: 528: 511: 470: 458:Body Mass Index 451:third trimester 436:first trimester 417: 410: 407: 398: 395: 386: 383: 357:Embryonic stage 321: 316: 284: 245: 213: 205:type 2 diabetes 196:hyperinsulinism 157:Jørgen Pedersen 153: 114:type-2 diabetes 102: 97: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3041: 3039: 3031: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3005: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2995: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2982: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2926:Health visitor 2923: 2917: 2915: 2911: 2910: 2908: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2871: 2869: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2843: 2841:Nonstress test 2838: 2833: 2828: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2815: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2775: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2757:Skin diseases 2755: 2754: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2730: 2729: 2728: 2723: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2708: 2700: 2699: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2644: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2625: 2619: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2576: 2574: 2568: 2567: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2547:Amniotic fluid 2543: 2541: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2523: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2495:Multiple birth 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2429: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2396: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2334: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2301:Bradley method 2297: 2295: 2288: 2282: 2281: 2279: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2213: 2212: 2207: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2193:Pregnancy test 2190: 2185: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2126: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2093: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2075: 2073: 2072: 2065: 2058: 2050: 2042: 2041: 2014: 1997: 1980: 1957: 1937: 1877: 1860: 1820: 1779: 1740: 1687: 1661: 1607: 1581: 1540: 1499: 1458: 1432: 1421: 1410: 1403: 1380: 1361:(8): 485–491. 1338: 1299:(2): 302–303. 1279: 1252: 1231:(6): 514–520. 1211: 1192:(3): 134–141. 1172: 1161: 1109: 1047: 1026:(5): 928–934. 1003: 932: 901: 874: 873: 871: 868: 867: 866: 861: 856: 851: 844: 841: 827: 824: 818: 815: 809: 806: 804: 801: 784: 781: 736: 733: 699: 696: 664: 661: 659: 656: 650: 649: 646: 643: 634: 633: 630: 627: 618: 617: 614: 611: 604: 603: 600: 597: 588: 587: 579: 574: 561: 558: 527: 524: 510: 507: 469: 466: 416: 413: 412: 411: 408: 401: 399: 396: 389: 387: 384: 377: 342:Germinal stage 320: 317: 315: 312: 296:French cuisine 288:French paradox 283: 280: 244: 241: 212: 209: 152: 149: 101: 98: 96: 93: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3040: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3008: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2954: 2952: 2948: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2936:Monthly nurse 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2896: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2881: 2878: 2876: 2873: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2826:Amniocentesis 2824: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2786:Vaginal flora 2784: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2677: 2676:Substance use 2674: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2590:Fundal height 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2343: 2342:Preterm birth 2340: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2306:Hypnobirthing 2304: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2283: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2269: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2183:3D ultrasound 2181: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2097:Birth control 2095: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2066: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2052: 2051: 2048: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1984: 1981: 1977: 1976:Health Canada 1973: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1941: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1675: 1671: 1665: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1467: 1462: 1459: 1446: 1442: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1406: 1400: 1396: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1283: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1256: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1215: 1212: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1165: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1126:J Clin Pathol 1123: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1066: 1064: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1010: 1008: 1004: 991: 987: 981: 979: 977: 975: 973: 971: 969: 967: 965: 963: 961: 959: 957: 955: 953: 951: 949: 947: 945: 943: 941: 939: 937: 933: 920: 916: 912: 905: 902: 889: 885: 879: 876: 869: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 846: 842: 840: 836: 834: 825: 823: 816: 814: 807: 802: 800: 796: 794: 790: 782: 780: 776: 773: 768: 766: 761: 756: 754: 750: 741: 734: 732: 728: 724: 720: 717: 713: 704: 697: 695: 693: 692:fundal height 688: 684: 682: 678: 669: 662: 657: 655: 647: 644: 642: 639: 636: 635: 631: 628: 626: 623: 620: 619: 615: 612: 610: 606: 605: 601: 598: 596: 595:BMI <18.5 593: 590: 589: 586: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 569: 566: 560:Summary table 559: 556: 551: 549: 545: 544:Health Canada 539: 535: 533: 525: 523: 519: 516: 508: 506: 504: 500: 494: 491: 486: 483: 474: 467: 465: 461: 459: 454: 452: 448: 443: 441: 437: 432: 425: 421: 414: 405: 400: 393: 388: 381: 376: 374: 372: 368: 364: 362: 358: 354: 352: 348: 343: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 318: 313: 311: 309: 303: 301: 297: 293: 292:heart disease 289: 281: 279: 276: 270: 267: 262: 259:serves as an 258: 254: 249: 242: 237: 232: 228: 226: 222: 218: 210: 208: 206: 202: 197: 193: 189: 184: 181: 180:carbohydrates 177: 173: 172:blood glucose 168: 166: 165:hyperglycemia 162: 158: 148: 144: 142: 137: 134: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 94: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 77:birth defects 74: 69: 67: 61: 58: 53: 51: 47: 43: 39: 31: 27: 19: 2666:Hypertension 2653:Immunization 2640: 2636:in pregnancy 2552:Amniotic sac 2505:Silent birth 2448:Presentation 2411:Bishop score 2381:Obstetrician 2271:Interstitial 2198:home testing 2036: 2009: 2000: 1992: 1983: 1975: 1940: 1899: 1895: 1872: 1863: 1855: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1774: 1718: 1714: 1678:. Retrieved 1674:the original 1664: 1629: 1625: 1598:. Retrieved 1594:the original 1584: 1548:3D Pregnancy 1543: 1507:3D Pregnancy 1502: 1466:3D Pregnancy 1461: 1449:. Retrieved 1444: 1435: 1424: 1413: 1394: 1358: 1354: 1296: 1292: 1282: 1268:(2): 68–73. 1265: 1261: 1255: 1228: 1224: 1214: 1189: 1186:Diabetologia 1185: 1175: 1164: 1129: 1125: 1079: 1075: 1023: 1019: 994:. Retrieved 990:the original 923:. Retrieved 919:the original 914: 904: 892:. 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