252:. Political elections are usually characterized by an immediate effort, for example making a political decision and casting the vote on election day, whereas the benefits of voting, such as favored political changes, often only occur later in the future. Patience is therefore a relevant factor that influences peoples’ decision whether to take part in elections. Individuals who exhibit more patience with future political changes, also show a greater willingness to take part in political elections. Whereas others, who focus more on the efforts to be paid, are less likely to take part in elections.
445:. Loss of wealth can be attributed to tendency to bend under the temptation to over-consume and under-save. Such irrational behavioral biases lead to lower average wealth and shortened planning horizons. Present-biased people fail to complete a consumption saving plan are more likely consistently re-optimize factors influencing their wealth accumulation. An association between deciding to obtain less education, lower lifetime earnings, and lower retirement consumption was observed in present-biased individuals.
81:, thus time consistent discounting. However, later research led to the conclusion that time preferences were indeed not consistent, but inconsistent. In other words, people were found to prefer immediate advantages to future advantages in that their discount over a short period of time falls rapidly, while falling less the more the rewards are in the future. Therefore, people are biased towards the present. As a result, Phelps and Pollak introduced the quasi-hyperbolic model in 1968. In
384:. People tend to forget that precaution with their own health can maximize their lifetime and minimize their life time medical spending. A lot of people who are already diagnosed with an illness underestimate the importance of following health care guidelines, even though they are beneficial for their own health. Mostly, increasing age and nearing death eventually leads individuals to focus more on their own health.
160:
The ventral striatum gets activated both when an individual personally decides for an immediate reward, as well as when an individual watches someone else making that decision for them. It is responsive to both the likelihood of getting an anticipated reward as well as its size. It also plays a role
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The lacking adherence to health care can also be explained by the naĂŻve thinking about one's own present bias. People overestimate that they will take care of their behaviour's consequences in the future, which is often not the case. They tend to underestimate their own self-control and the effects
135:
The medial prefrontal cortex, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and ventral striatum show different activity patterns, depending on whether the choices lead to an immediate reward or a future reward for oneself. This is not the case if these decisions affect another individual, which implies that
104:
Brain areas that are associated with emotion- and reward-processing, are much rather activated by the availability of immediate rewards than by future rewards, even if the future rewards are larger. Hence individuals tend to make decisions in favor of immediate outcomes rather than future outcomes.
420:
Those factors are known as "hot states", because temporary emotions can have an influential effect on our behavior. Therefore, there are "cooling off" periods for many important purchases. Other factors such as age, gender, cultural background, education and self-control also play a role in making
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would be unaffected. As this is only possible in an ideal economy, wealth inequality spurts from time-consistent individuals benefiting from the irrational monetary decisions present-biased economic rivals make. Indeed, present bias in economics is often linked to lack of self-control when making
232:
and Ebbe B. Ebbesen in 1970. It led to a series of
Marshmallow Experiments, which all tested children's ability to delay gratification. The children were offered an immediate reward and were told that if they manage to not eat the reward right away, but instead waited for a certain period of time
372:
Present biased decision-making often underlies the notion that a certain health care behavior induces costs first, while benefits occur only quite some time later. People are often more focused on the short-term benefits than on long-term consequences. For example, drunk-drivers exhibit less
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Overcoming the present bias could lead to earlier detection of illnesses, such as breast cancer, to start treatment in time. These individual decisions not to take care early negatively affects the health care systems, whose costs could be minimized by a more precaution of their clients.
131:
claims that these brain areas are impulsively triggered by immediate benefits and not so much by future rewards. Future rewards do not activate emotion- and reward-processing areas as much, because people tend to downgrade future benefits in respect of available immediate benefits.
22:
is the tendency to settle for a smaller present reward rather than wait for a larger future reward, in a trade-off situation. It describes the trend of overvaluing immediate rewards, while putting less worth in long-term consequences. The present bias can be used as a measure for
177:, for example comparing the self to someone else. These evaluations take place even if the individual has not made the choice themselves. The ventral part of the medial prefrontal cortex, just like the ventral striatum, evaluates the outcome also after the decision was made.
457:
of tourist's decision-making. Impulsivity is reasoned to be triggered by the escape of daily routines and a feeling of the moment. Hence present bias would specially apply while traveling. Although reference prices frame expenses, present bias which is influenced by the
143:
Activity in the ventral striatum, medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and posterior cingulate cortex is associated with an immediate reward merely being available for oneself. All these areas, which are also part of the
291:
The findings of a study in which students had to set deadlines for completing certain tasks for themselves, suggested that an interaction of present-bias as well as personal characteristics, e.g. overconfidence, may appear to be "procrastination". However, internal
413:. Visceral factors lead one to focus on the present more than on some time in the future when making decisions that are associated with the visceral factor. In Loewenstein's opinion, visceral states have the most enormous impact on the following behaviors:
151:
The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex and precuneus get activated more if the rewards is immediate and less when the reward is available in the future, regardless of whether it affects the individual itself or another person.
304:
Another study further investigates the common hypothesis that self-regulatory failure results in procrastination. Furthermore, there appears to be a decrease in functional correspondence between the following brain areas: Between
69:"Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin."
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of their present behavior on their future well-being and therefore postpone taking action before it is urgent. Many people procrastinate because they underestimate how their future selves are being affected by the present bias.
360:
Present bias often occurs when the negative consequences of a certain behavior are believed to be in distant future. It is characterized by short-term impatience. This impatience with the future benefits to occur minimizes the
404:
states (e.g. hunger, thirst, strong emotions, sexual desire, mood or physical pain) can influence decision-making in ways that are not in one's long-term interest. According to
Loewenstein, visceral factors have a direct
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Procrastination mostly occurs when actions are followed by immediate costs. However, when actions are instead followed by immediate rewards, people tend to perform their tasks faster in order to get the reward.
88:
Only when the preference for the present is time inconsistent do we call it biased. In recent years, the concept of present bias has also found its way into research concerning law and criminal justice.
462:, that grades the value of gains, and the attachment effect, tourists tend to overspend. Individual differences such as risk aversiveness play into overspending caused by the effect of present bias.
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and less self-focus is involved in self-irrelevant decision-making. People who consider their present and future self as more alike also exhibit more patience when choosing a reward.
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The term of present bias was coined in the second half of the 20th century. In the 1930s economic research started investigating time preferences. The findings led to the model of
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impact and they influence how much one desires different rewards and actions. When visceral factors influence one highly, it can lead to self-destructive behavior such as
1814:
325:. They posited that self-regulatory failure is associated with procrastination, although a body of replicated results would lend more credibility to this hypothesis.
237:. There has also been a correlation found between ability to delay gratification as a child and the child's success in follow-up studies several years later.
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on the other hand is only responsive to the presence of an immediate reward. All these areas are associated with activity in response to an immediate reward.
1789:
641:
Delaney L, Lades LK (2017). "Present Bias and
Everyday Self-Control Failures: A Day Reconstruction Study: Present Bias and Everyday Self-Control Failures".
878:
Drobetz R, Hänggi J, Maercker A, Kaufmann K, Jäncke L, Forstmeier S (April 2014). "Structural brain correlates of delay of gratification in the elderly".
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A present-biased society is represented by individuals reaching an earlier peak in their mean wealth and trend to lose accumulated wealth as they reach
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Wu Y, Li L, Yuan B, Tian X (June 2016). "Individual differences in resting-state functional connectivity predict procrastination".
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shows increased activity during delayed gratification. The thickness of these cortical areas as well as the volume of the left
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Decisions concerning the choice between an immediate or a future reward are mediated by two separate systems, one dealing with
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1168:"Linking loss aversion and present bias with overspending behavior of tourists: Insights from a lab-in-the-field experiment"
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and sophistication regarding the tasks may reduce present bias, whereas it has the opposite effect for naĂŻve people.
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monetary decisions. It is associated with high desires to spend money and failure to commit to a saving plan.
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is the ability to not give in to immediate rewards and instead strive for the more beneficial future rewards.
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337:. It affects a range of health-related behaviors, for example precaution with potential illnesses, such as
233:(approximately 15 minutes), they would get another treat. Age correlated positively with the capability of
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The brain areas involved in present-biased decisions can be dissociated into three main groups. The
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for people to take unpleasant actions for their health, like maintaining a diet, refraining from a
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Fowler JH, Kam CD (2006). "Patience as a
Political Virtue: Delayed Gratification and Turnout".
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is also linked to a better ability in delayed gratification and suppressing impulsivity. The
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discounting decisions – but those can be dealt with more easily than with visceral states.
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Present bias is also reflected in the choice of whether an individual participates in
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and a prior commitment to not overspend can reduce the bias and inhibit impulsivity.
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Present bias can explain failure to adhere effective health care guidelines, such as
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O'Donoghue T, Rabin M (2015). "Present Bias: Lessons
Learned and To Be Learned".
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725:"How Soon Is Now? Evidence of Present Bias from Convex Time Budget Experiments"
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189:, which plays a role in positive emotions and responds to success reward when
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respond to both the presence and the gain of an immediate reward, whereas the
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Mischel W, Ebbesen EB (October 1970). "Attention in delay of gratification".
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involvement in self-regulation and self-control also play an important role.
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The pregenual anterior cingulate cortex is a structure located close to the
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433:, to explain distribution of wealth. If everybody would be present-biased
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This brain area is playing a role in reflection on the self and emotions.
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Albrecht K, Volz KG, Sutter M, von Cramon DY (2013). Avenanti A (ed.).
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27:, which is a trait related to the prediction of secure life outcomes.
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1049:"Present-Bias, Procrastination and Deadlines in a Field Experiment"
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699:"Procrastination Through the Ages: A Brief History of Wasting Time"
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Present bias plays a role in tourism concerning travel costs and
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and the medial prefrontal cortex mature. Particularly the left
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was not introduced until the 1950s, the core idea of immediate
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Present bias has an impact on people's individual health care
260:
The ability to perform delayed gratification increases as the
169:
The medial prefrontal cortex is responsible for self-related
417:, sexual behavior, motivation and effort, and self-control.
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Present-biased preferences often result in procrastination.
120:
is sensitive to the availability and gain of a reward. The
1194:
429:
Economical models use present bias, also referred to as
58:. A historical record of a display of concern regarding
1001:
O'Donoghue T, Rabin M (1999). "Doing It Now or Later".
1104:
Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes
772:
McAdams RH (2011). "Present Bias and
Criminal Law".
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or regularly visiting a professional for check-ups.
85:, present bias is therefore a model of discounting.
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1100:"Out of Control: Visceral Influences on Behavior"
723:Balakrishnan U, Haushofer J, Jakiela P (2017).
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915:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
161:in evaluating after a choice has been made.
101:decisions and the other with self-control.
1873:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
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373:long-term concern than non-drunk drivers.
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353:use and showing risky behavior, such as
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341:, living an unhealthy life style, like
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181:Pregenual anterior cingulate cortex
122:pregenual anterior cingulate cortex
197:Ventral posterior cingulate cortex
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774:University of Illinois Law Review
565:Wang Y, Sloan FA (October 2018).
46:Even though the term of present
571:Journal of Risk and Uncertainty
506:Stanford marshmallow experiment
216:Stanford Marshmallow Experiment
266:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
1:
1185:10.1016/j.tourman.2015.09.019
62:is known from the Greek poet
34:, present bias is related to
1098:Loewenstein G (March 1996).
1003:The American Economic Review
841:10.1371/journal.pone.0073531
1739:DĂ©formation professionnelle
396:The educator and economist
114:medial orbitofrontal cortex
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1733:Basking in reflected glory
1082:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.016
73:Present bias and economics
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1863:Cognitive bias mitigation
967:10.1007/s11109-006-9004-7
583:10.1007/s11166-018-9289-z
567:"Present bias and health"
262:lateral prefrontal cortex
54:was already addressed in
1447:Illusion of transparency
673:American Economic Review
481:List of cognitive biases
165:Medial prefrontal cortex
110:medial prefrontal cortex
880:Behavioral Neuroscience
621:"What is present bias?"
400:described how strongly
79:exponential discounting
1928:Psychology experiments
1923:Cognitive neuroscience
1166:Nguyen Q (June 2016).
1147:Tristan J. Nighswander
1116:10.1006/obhd.1996.0028
750:Cite journal requires
491:Hyperbolic discounting
222:Marshmallow Experiment
36:hyperbolic discounting
1815:Arab–Israeli conflict
1542:Social influence bias
1487:Out-group homogeneity
685:10.1257/aer.p20151085
501:Delayed gratification
431:dynamic inconsistency
235:delayed gratification
210:Delayed gratification
205:Delayed gratification
146:rostral limbic system
1913:Behavioral economics
1457:Mere-exposure effect
1387:Extrinsic incentives
1333:Selective perception
1047:Bisin A, Hyndman K.
1015:10.1257/aer.89.1.103
486:Behavioral economics
32:behavioral economics
16:Behaviorial tendency
1682:Social desirability
1577:von Restorff effect
1452:Mean world syndrome
1427:Hostile attribution
832:2013PLoSO...873531A
435:wealth distribution
425:Wealth distribution
241:Political elections
226:Stanford University
1597:Statistical biases
1375:Curse of knowledge
1178:(152–9): 152–159.
1172:Tourism Management
955:Political Behavior
398:George Loewenstein
1900:
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1537:Social comparison
1318:Choice-supportive
727:. Cambridge, MA.
321:and in the right
224:was conducted at
129:dual-system model
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1918:Cognitive biases
1697:Systematic error
1652:Omitted-variable
1567:Trait ascription
1407:Frog pond effect
1235:Cognitive biases
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1810:United States
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1785:False balance
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1657:Participation
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1625:Psychological
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1392:Fading affect
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886:(2): 134–45.
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829:
826:(8): e73531.
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355:drunk driving
352:
348:
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339:breast cancer
336:
328:
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92:
90:
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72:
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67:
66:, who wrote:
65:
61:
57:
53:
52:gratification
49:
41:
39:
37:
33:
28:
26:
21:
1770:In education
1737:
1721:Other biases
1707:Verification
1692:Survivorship
1642:Non-response
1615:Healthy user
1557:Substitution
1532:Self-serving
1506:
1328:Confirmation
1296:Availability
1244:Acquiescence
1175:
1171:
1161:
1150:. Retrieved
1146:
1107:
1103:
1073:
1069:
1006:
1002:
958:
954:
918:
914:
908:
883:
879:
823:
819:
773:
743:cite journal
718:
707:. Retrieved
705:. 2015-05-11
702:
693:
676:
672:
646:
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624:
574:
570:
519:
452:
440:
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419:
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379:
375:
371:
359:
332:
303:
294:self-control
290:
286:
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259:
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219:
208:
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184:
168:
159:
150:
142:
134:
126:
107:
103:
96:
87:
76:
68:
45:
29:
25:self-control
20:Present bias
19:
18:
1837:Publication
1790:Vietnam War
1637:Length time
1620:Information
1562:Time-saving
1422:Horn effect
1412:Halo effect
1360:Distinction
1269:Attribution
1264:Attentional
455:impulsivity
382:mammography
345:, drinking
300:Brain areas
256:Brain areas
93:Brain areas
1907:Categories
1800:South Asia
1775:Liking gap
1587:In animals
1552:Status quo
1467:Negativity
1370:Egocentric
1345:Congruence
1323:Commitment
1313:Blind spot
1301:Mean world
1291:Automation
1152:2019-05-14
1143:"Research"
921:(2): 329.
709:2019-05-14
512:References
443:retirement
411:overeating
363:motivation
220:The first
127:McClure's
1868:Debiasing
1847:White hat
1842:Reporting
1755:Inductive
1672:Selection
1632:Lead time
1605:Estimator
1582:Zero-risk
1547:Spotlight
1527:Restraint
1517:Proximity
1502:Precision
1462:Narrative
1417:Hindsight
1402:Frequency
1382:Emotional
1355:Declinism
1286:Authority
1259:Anchoring
1249:Ambiguity
975:0190-9320
367:cigarette
250:elections
247:political
175:judgement
171:attention
99:impulsive
83:economics
1765:Inherent
1728:Academic
1702:Systemic
1687:Spectrum
1667:Sampling
1647:Observer
1610:Forecast
1522:Response
1482:Optimism
1477:Omission
1472:Normalcy
1442:In-group
1437:Implicit
1350:Cultural
1254:Affinity
1076:: 62–7.
935:53464175
900:24773434
860:23991196
820:PLOS ONE
619:Egan M.
601:31244508
470:See also
402:visceral
191:gambling
138:patience
112:and the
1887:General
1885:Lists:
1820:Ukraine
1745:Funding
1507:Present
1492:Outcome
1397:Framing
1031:5115877
983:7921674
851:3749998
828:Bibcode
592:6594564
449:Tourism
407:hedonic
347:alcohol
343:smoking
319:caudate
42:History
1892:Memory
1805:Sweden
1795:Norway
1662:Recall
1432:Impact
1308:Belief
1226:Biases
1124:606889
1122:
1029:
1023:116981
1021:
981:
973:
933:
898:
858:
848:
599:
589:
329:Health
64:Hesiod
1780:Media
1750:FUTON
1120:S2CID
1052:(PDF)
1027:S2CID
1019:JSTOR
979:S2CID
931:S2CID
529:(PDF)
323:VLPFC
311:DLPFC
136:more
971:ISSN
896:PMID
856:PMID
756:help
597:PMID
351:drug
349:and
317:and
315:dACC
309:and
307:VMPC
173:and
48:bias
1827:Net
1712:Wet
1180:doi
1112:doi
1078:doi
1011:doi
963:doi
923:doi
888:doi
884:128
846:PMC
836:doi
729:doi
681:doi
677:105
651:doi
587:PMC
579:doi
228:by
1909::
1176:54
1174:.
1170:.
1145:.
1132:^
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1108:65
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1102:.
1090:^
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1017:.
1007:89
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991:^
977:.
969:.
959:28
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929:.
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745:}}
741:{{
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663:^
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633:^
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609:^
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585:.
575:57
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313:,
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1080::
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1033:.
1013::
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965::
937:.
925::
902:.
890::
862:.
838::
830::
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776:.
758:)
754:(
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731::
712:.
687:.
683::
657:.
653::
627:.
603:.
581::
531:.
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