62:, have become known by various names, and some have prescribed forms and purposes. Presidential directives remain in effect until they are revoked, which the president is free to do. The classification of presidential directives is not easily done, as the distinction between the types can be quite arbitrary, arising from convenience and bureaucratic evolution, and none are defined in the Constitution. Furthermore, the different types may overlap. As one legal scholar put it: "it is a bit misleading to overclassify presidential directives as comprising separate and distinct 'types' just because they have different headings at the top of the first page." In terms of legal applicability, what matters is the substance of the directive, not the form, unless a certain kind of directive is specifically required by relevant statute.
199:
88:
513:, and are available to the public only after "a great many years" have elapsed. Unlike executive orders, national security directives are usually directed only to the National Security Council and the most senior executive branch officials, and embody foreign and military policy-making guidance rather than specific instructions.
70:
Presidential directives may be challenged in court or through congressional action. Congress may revoke or modify a presidential directive, directly or indirectly, but only insofar as the directive is based on congressional legislation. Direct repeal by
Congress is quite rare in modern times, because
124:
undertook to retroactively number executive orders and presidential proclamations. The denomination of "executive order" was largely due to the fact that the first executive order they chose to number (from 1862) was titled "Executive Order
Establishing a Provisional Court in Louisiana". It was an
189:
defined administrative orders as "unnumbered signed documents through which the
President of the United States conducts the administrative operations of the Federal Government" which "include but are not limited to memoranda, notices, determinations, letters, and messages".
655:
are undertaken, and they must be reported to
Congress as soon as possible, before the covert action in question has been initiated. The finding must also be submitted to certain congressional committees. Presidential findings, given their sensitive nature, are
157:
The first directive called an administrative order appeared in 1940. Subsequent directives denominated as administrative orders have taken a variety of forms, and have sometimes overlapped with other kinds of presidential directives. A researcher for the
1705:"National security: The use of presidential directives to make and implement U.S. policy: Report to the Chairman, Legislation and National Security Subcommittee, Committee on Government Relations, House of Representatives"
1880:
1773:. Institute for government research of the Brookings institution. Studies in administration.no. 33 (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Washington, D. C. Proclamations and executive orders, pp. 321–327.
612:
1720:"National security: The use of presidential directives to make and implement U.S. policy: Report to the Chairman, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives"
891:
580:
714:. First appearing in 1941, these are used to designate individuals to hold specified official positions, and have also been used to delegate presidential authority.
673:
629:
1885:
609:
HSPD-14 established a
Domestic Nuclear Detection Office to coordinate efforts to protect the domestic U.S. against dangers from nuclear or radiological materials.
509:
in various forms, involving foreign, military and domestic policies. Generally, such directives are highly classified, are not required to be published in the
186:
657:
915:... actions were probably unconstitutional, but Congress acquiesced in the face of wartime contingencies, and the matters were never challenged in court."
595:
assigned responsibility for setting standards for the identification to be shown by persons entering federal government buildings. The technical standard
586:
570:
167:
1631:
107:
830:
725:
574:
539:
502:
59:
55:
1200:
705:
742:
issued a controversial military order on the detention, treatment, and trial by military tribunals of noncitizens alleged to be terrorists.
944:
622:
HSPD-21, issued
October 18, 2007, called for public and private healthcare organizations, hospitals, and healthcare facilities to form "
556:
198:
1861:
1842:
1823:
777:
135:, with few exceptions. The proper form and routing of executive orders and presidential proclamations has been governed since 1962 by
603:
121:
166:
in forms other than those of executive orders, or proclamations, have been denominated as administrative orders when reproduced in
615:
makes definitions and procedures for continuing the federal government after a catastrophic emergency. Federal agencies developed
162:
in 2008 found that in "general, indications are that, during at least the past 40 years, presidential directives published in the
945:"Legal Effectiveness of a Presidential Directive as Compared to an Executive Order – Memorandum For The Counsel to the President"
1423:
113:
103:
1420:
Homeland
Security Presidential Directive 12: Policy for a Common Identification Standard for Federal Employees and Contractors
1691:
1673:
1655:
1484:
1092:
564:
159:
39:
1560:"Military Order of November 13, 2001 – Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism"
633:
616:
146:
815:
210:
1227:
1748:
Dwyer, Catherine M. (November–December 2002). "The U.S. Presidency and national security directives: An overview".
820:
701:
178:
43:
1228:"Executive Order 11030 – Preparation, presentation, filing, and publication of Executive orders and proclamations"
790:
in 1942–1943, although they were not actually presidential directives, but rather interpretations of earlier ones.
1715:
1700:
810:
117:
1636:
950:
825:
182:
139:
773:
51:
1727:
1262:
1110:
96:
1296:
849:
Some (but not all) sources limit the definition of a presidential directive to the written realm. See
805:
734:. Twelve military orders were issued between 1939 and 1948. No such directives were published in the
668:
Presidents often make oral announcements which can be classified as presidential directives, such as
646:
522:
126:
1257:
1786:
1857:
1838:
1819:
1435:
762:
between 1939 and 1945, and most of them cited explicit statutory authority for their issuance.
623:
381:
149:
at the request of
Congress. The use of executive orders also stretches back at least to 1789.
87:
592:
1774:
1757:
1563:
652:
131:
1798:
1740:
800:
506:
489:
270:
250:
1419:
739:
441:
274:
17:
1438:
description at Center of Army
Lessons Learned web site, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center
776:
in 1941, it permitted certain transactions which would otherwise be prohibited by the
501:
Directives commonly known as national security directives have been issued within the
1874:
940:
365:
290:
76:
58:
acquiescence. Such directives, which have been issued since the earliest days of the
47:
1476:
1778:
724:
from its first publication in 1936 to 1979. All but the last were addressed to the
669:
473:
457:
411:
321:
92:
1704:
748:. Only one such instrument under that designation, from 1940, has appeared in the
205:
14, when it was partially declassified. The directive is now declassified in full.
1447:
567:
to develop and run nationally coordinated emergency incident management systems.
546:
254:
145:
The first presidential proclamation appeared in
October 1789 declaring a day of
129:
of 1935 required both executive orders and proclamations to be published in the
1559:
752:, although there is evidence that similar certificates had been issued earlier.
1761:
1322:
651:
Presidential findings are required by statute to be written and signed before
892:"Claims regarding Obama's use of executive orders and presidential memoranda"
550:
1665:
1719:
1683:
1647:
521:
Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) appeared soon after the
1835:
Take Up Your Pen: Unilateral Presidential Directives in American Politics
1632:"The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives"
1093:"What Are Two Ways Congress Can Check the Power of the Executive Branch?"
596:
1816:
By Order of the President: The Use and Abuse of Executive Direct Action
589:
established policy to protect against attacks on food and agriculture.
1477:"Covert Action: Legislative Background and Possible Policy Questions"
583:
directed Federal agencies to prepare in certain ways for emergencies.
1323:"NSDD – National Security Decision Directives Reagan Administration"
197:
125:
imperfect exercise, however, and many directives were missed. The
86:
1854:
With the Stroke of a Pen: Executive Orders and Presidential Power
177:
compilations." These forms included: "delegations of authority,
72:
42:, which may draw upon the powers vested in the president by the
38:, is a written or oral instruction or declaration issued by the
632:
defines cybersecurity objectives. It was secret at first. The
573:
defines policy for protecting certain key infrastructure; the
1436:
Homeland Security Presidential Directive – 14
202:
1666:"Executive Orders: Issuance, Modification, and Revocation"
979:
977:
1395:
1363:
1351:
1881:
Executive branch of the government of the United States
1458:
1456:
866:
from as early as 1954, but for different purposes. See
758:. Nine directives so designated were published in the
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
768:. Only one such directive has been published in the
112:
Two of the oldest and best-known directives are the
786:. Two presidential interpretations appeared in the
1769:Schmeckebier, Laurence F.; Eastin, Roy B. (1939).
1648:"Presidential Directives: Background and Overview"
1178:
1154:
680:March 1993. Although they are not included in the
244:National Security Council Intelligence Directive
935:
933:
526:
604:Maritime Security Policy Coordinating Committee
71:it may be necessary to override a presidential
1664:Chu, Vivian S.; Garvey, Todd (16 April 2014).
850:
83:Executive order and presidential proclamations
525:, and are sometimes issued concurrently as a
8:
1856:(New ed.). Princeton University Press.
1818:(2nd ed.). University Press of Kansas.
1450:at Federation of American Scientists website
862:Directives of the same name appeared in the
686:Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents
27:Instruction or statement by the US president
718:Letters on tariffs and international trade
599:was developed to satisfy this requirement.
483:National Security Presidential Memorandum
214:
1639:, Center for Legal & Judicial Studies
1078:
1062:
995:
968:
964:
435:National Security Presidential Directive
1475:Erwin, Marshall Curtis (10 April 2013).
720:. These directives have appeared in the
606:from across federal government agencies.
517:Homeland Security Presidential Directive
223:
1214:
1194:
1150:
1038:
1026:
983:
908:
882:
842:
831:Presidential Emergency Action Documents
575:National Infrastructure Protection Plan
218:Names for national security directives
185:, and orders". A research guide by the
136:
75:, which requires an elusive two-thirds
1794:
1784:
1736:
1725:
1646:Relyea, Harold C. (26 November 2008).
1613:
1601:
1589:
1577:
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1462:
1407:
1383:
1371:
1283:
1244:
1190:
1166:
1146:
1134:
1066:
1050:
1014:
924:
867:
577:was developed to implement the policy.
301:National Security Decision Memorandum
1886:United States presidential directives
1771:Government Publications and Their Use
1367:
1339:
538:The first such directive created the
359:National Security Decision Directive
7:
1837:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
1684:"Executive Orders and Proclamations"
636:began in response to this directive.
264:National Security Action Memorandum
890:Kessler, Glenn (31 December 2014).
284:National Security Study Memorandum
1630:Gaziano, Todd (21 February 2001).
527:§ National security directive
345:National Security Study Directive
25:
1750:Journal of Government Information
1448:Text of HSPD-14 (same as NSPD-43)
1327:Federation of American Scientists
698:Presidential reorganization plans
684:, they are often recorded in the
181:, directives, findings, letters,
1682:Contrubis, John (9 March 1999).
1199:sfnm error: no target: CITEREF (
851:§ Presidential announcement
704:, these directives were used to
421:Presidential Decision Directive
1722:(NSIAD-89-31). GAO/NSIAD-89-31.
1424:Department of Homeland Security
706:reorganize the executive branch
315:Presidential Review Memorandum
1692:Congressional Research Service
1674:Congressional Research Service
1656:Congressional Research Service
1485:Congressional Research Service
1396:General Accounting Office 1992
1364:General Accounting Office 1992
1352:General Accounting Office 1988
1297:"Presidential Documents Guide"
1179:Schmeckebier & Eastin 1939
1155:Schmeckebier & Eastin 1939
1111:"Glossary: override of a veto"
619:in response to this directive.
617:Continuity of Operations Plans
565:Secretary of Homeland Security
467:Presidential Policy Directive
405:Presidential Review Directive
160:Congressional Research Service
40:president of the United States
1:
766:Presidential general licenses
700:. First permitted by statute
634:National Cybersecurity Center
451:Presidential Study Directive
236:Presidential administrations
784:Presidential interpretations
391:National Security Directive
1258:"Thanksgiving Proclamation"
816:National security directive
772:. Issued shortly after the
674:National Performance Review
211:National security directive
194:National security directive
1902:
1852:Mayer, Kenneth R. (2002).
1814:Cooper, Philip J. (2014).
821:Presidential determination
778:Trading with the Enemy Act
644:
208:
101:
1833:Dodds, Graham G. (2013).
1762:10.1016/j.jgi.2002.05.001
1716:General Accounting Office
1701:General Accounting Office
811:Presidential proclamation
746:Presidential certificates
726:secretary of the treasury
712:Designations of officials
664:Presidential announcement
540:Homeland Security Council
523:September 11 attacks
505:by every president since
503:National Security Council
375:National Security Review
118:presidential proclamation
108:Presidential proclamation
1659:. Order Code 98-611 GOV.
50:, or, in certain cases,
1779:2027/mdp.39015033642011
1637:The Heritage Foundation
951:Office of Legal Counsel
949:Department of Justice,
826:Presidential memorandum
672:'s inauguration of the
331:Presidential Directive
18:Presidential directives
1735:Cite journal requires
911:, pp. 6–7: "These
774:attack on Pearl Harbor
602:HSPD-13 established a
533:Selected list of HSPDs
206:
99:
32:presidential directive
1488:. p. 6. RL33715.
1263:The Washington Papers
1097:classroom.synonym.com
1079:Chu & Garvey 2014
1063:Chu & Garvey 2014
996:Chu & Garvey 2014
965:Chu & Garvey 2014
201:
97:Executive Order 13799
90:
1718:(28 December 1988).
806:Presidential finding
647:Presidential finding
641:Presidential finding
153:Administrative order
127:Federal Register Act
1703:(14 January 1992).
943:(29 January 2000).
624:disaster healthcare
549:policies to combat
545:The second changed
66:Checks and balances
1710:. GAO/NSIAD-92-72.
1568:Hosted by FAS.org.
207:
100:
79:in both chambers.
60:federal government
1513:, pp. 13–14.
1301:National Archives
1234:. 15 August 2016.
1232:National Archives
1091:Henderson, Sara.
986:, pp. 11–12.
941:Moss, Randolph D.
738:until 2001, when
653:covert activities
499:
498:
495:
494:
187:National Archives
44:U.S. Constitution
16:(Redirected from
1893:
1867:
1848:
1829:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1790:
1782:
1765:
1744:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1711:
1709:
1696:
1688:
1678:
1670:
1660:
1652:
1642:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1564:Federal Register
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1481:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
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1375:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1303:. 15 August 2016
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1272:
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1242:
1236:
1235:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1204:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1169:, pp. 1, 6.
1164:
1158:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1041:, pp. 9–10.
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1012:
999:
993:
987:
981:
972:
962:
956:
955:
937:
928:
922:
916:
914:
906:
900:
899:
887:
871:
864:Federal Register
860:
854:
847:
788:Federal Register
770:Federal Register
760:Federal Register
750:Federal Register
736:Federal Register
722:Federal Register
692:Other directives
682:Federal Register
679:
560:
511:Federal Register
224:
215:
204:
174:
164:Federal Register
138:
132:Federal Register
122:State Department
36:executive action
21:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1851:
1845:
1832:
1826:
1813:
1810:
1808:Further reading
1805:
1793:
1783:
1768:
1747:
1734:
1724:
1714:
1707:
1699:
1686:
1681:
1668:
1663:
1650:
1645:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1580:, pp. 4–5.
1576:
1572:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1537:, pp. 7–8.
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1454:
1446:
1442:
1434:
1430:
1418:
1414:
1410:, pp. 6–7.
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:, p. 411;
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1286:, pp. 5–6.
1282:
1278:
1268:
1266:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1198:
1197:, p. 11; ]
1189:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1161:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1119:
1117:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1069:, Introduction.
1061:
1057:
1053:, Introduction.
1049:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1002:
998:, pp. 1–2.
994:
990:
982:
975:
963:
959:
939:
938:
931:
923:
919:
912:
907:
903:
896:Washington Post
889:
888:
884:
880:
875:
874:
861:
857:
848:
844:
839:
801:Executive order
797:
732:Military orders
694:
677:
666:
660:upon issuance.
649:
643:
558:
535:
519:
307:Nixon and Ford
213:
196:
172:
155:
120:. In 1907, the
114:executive order
110:
104:Executive order
102:Main articles:
85:
68:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1899:
1897:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1863:978-0691094991
1862:
1849:
1844:978-0812245110
1843:
1830:
1825:978-0700620128
1824:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1766:
1756:(6): 410–419.
1745:
1737:|journal=
1712:
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1679:
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1356:
1344:
1332:
1314:
1288:
1276:
1249:
1237:
1219:
1207:
1183:
1181:, p. 322.
1171:
1159:
1157:, p. 322.
1139:
1127:
1102:
1083:
1071:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1000:
988:
973:
969:Contrubis 1999
957:
929:
917:
901:
881:
879:
876:
873:
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855:
841:
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838:
835:
834:
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828:
823:
818:
813:
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803:
796:
793:
792:
791:
781:
763:
753:
743:
740:George W. Bush
729:
715:
709:
693:
690:
665:
662:
645:Main article:
642:
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397:G. H. W. Bush
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220:
219:
209:Main article:
195:
192:
179:determinations
154:
151:
142:, as amended.
84:
81:
67:
64:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1898:
1887:
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1638:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1615:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1595:
1592:, p. 15.
1591:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1504:
1501:, p. 13.
1500:
1495:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1478:
1471:
1468:
1465:, p. 12.
1464:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1366:, p. 3;
1365:
1360:
1357:
1354:, Background.
1353:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1247:, p. 14.
1246:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1217:, p. 12.
1216:
1211:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1193:, p. 3;
1192:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1149:, p. 6;
1148:
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1128:
1116:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1094:
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1068:
1065:, p. 9;
1064:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1029:, p. 11.
1028:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
989:
985:
980:
978:
974:
971:, p. 19.
970:
967:, p. 7;
966:
961:
958:
953:
952:
946:
942:
936:
934:
930:
926:
921:
918:
910:
905:
902:
897:
893:
886:
883:
877:
870:, p. 12.
869:
865:
859:
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846:
843:
836:
832:
829:
827:
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380:
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52:congressional
49:
48:statutory law
45:
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33:
19:
1853:
1834:
1815:
1770:
1753:
1749:
1728:cite journal
1690:
1672:
1654:
1635:
1616:, p. 7.
1609:
1604:, p. 6.
1597:
1585:
1573:
1554:
1549:, p. 8.
1542:
1530:
1525:, p. 5.
1518:
1506:
1494:
1483:
1470:
1443:
1431:
1415:
1403:
1398:, p. 1.
1391:
1386:, p. 9.
1379:
1374:, p. 9.
1359:
1347:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1307:26 September
1305:. Retrieved
1300:
1291:
1279:
1269:23 September
1267:. Retrieved
1261:
1252:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1215:Gaziano 2001
1210:
1195:Gaziano 2001
1186:
1174:
1162:
1151:Gaziano 2001
1142:
1137:, p. 2.
1130:
1120:24 September
1118:. Retrieved
1114:
1105:
1096:
1086:
1081:, p. 9.
1074:
1058:
1046:
1039:Gaziano 2001
1034:
1027:Gaziano 2001
1022:
1017:, p. 4.
991:
984:Gaziano 2001
960:
948:
920:
909:Gaziano 2001
904:
895:
885:
863:
858:
845:
787:
783:
769:
765:
759:
755:
749:
745:
735:
731:
721:
717:
711:
697:
685:
681:
670:Bill Clinton
667:
650:
520:
510:
500:
168:
163:
156:
147:thanksgiving
144:
130:
111:
93:Donald Trump
69:
35:
31:
29:
1795:|work=
1695:. 95-772 A.
1614:Relyea 2008
1602:Relyea 2008
1590:Relyea 2008
1578:Relyea 2008
1547:Relyea 2008
1535:Relyea 2008
1523:Relyea 2008
1511:Relyea 2008
1499:Relyea 2008
1463:Relyea 2008
1408:Relyea 2008
1384:Relyea 2008
1372:Relyea 2008
1342:, Abstract.
1284:Relyea 2008
1245:Relyea 2008
1191:Relyea 2008
1167:Relyea 2008
1153:, Note 45;
1147:Relyea 2008
1135:Relyea 2008
1115:U.S. Senate
1067:Relyea 2008
1051:Relyea 2008
1015:Relyea 2008
925:Relyea 2008
868:Relyea 2008
756:Regulations
547:immigration
233:Time frame
230:Full title
95:displaying
1875:Categories
1677:. RS20846.
1368:Dwyer 2002
1340:Dwyer 2002
927:, Summary.
878:References
658:classified
470:2009–2017
454:2009–2017
442:G. W. Bush
438:2001–2009
424:1993–2001
408:1993–2001
394:1989–1993
378:1989–1993
362:1981–1989
348:1981–1989
334:1977–1981
318:1977–1981
304:1969–1977
287:1969–1977
267:1961–1969
247:1947–1977
91:President
1797:ignored (
1787:cite book
626:" system.
551:terrorism
293:and Ford
183:memoranda
1426:website.
795:See also
597:FIPS 201
427:Clinton
227:Acronym
116:and the
56:judicial
1623:Sources
702:in 1939
630:HSPD-23
613:HSPD-20
593:HSPD-12
412:Clinton
351:Reagan
337:Carter
275:Johnson
271:Kennedy
1860:
1841:
1822:
913:
678:
587:HSPD-9
581:HSPD-8
571:HSPD-7
559:
507:Truman
486:2017–
366:Reagan
322:Carter
251:Truman
241:NSCID
173:
1708:(PDF)
1687:(PDF)
1669:(PDF)
1651:(PDF)
1480:(PDF)
1422:. At
837:Notes
490:Trump
480:NSPM
474:Obama
458:Obama
432:NSPD
356:NSDD
342:NSSD
298:NSDM
291:Nixon
281:NSSM
261:NSAM
171:Title
140:11030
34:, or
1858:ISBN
1839:ISBN
1820:ISBN
1799:help
1741:help
1309:2017
1271:2017
1201:help
1122:2017
676:on 3
557:HSPD
464:PPD
448:PSD
418:PDD
402:PRD
388:NSD
372:NSR
312:PRM
273:and
255:Ford
203:NSDD
137:E.O.
106:and
73:veto
54:and
1775:hdl
1758:doi
328:PD
169:CFR
1877::
1791::
1789:}}
1785:{{
1754:29
1752:.
1732::
1730:}}
1726:{{
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1124:.
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853:.
780:.
728:.
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561:5
553:.
542:.
253:–
175:3
20:)
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