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155 bars (15.5 MPa), the pressurizer temperature is maintained at 345 °C (653 °F), which gives a subcooling margin (the difference between the pressurizer temperature and the highest temperature in the reactor core) of 30 °C (54 °F). As 345 °C is the boiling point of water at 155 bar, the liquid water is at the edge of a phase change. Thermal transients in the reactor coolant system result in large swings in pressurizer liquid/steam volume, and total pressurizer volume is designed around absorbing these transients without uncovering the heaters or emptying the pressurizer. Pressure transients in the primary coolant system manifest as temperature transients in the pressurizer and are controlled through the use of automatic heaters and water spray, which raise and lower pressurizer temperature, respectively.
642:.) Boron and cadmium control rods are used to maintain primary system temperature at the desired point. In order to decrease power, the operator throttles shut turbine inlet valves. This would result in less steam being drawn from the steam generators. This results in the primary loop increasing in temperature. The higher temperature causes the density of the primary reactor coolant water to decrease, allowing higher neutron speeds, thus less fission and decreased power output. This decrease of power will eventually result in primary system temperature returning to its previous steady-state value. The operator can control the steady state
654:
will therefore affect the neutron activity correspondingly. An entire control system involving high pressure pumps (usually called the charging and letdown system) is required to remove water from the high pressure primary loop and re-inject the water back in with differing concentrations of boric acid. The reactor control rods, inserted through the reactor vessel head directly into the fuel bundles, are moved for the following reasons: to start up the reactor, to shut down the primary nuclear reactions in the reactor, to accommodate short term transients, such as changes to load on the turbine,
813:); this can cause radioactive corrosion products to circulate in the primary coolant loop. This not only limits the lifetime of the reactor, but the systems that filter out the corrosion products and adjust the boric acid concentration add significantly to the overall cost of the reactor and to radiation exposure. In one instance, this has resulted in severe corrosion to control rod drive mechanisms when the boric acid solution leaked through the seal between the mechanism itself and the primary system.
513:
design less stable than pressurized water reactors at high operating temperature. In addition to its property of slowing down neutrons when serving as a moderator, water also has a property of absorbing neutrons, albeit to a lesser degree. When the coolant water temperature increases, the boiling increases, which creates voids. Thus there is less water to absorb thermal neutrons that have already been slowed by the graphite moderator, causing an increase in reactivity. This property is called the
301:
343:, where it flows through several thousand small tubes. Heat is transferred through the walls of these tubes to the lower pressure secondary coolant located on the shell side of the exchanger where the secondary coolant evaporates to pressurized steam. This transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids to prevent the secondary coolant from becoming radioactive. Some common steam generator arrangements are u-tubes or single pass heat exchangers.
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PWRs, as an increase in temperature may cause the water to expand, giving greater 'gaps' between the water molecules and reducing the probability of thermalization — thereby reducing the extent to which neutrons are slowed and hence reducing the reactivity in the reactor. Therefore, if reactivity increases beyond normal, the reduced moderation of neutrons will cause the chain reaction to slow down, producing less heat. This property, known as the negative
36:
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354:. The condenser converts the steam to a liquid so that it can be pumped back into the steam generator, and maintains a vacuum at the turbine outlet so that the pressure drop across the turbine, and hence the energy extracted from the steam, is maximized. Before being fed into the steam generator, the condensed steam (referred to as feedwater) is sometimes preheated in order to minimize thermal shock.
557:, is even less moderated. A less moderated neutron energy spectrum does worsen the capture/fission ratio for U and especially Pu, meaning that more fissile nuclei fail to fission on neutron absorption and instead capture the neutron to become a heavier nonfissile isotope, wasting one or more neutrons and increasing accumulation of heavy transuranic actinides, some of which have long half-lives.
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significantly while reducing moderation only slightly, making the void coefficient positive. Also, light water is actually a somewhat stronger moderator of neutrons than heavy water, though heavy water's neutron absorption is much lower. Because of these two facts, light water reactors have a relatively small moderator volume and therefore have compact cores. One next generation design, the
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of the rods would displace water at the bottom of the reactor and locally increase reactivity there. This is called the "positive scram effect" that is unique to the flawed RBMK control rods design. These design flaws, in addition to operator errors that pushed the reactor to its limits, are generally seen as the causes of the
820:
production in the water is over 25 times greater than in boiling water reactors of similar power, owing to the latter's absence of the neutron moderating element in its coolant loop. The tritium is created by the absorption of a fast neutron in the nucleus of a boron-10 atom which subsequently splits
517:
of reactivity, and in an RBMK reactor like
Chernobyl, the void coefficient is positive, and fairly large, making it very hard to regulate when the reaction begins to run away. The RBMK reactors also have a flawed control rods design in which during rapid scrams, the graphite reaction enhancement tips
653:
Reactivity adjustment to maintain 100% power as the fuel is burned up in most commercial PWRs is normally achieved by varying the concentration of boric acid dissolved in the primary reactor coolant. Boron readily absorbs neutrons and increasing or decreasing its concentration in the reactor coolant
512:
reactor design used at
Chernobyl, which uses graphite instead of water as the moderator and uses boiling water as the coolant, has a large positive thermal coefficient of reactivity. This means reactivity and heat generation increases when coolant and fuel temperatures increase, which makes the RBMK
372:
Two things are characteristic for the pressurized water reactor (PWR) when compared with other reactor types: coolant loop separation from the steam system and pressure inside the primary coolant loop. In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops (primary and secondary), which are both filled with
504:
of reactivity, makes PWR reactors very stable. This process is referred to as 'Self-Regulating', i.e. the hotter the coolant becomes, the less reactive the plant becomes, shutting itself down slightly to compensate and vice versa. Thus the plant controls itself around a given temperature set by the
471:
The coolant is pumped around the primary circuit by powerful pumps. These pumps have a rate of ~100,000 gallons of coolant per minute. After picking up heat as it passes through the reactor core, the primary coolant transfers heat in a steam generator to water in a lower pressure secondary circuit,
462:
Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a pressurizer, a separate vessel that is connected to the primary circuit and partially filled with water which is heated to the saturation temperature (boiling point) for the desired pressure by submerged electrical heaters. To achieve a pressure of
621:
is chosen because of its mechanical properties and its low absorption cross section. The finished fuel rods are grouped in fuel assemblies, called fuel bundles, that are then used to build the core of the reactor. A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of 200 to 300 rods each, and a large reactor would
532:
design have a slight positive void coefficient, these reactors mitigate this issues with a number of built-in advanced passive safety systems not found in the Soviet RBMK design. No criticality could occur in a CANDU reactor or any other heavy water reactor when ordinary light water is supplied to
499:
by letting the neutrons undergo multiple collisions with light hydrogen atoms in the water, losing speed in the process. This "moderating" of neutrons will happen more often when the water is more dense (more collisions will occur). The use of water as a moderator is an important safety feature of
828:
Natural uranium is only 0.7% uranium-235, the isotope necessary for thermal reactors. This makes it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which significantly increases the costs of fuel production. Compared to reactors operating on natural uranium, less energy is generated per unit of uranium ore
552:
PWRs are designed to be maintained in an undermoderated state, meaning that there is room for increased water volume or density to further increase moderation, because if moderation were near saturation, then a reduction in density of the moderator/coolant could reduce neutron absorption
420:(275 °C; 527 °F) and is heated as it flows upwards through the reactor core to a temperature of about 588 K (315 °C; 599 °F). The water remains liquid despite the high temperature due to the high pressure in the primary coolant loop, usually around 155
63:
686:
PWRs can passively scram the reactor in case offsite power is lost to immediately stop the primary nuclear reaction. The control rods are held by electromagnets and fall by gravity when current is lost; full insertion safely shuts down the primary nuclear reaction.
629:
Refuelings for most commercial PWRs is on an 18–24 month cycle. Approximately one third of the core is replaced each refueling, though some more modern refueling schemes may reduce refuel time to a few days and allow refueling to occur on a shorter periodicity.
62:
61:
60:
53:
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can "stretch" the fuel supply of both natural uranium and enriched uranium reactors but is virtually only practiced for light water reactors operating with lightly enriched fuel as spent fuel from e.g. CANDU reactors is very low in fissile material.
389:, and nearly twice that of a boiling water reactor (BWR). As an effect of this, only localized boiling occurs and steam will recondense promptly in the bulk fluid. By contrast, in a boiling water reactor the primary coolant is designed to boil.
781:
The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures. This requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases construction costs. The higher pressure can increase the consequences of a
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of the steel will reach limits determined by the applicable boiler and pressure vessel standards, and the pressure vessel must be repaired or replaced. This might not be practical or economic, and so determines the life of the plant.
170:
899:, which owing to the steam at the top of the pressure vessel by design carry a greater risk of this happening. Some reactors contain catalytic recombiners which let the hydrogen react with ambient oxygen in a non-explosive fashion.
58:
57:
54:
59:
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have about 150–250 such assemblies with 80–100 tons of uranium in all. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 14 × 14 to 17 × 17. A PWR produces on the order of 900 to 1,600 MW
494:
designs, require the fast fission neutrons to be slowed (a process called moderation or thermalizing) in order to interact with the nuclear fuel and sustain the chain reaction. In PWRs the coolant water is used as a
693:
PWRs are the most deployed type of reactor globally, allowing for a wide range of suppliers of new plants and parts for existing plants. Due to long experience with their operation they are the closest thing to
761:. A typical PWR will exchange a quarter to a third of its fuel load every 18-24 months and have maintenance and inspection, that requires the reactor to be shut down, scheduled for this window. While more
56:
357:
The steam generated has other uses besides power generation. In nuclear ships and submarines, the steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of speed reduction gears to a shaft used for
115:, where it transfers its thermal energy to lower pressure water of a secondary system where steam is generated. The steam then drives turbines, which spin an electric generator. In contrast to a
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Additional high pressure components such as reactor coolant pumps, pressurizer, and steam generators are also needed. This also increases the capital cost and complexity of a PWR power plant.
1600:
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use substances other than water for coolant and moderator (e.g. sodium in its liquid state as coolant or graphite as a moderator). The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 15–16
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638:
In PWRs reactor power can be viewed as following steam (turbine) demand due to the reactivity feedback of the temperature change caused by increased or decreased steam flow. (See:
1044:
In 1954 the world's first nuclear powered electricity generator began operation in the then closed city of
Obninsk at the Institute of Physics and Power Engineering (FEI or IPPE).
1741:
680:
PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint.
436:). The water in a PWR cannot exceed a temperature of 647 K (374 °C; 705 °F) or a pressure of 22.064 MPa (3200 psi or 218 atm), because those are the
2405:
877:, cannot achieve the values of reactors with higher operating temperatures such as those cooled with high temperature gases, liquid metals or molten salts. Similarly
296:
Pictorial explanation of power transfer in a pressurized water reactor. Primary coolant is in orange and the secondary coolant (steam and later feedwater) is in blue.
350:
connected to the electric grid for transmission. After passing through the turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is cooled down and condensed in a
119:(BWR), pressure in the primary coolant loop prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All light-water reactors use ordinary water as both coolant and
335:, which produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant loop by thermal conduction through the fuel cladding. The hot primary coolant is pumped into a
55:
223:
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and certain accident scenarios which involve interactions between hot steam and zircalloy cladding can produce hydrogen from the cooling water leading to
613:
furnace to create hard, ceramic pellets of enriched uranium dioxide. The cylindrical pellets are then clad in a corrosion-resistant zirconium metal alloy
790:
is manufactured from ductile steel but, as the plant is operated, neutron flux from the reactor causes this steel to become less ductile. Eventually the
1800:
690:
PWR technology is favoured by nations seeking to develop a nuclear navy; the compact reactors fit well in nuclear submarines and other nuclear ships.
476:), 275 °C (530 °F) — for use in the steam turbine. The cooled primary coolant is then returned to the reactor vessel to be heated again.
1436:
1734:
1222:
173:
742:) coolant that is liquid at room temperature which makes visual inspection and maintenance easier. It is also easy and cheap to obtain unlike
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1024:
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state. However, as this requires even higher pressures than a PWR and can cause issues of corrosion, so far no such reactor has been built.
2641:
2046:
1196:
683:
PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials.
1963:
987:
2631:
2039:
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drawn from a PWR is not suitable for most industrial applications as those require temperatures in excess of 400 °C (752 °F).
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1675:
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demineralized/deionized water. A boiling water reactor, by contrast, has only one coolant loop, while more exotic designs such as
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2420:
842:
639:
816:
Due to the requirement to load a pressurized water reactor's primary coolant loop with boron, undesirable radioactive secondary
234:
unit 2 (a
Westinghouse 4-loop PWR) came online in 2016, becoming the first new nuclear reactor in the United States since 1996.
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depletion. However, these effects are more usually accommodated by altering the primary coolant boric acid concentration.
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that a viable commercial plant would include none of the "crazy thermodynamic cycles that everyone else wants to build".
2342:
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1805:
2600:
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2400:
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1990:
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was originally designed as a pressurized water reactor (although the first power plant connected to the grid was at
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1144:
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227:
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2100:
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a hydrogen explosion damaging the containment building was a major concern, though the reactors at the plant were
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is used as the primary coolant in a PWR. Water enters through the bottom of the reactor's core at about 548
358:
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131:
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have no boron in the reactor coolant and control the reactor power by adjusting the reactor coolant flow rate.
230:
essentially ended the growth in new construction of nuclear power plants in the United States for two decades.
2294:
1121:
2545:
2520:
2134:
1911:
1525:
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402:
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evaporating the secondary coolant to saturated steam — in most designs 6.2 MPa (60 atm, 900
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934:
485:
473:
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332:
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became the first U.S. company to receive regulatory approval from the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a
238:
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for use as a nuclear submarine power plant with a fully operational submarine power plant located at the
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is consumed per unit of electricity produced than in a natural uranium fueled reactor, the amount of
546:
369:
by the steam is used in some countries and direct heating is applied to internal plant applications.
347:
266:
1713:
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with only minimal reprocessing in a process called "DUPIC" - Direct Use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU.
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2310:
1904:
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586:
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300:
92:
88:
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2005:
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In a nuclear power station, the pressurized steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives an
257:. The first AP1000 and EPR reactors were connected to the power grid in China in 2018. In 2020,
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1671:
1652:
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112:
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This fuel bundle is from a pressurized water reactor of the nuclear passenger and cargo ship
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856:
821:
into a lithium-7 and tritium atom. Pressurized water reactors annually emit several hundred
770:
747:
514:
366:
181:
2250:
2090:
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1995:
1922:
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17:
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2110:
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863:, this fissile material cannot be used as fuel in a PWR. It can, however, be used in a
658:
542:
336:
70:
2625:
1939:
1638:
1526:"DUPIC Fuel Cycle : Direct Use of Pressurized Water Reactor Spent Fuel in CANDU"
378:
361:. Direct mechanical action by expansion of the steam can be used for a steam-powered
258:
104:
571:
444:
are (as of 2022) only a proposed concept in which the coolant would never leave the
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1719:
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822:
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662:
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324:
35:
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Water is a nontoxic, transparent, chemically unreactive (by comparison with e.g.
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962:
762:
743:
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317:
274:
246:
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95:(with notable exceptions being the UK, Japan and Canada). In a PWR, the primary
1707:
906:
884:
852:
802:
766:
706:
647:
538:
425:
421:
382:
226:
initially operated two pressurized water reactor plants, TMI-1 and TMI-2. The
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greater than unity, though this reactor design has disadvantages of its own.
617:
which are backfilled with helium to aid heat conduction and detect leakages.
138:
and were used in the original design of the second commercial power plant at
1983:
1973:
1223:"Last Energy raises $ 3 million to fight climate change with nuclear energy"
945:
791:
610:
154:
2478:
397:
1622:. Nuclear Engineering International Special Publications. pp. 92–94.
123:. Most use anywhere from two to four vertically mounted steam generators;
2503:
2352:
2347:
2287:
1956:
1884:
1867:
1852:
1827:
1375:. EURATOM/UKAEA Fusion Association, Culham Science Center. Archived from
968:
939:
837:
Because water acts as a neutron moderator, it is not possible to build a
702:
618:
614:
278:
250:
731:
content than "regular" U/Pu MOX-fuel) allowing for a (partially) closed
2493:
2473:
1872:
1847:
817:
270:
209:
205:
169:
1322:
International
Association for the Properties of Water and Steam, 2007.
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2237:
2222:
2105:
1842:
1822:
1790:
956:
758:
534:
417:
242:
107:
to the reactor core where it is heated by the energy released by the
1832:
2319:
2175:
1978:
1968:
1704:
at the website of the United States
Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
864:
570:
526:
413:
396:
299:
291:
168:
100:
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whose radiological danger is lower than that of natural uranium.
2180:
2069:
1879:
1837:
1100:
509:
150:
124:
1723:
176:
PWR reactor hall and cooling tower (being decommissioned, 2004)
2153:
2017:
1499:"Frequently Asked Questions About Liquid Radioactive Releases"
739:
1197:"A look at the NuScale small modular nuclear reactor project"
1171:"US gives first-ever OK for small commercial nuclear reactor"
145:
PWRs currently operating in the United States are considered
825:
of tritium to the environment as part of normal operation.
1473:"Extraordinary Reactor Leak Gets the Industry's Attention"
111:
of atoms. The heated, high pressure water then flows to a
1668:
Principles of Design
Improvement for Light Water Reactors
1145:"First Commercial AP1000, EPR Reactors Connected to Grid"
222:
operated pressurized water reactors from 1954 to 1974.
180:
Several hundred PWRs are used for marine propulsion in
626:. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 meters in length.
545:
will have to be added to emergency coolant to avoid a
200:. The first purely commercial nuclear power plant at
1122:"First new US nuclear reactor in 20 years goes live"
657:
The control rods can also be used to compensate for
316:(blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loop
91:. PWRs constitute the large majority of the world's
2538:
2439:
2369:
2318:
2309:
2236:
2202:
2193:
2152:
2145:
2125:
2078:
2060:
2016:
1921:
1903:
1771:
1708:
Operating
Principles of a Pressurized Water Reactor
1601:Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire
1511:
1437:"Davis-Besse: The Reactor with a Hole in its Head"
1411:
1310:
533:the reactor as an emergency coolant. Depending on
188:. In the US, they were originally designed at the
1399:
1370:"Uses of Zirconium Alloys in Fusion Applications"
1331:
1298:
1714:Fuel Consumption of a Pressurized Water Reactor
1571:Glasstone, Samuel; Sesonske, Alexander (1994).
1446:. Union of Concerned Scientists. Archived from
1251:"NUCLEAR 101: How Does a Nuclear Reactor Work?"
196:. Follow-on work was conducted by Westinghouse
44:image of pressurized water reactor vessel heads
701:PWRs - depending on type - can be fueled with
265:with a modified PWR design. Also in 2020, the
237:The pressurized water reactor has several new
2406:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1735:
1245:
1243:
988:"Rickover: Setting the Nuclear Navy's Course"
891:as a potential accident scenario. During the
829:even though a higher burnup can be achieved.
157:is not considered Generation II (see below).
8:
224:Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station
855:from a PWR usually has a higher content of
2586:
2383:
2315:
2199:
2149:
2142:
1918:
1742:
1728:
1720:
1274:
130:PWRs were originally designed to serve as
127:reactors use horizontal steam generators.
1640:Steam Generators for Nuclear Power Plants
1593:Nuclear Power Reactor Core Melt Accidents
609:) powder is fired in a high-temperature,
385:), which is notably higher than in other
277:blueprints for the construction of a 100
161:to generate the bulk of its electricity.
153:reactors are similar to US PWRs, but the
69:An animation of a PWR power station with
801:The high temperature water coolant with
979:
284:nuclear power plant with a PWR design.
2333:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
1286:
1060:. Naval Institute Press. p. 162.
2338:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
1355:
1221:Takahashi, Dean (February 25, 2020).
1080:
757:, PWRs can achieve a relatively high
490:Pressurized water reactors, like all
7:
1423:
1343:
2343:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1169:Ridler, Keith (September 2, 2020).
1649:10.1016/B978-0-08-100894-2.00001-7
957:Westinghouse Advanced Passive 1000
753:Compared to reactors operating on
25:
1143:Proctor, Darrell (July 5, 2018).
940:KEPCO Advanced Power Reactor 1400
650:and/or movement of control rods.
245:, VVER-1200, ACPR1000+, APR1400,
228:partial meltdown of TMI-2 in 1979
202:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
140:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
2606:
2605:
2596:
2595:
2585:
2576:
2575:
2426:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
909:
843:reduced moderation water reactor
805:dissolved in it is corrosive to
661:inventory and to compensate for
640:Negative temperature coefficient
51:
34:
1692:Nuclear Science and Engineering
1368:Forty, C.B.A.; P.J. Karditsas.
1195:Price, Mike (August 22, 2019).
769:is less with the balance being
698:that exists in nuclear energy.
304:Primary coolant system showing
2416:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
1512:Duderstadt & Hamilton 1976
1412:Duderstadt & Hamilton 1976
1311:Duderstadt & Hamilton 1976
1120:Blau, Max (October 21, 2016).
859:than natural uranium. Without
505:position of the control rods.
198:Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory
1:
1552:; Hamilton, Louis J. (1976).
1471:Wald, Matthew (May 1, 2003).
1400:Glasstone & Sesonske 1994
1332:Glasstone & Sesonske 1994
1299:Glasstone & Sesonske 1994
1025:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle"
996:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
190:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
42:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2216:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
1094:"50 Years of Nuclear Energy"
442:Supercritical water reactors
208:, USSR), on insistence from
2642:Nuclear power reactor types
2563:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
1590:Jacquemain, Didier (2015).
1573:Nuclear Reactor Engineering
1444:UCS -- Aging Nuclear Plants
1056:Rockwell, Theodore (1992).
555:supercritical water reactor
331:is engaged in a controlled
89:light-water nuclear reactor
2658:
2632:Pressurized water reactors
2401:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
1524:Wang, Brian (2009-04-15).
893:Fukushima nuclear accident
564:
483:
455:
241:evolutionary designs: the
220:Army Nuclear Power Program
18:Pressurized water reactors
2571:
2526:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
2421:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
2386:
2228:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
1758:
1033:World Nuclear Association
917:Nuclear technology portal
365:or similar applications.
273:project, which published
194:Idaho National Laboratory
184:, nuclear submarines and
159:France operates many PWRs
132:nuclear marine propulsion
81:pressurized water reactor
2591:List of nuclear reactors
2431:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
2047:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
1554:Nuclear Reactor Analysis
873:, while better than for
784:loss-of-coolant accident
585:. Designed and built by
508:In contrast, the Soviet
2581:Nuclear fusion reactors
2546:Organic nuclear reactor
1752:nuclear fission reactor
1643:. Woodhead Publishing.
1637:Riznic, Jovica (2017).
788:reactor pressure vessel
502:temperature coefficient
403:reactor pressure vessel
329:reactor pressure vessel
306:reactor pressure vessel
27:Type of nuclear reactor
935:Nuclear safety systems
875:boiling water reactors
845:may however achieve a
593:After enrichment, the
590:
486:Passive nuclear safety
405:
333:fission chain reaction
321:
297:
239:Generation III reactor
177:
147:Generation II reactors
1618:Mosey, David (1990).
925:Boiling water reactor
841:with a PWR design. A
644:operating temperature
574:
400:
303:
295:
263:small modular reactor
172:
117:boiling water reactor
2637:Light water reactors
2411:Traveling-wave (TWR)
1895:Supercritical (SCWR)
1575:. Chapman and Hall.
1550:Duderstadt, James J.
1382:on February 25, 2009
1000:U.S. Dept. of Energy
930:List of PWR reactors
861:nuclear reprocessing
839:fast-neutron reactor
831:Nuclear reprocessing
587:Babcock & Wilcox
547:criticality accident
348:electrical generator
267:Energy Impact Center
93:nuclear power plants
1781:Aqueous homogeneous
1666:Tong, L.S. (1988).
1528:. NextBigFuture.com
1058:The Rickover Effect
963:Chinese Hualong One
889:hydrogen explosions
709:(which has a lower
705:and/or the Russian
530:heavy water reactor
2601:Nuclear technology
1696:MIT OpenCourseWare
1426:, pp. 216–217
871:Thermal efficiency
733:nuclear fuel cycle
591:
520:Chernobyl disaster
406:
322:
298:
218:The United States
178:
136:nuclear submarines
103:) is pumped under
2619:
2618:
2611:Nuclear accidents
2534:
2533:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2305:
2304:
2189:
2188:
2121:
2120:
1702:Document archives
1620:Reactor Accidents
1610:978-2-7598-1835-8
1277:, pp. 12, 21
1029:world-nuclear.org
946:Rosatom VVER-1200
696:mature technology
363:aircraft catapult
213:Hyman G. Rickover
182:aircraft carriers
121:neutron moderator
64:
16:(Redirected from
2649:
2609:
2608:
2599:
2598:
2589:
2588:
2579:
2578:
2521:Helium gas (GFR)
2384:
2379:
2316:
2200:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2137:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1721:
1710:(YouTube video).
1681:
1662:
1633:
1614:
1598:
1586:
1567:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1515:
1509:
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1502:
1495:
1489:
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1468:
1462:
1461:
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1452:
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1433:
1427:
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1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1381:
1374:
1365:
1359:
1358:, pp. 92–94
1353:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1314:
1313:, pp. 91–92
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1247:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1175:Associated Press
1166:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1098:
1090:
1084:
1083:, pp. 69–71
1078:
1072:
1071:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1040:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1002:. Archived from
984:
919:
914:
913:
912:
857:fissile material
771:depleted uranium
748:nuclear graphite
730:
728:
727:
719:
717:
716:
608:
607:
606:
515:void coefficient
387:nuclear reactors
375:breeder reactors
367:District heating
310:steam generators
66:
65:
38:
21:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2648:
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2567:
2530:
2435:
2380:
2373:
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2357:
2301:
2232:
2207:
2185:
2157:
2139:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2117:
2083:
2074:
2056:
2021:
2012:
1926:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1899:
1813:Natural fission
1767:
1766:
1754:
1748:
1688:
1678:
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1297:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1275:Jacquemain 2015
1273:
1269:
1259:
1257:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1203:
1201:East Idaho News
1194:
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1103:
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1091:
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1075:
1068:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1038:
1036:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1009:
1007:
986:
985:
981:
977:
969:Indian IPWR-900
915:
910:
908:
905:
811:stainless steel
779:
755:natural uranium
726:
724:
723:
722:
721:
715:
713:
712:
711:
710:
678:
646:by addition of
636:
625:
605:
602:
601:
600:
598:
595:uranium dioxide
576:PWR fuel bundle
569:
563:
492:thermal reactor
488:
482:
469:
460:
454:
411:
395:
341:steam generator
290:
283:
269:introduced the
167:
113:steam generator
87:) is a type of
77:
76:
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67:
52:
47:
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39:
28:
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2398:
2396:Integral (IFR)
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2058:
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2044:
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2037:
2026:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1966:
1961:
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1959:
1954:
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1948:
1945:
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1749:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1732:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1687:
1686:External links
1684:
1683:
1682:
1677:978-0891164166
1676:
1670:. Hemisphere.
1663:
1657:
1634:
1629:978-0408061988
1628:
1615:
1609:
1603:. p. 12.
1587:
1582:978-0412985218
1581:
1568:
1563:978-0471223634
1562:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1516:
1504:
1490:
1478:New York Times
1463:
1428:
1416:
1404:
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1360:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1315:
1303:
1291:
1279:
1267:
1239:
1213:
1187:
1161:
1149:Power Magazine
1135:
1112:
1085:
1073:
1067:978-1557507020
1066:
1048:
1016:
978:
976:
973:
972:
971:
966:
960:
954:
949:
943:
937:
932:
927:
921:
920:
904:
901:
847:breeding ratio
778:
775:
725:
714:
677:
674:
659:nuclear poison
635:
632:
623:
603:
565:Main article:
562:
559:
543:neutron poison
484:Main article:
481:
478:
468:
465:
456:Main article:
453:
450:
438:critical point
410:
407:
394:
391:
381:(150–160
337:heat exchanger
289:
286:
281:
166:
163:
71:cooling towers
68:
50:
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40:
33:
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2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2441:Generation IV
2438:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2391:Breeder (FBR)
2389:
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2377:
2368:
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2151:
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2136:
2129:
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2102:
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2097:
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2093:
2092:
2089:
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2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
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2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2015:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
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1982:
1980:
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1715:
1712:
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1703:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1658:9780081008942
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1594:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1474:
1467:
1464:
1453:on 2008-10-27
1449:
1445:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1414:, p. 598
1413:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1349:
1346:, p. 175
1345:
1340:
1337:
1334:, p. 767
1333:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1304:
1301:, p. 769
1300:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1268:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1214:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1188:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1162:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1136:
1123:
1116:
1113:
1102:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1006:on 2007-10-21
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
983:
980:
974:
970:
967:
964:
961:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:(or AES-2006)
947:
944:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
922:
918:
907:
902:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
880:
876:
872:
868:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
848:
844:
840:
835:
832:
826:
824:
819:
814:
812:
808:
804:
799:
796:
793:
789:
785:
777:Disadvantages
776:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
736:
734:
720:and a higher
708:
704:
699:
697:
691:
688:
684:
681:
675:
673:
671:
668:In contrast,
666:
664:
660:
655:
651:
649:
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641:
633:
631:
627:
620:
616:
612:
596:
588:
584:
583:
577:
573:
568:
560:
558:
556:
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
531:
528:
525:The Canadian
523:
521:
516:
511:
506:
503:
498:
493:
487:
479:
477:
475:
466:
464:
459:
451:
449:
447:
446:supercritical
443:
439:
435:
432:, 2,250
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
408:
404:
399:
392:
390:
388:
384:
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376:
370:
368:
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326:
319:
315:
311:
307:
302:
294:
287:
285:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
259:NuScale Power
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
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183:
175:
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164:
162:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
105:high pressure
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
72:
43:
37:
19:
2449:Sodium (SFR)
2376:fast-neutron
2215:
1817:
1761:
1667:
1639:
1619:
1592:
1572:
1553:
1530:. Retrieved
1519:
1514:, p. 86
1507:
1493:
1482:. Retrieved
1476:
1466:
1455:. Retrieved
1448:the original
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1402:, p. 21
1395:
1384:. Retrieved
1377:the original
1363:
1351:
1339:
1327:
1318:
1306:
1294:
1282:
1270:
1258:. Retrieved
1254:
1232:November 23,
1230:. Retrieved
1226:
1216:
1206:November 23,
1204:. Retrieved
1200:
1190:
1180:November 23,
1178:. Retrieved
1174:
1164:
1154:November 23,
1152:. Retrieved
1148:
1138:
1128:November 23,
1126:. Retrieved
1115:
1104:. Retrieved
1088:
1076:
1057:
1051:
1043:
1037:. Retrieved
1028:
1019:
1008:. Retrieved
1004:the original
991:
982:
965:(or HPR1000)
883:
879:process heat
869:
851:
836:
827:
815:
807:carbon steel
800:
797:
780:
752:
737:
700:
692:
689:
685:
682:
679:
667:
663:nuclear fuel
656:
652:
637:
628:
592:
581:
575:
567:Nuclear fuel
551:
524:
507:
489:
470:
461:
412:
371:
356:
345:
325:Nuclear fuel
323:
236:
217:
186:ice breakers
179:
144:
129:
84:
80:
78:
2484:Superphénix
2311:Molten-salt
2263:VHTR (HTGR)
2040:HW BLWR 250
2006:R4 Marviken
1935:Pressurized
1905:Heavy water
1889:many others
1818:Pressurized
1773:Light water
1289:, p. 3
1287:Riznic 2017
1260:20 December
1227:VentureBeat
992:ORNL Review
763:uranium ore
744:heavy water
541:or another
458:Pressurizer
452:Pressurizer
424:(15.5
414:Light water
379:megapascals
339:called the
318:Hualong One
314:Pressurizer
275:open-source
247:Hualong One
174:Rancho Seco
149:. Russia's
2626:Categories
2268:PBR (PBMR)
1543:References
1532:2022-03-08
1484:2009-09-10
1457:2008-07-01
1386:2008-05-21
1356:Mosey 1990
1255:Energy.gov
1106:2008-12-29
1081:Mosey 1990
1039:2018-09-17
1035:. May 2018
1010:2008-05-21
942:(APR-1400)
885:Radiolysis
853:Spent fuel
803:boric acid
767:spent fuel
707:Remix Fuel
676:Advantages
648:boric acid
539:boric acid
440:of water.
359:propulsion
312:(purple),
2320:Fluorides
1984:IPHWR-700
1979:IPHWR-540
1974:IPHWR-220
1763:Moderator
1750:Types of
1556:. Wiley.
1424:Tong 1988
1344:Tong 1988
952:Areva EPR
809:(but not
792:ductility
611:sintering
497:moderator
480:Moderator
428:153
352:condenser
232:Watts Bar
155:VVER-1200
2353:TMSR-LF1
2348:TMSR-500
2328:Fuji MSR
2288:THTR-300
2128:Graphite
1991:PHWR KWU
1957:ACR-1000
1885:IPWR-900
1868:ACPR1000
1863:HPR-1000
1853:CPR-1000
1828:APR-1400
959:(AP1000)
903:See also
746:or even
703:MOX-fuel
619:Zircaloy
615:Zircaloy
582:Savannah
282:electric
251:IPWR-900
2494:FBR-600
2474:CFR-600
2469:BN-1200
2135:coolant
2062:Organic
1947:CANDU 9
1944:CANDU 6
1912:coolant
1873:ACP1000
1848:CAP1400
1786:Boiling
818:tritium
634:Control
409:Coolant
393:Reactor
327:in the
308:(red),
271:OPEN100
210:Admiral
206:Obninsk
165:History
109:fission
97:coolant
2539:Others
2479:Phénix
2464:BN-800
2459:BN-600
2454:BN-350
2283:HTR-PM
2278:HTR-10
2258:UHTREX
2223:Magnox
2218:(UNGG)
2111:Lucens
2106:KS 150
1843:ATMEA1
1823:AP1000
1806:Kerena
1674:
1655:
1626:
1607:
1579:
1560:
1064:
823:curies
786:. The
759:burnup
535:burnup
320:design
288:Design
243:AP1000
2556:Piqua
2551:Arbus
2509:PRISM
2251:MHR-T
2246:GTMHR
2176:EGP-6
2171:AMB-X
2146:Water
2091:HWGCR
2030:HWLWR
1969:IPHWR
1940:CANDU
1801:ESBWR
1597:(PDF)
1451:(PDF)
1440:(PDF)
1380:(PDF)
1373:(PDF)
1124:. CNN
1097:(PDF)
975:Notes
865:CANDU
527:CANDU
467:Pumps
101:water
2516:Lead
2499:CEFR
2489:PFBR
2371:None
2181:RBMK
2166:AM-1
2096:EL-4
2070:WR-1
2052:AHWR
1996:MZFR
1964:CVTR
1953:AFCR
1880:VVER
1838:APWR
1833:APR+
1796:ABWR
1672:ISBN
1653:ISBN
1624:ISBN
1605:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1558:ISBN
1262:2022
1234:2021
1208:2021
1182:2021
1156:2021
1130:2021
1101:IAEA
1062:ISBN
897:BWRs
670:BWRs
561:Fuel
510:RBMK
474:psia
401:PWR
253:and
151:VVER
134:for
125:VVER
2504:PFR
2295:PMR
2273:AVR
2195:Gas
2133:by
2101:KKN
2035:ATR
1950:EC6
1910:by
1858:EPR
1791:BWR
1694:at
1645:doi
740:NaK
580:NS
434:psi
430:atm
426:MPa
422:bar
383:bar
255:EPR
85:PWR
2628::
2238:He
2204:CO
2080:CO
2001:R3
1651:.
1599:.
1475:.
1442:.
1253:.
1242:^
1225:.
1199:.
1173:.
1147:.
1099:.
1042:.
1031:.
1027:.
998:,
994:.
990:.
750:.
735:.
718:Pu
599:UO
549:.
537:,
522:.
279:MW
249:,
142:.
79:A
2378:)
2374:(
2206:2
2158:O
2156:2
2154:H
2082:2
2022:O
2020:2
2018:H
1927:O
1925:2
1923:D
1743:e
1736:t
1729:v
1716:.
1698:.
1680:.
1661:.
1647::
1632:.
1613:.
1585:.
1566:.
1535:.
1501:.
1487:.
1460:.
1389:.
1264:.
1236:.
1210:.
1184:.
1158:.
1132:.
1109:.
1070:.
1013:.
729:U
624:e
604:2
597:(
589:.
418:K
99:(
83:(
20:)
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