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the responder greater flexibility, but they are also very difficult to record and score, requiring extensive coding. Contrastingly, closed questions can be scored and coded more easily, but they diminish expressivity and spontaneity of the responder. Some problems with the wording of questions are obvious and may be intentional, particularly in psuedopolls, whose sponsors are seeking specific results. Wording problems can arise on routine topics in legtimate surveyss If question wording can affect measurement of relatively objective matters, such as a person's age, the number of children in a family, or the frequency of news watching, then how much might wording affect more subjective phenomena?
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arrow), and graphics (e.g. text boxes). In translated questionnaires, the design elements also take into account the writing practice (e.g. Spanish words are lengthier and require more space on the page or on the computer screen) and text orientation (e.g. Arabic is read from right to left) to prevent data missingness.
510:
the target audience and subject matter. The wording should be kept simple, without technical or specialized vocabulary. Ambiguous words, equivocal sentence structures and negatives may cause misunderstanding, possibly invalidating questionnaire results. Double negatives should be reworded as positives.
490:, index, or typology – will determine what can be concluded from the data. A yes/no question will only reveal how many of the sample group answered yes or no, lacking the resolution to determine an average response. The nature of the expected responses should be defined and retained for interpretation.
66:
What is often referred to as "adequate questionnaire construction" is critical to the success of a survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or a bad questionnaire format can make the survey results valueless, as they may not accurately reflect the views and
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Questions and prepared responses (for multiple-choice) should be neutral as to intended outcome. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way rather than another. Even questions without bias may leave respondents with expectations. The order or grouping of questions is
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Topics should fit the respondents' frame of reference, as their background may affect their interpretation of the questions. Respondents should have enough information or expertise to answer the questions truthfully. Writing style should be conversational, yet concise and accurate and appropriate to
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Many people will not answer personal or intimate questions. For this reason, questions about age, income, marital status, etc. are generally placed at the end of the survey. This way, even if the respondent refuses to answer these questions, he/she will have already answered the research questions.
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Questions should flow logically, from the general to the specific, from least to most sensitive, from factual and behavioral matters to attitudes and opinions. When semi-automated, they should flow from unaided to aided questions. The researcher should ensure that the answer to a question is not
732:
There are two different types of questions that survey researchers use when writing a questionnaire: free-response questions and closed questions. Free-response questions are open-ended, whereas closed questions are usually multiple-choice. Free-response questions are beneficial because they allow
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There are a number of channels, or modes, that can be used to administer a questionnaire. Each has strengths and weaknesses, and therefore a researcher will generally need to tailor their questionnaire to the modes they will be using. For example, a questionnaire designed to be filled-out on paper
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The research objective(s) and frame-of-reference should be defined beforehand, including the questionnaire's context of time, budget, manpower, intrusion and privacy. The types of questions (e.g.: closed, multiple-choice, open) should fit the data analysis techniques available and the goals of the
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A respondent's answer to an open-ended question can be coded into a response scale afterwards, or analysed using more qualitative methods. Two studies demonstrate both the importance of question wording and the differential impact it can have on different subsets of citizens. The first study
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Visual presentation of the questions on the page (or computer screen) and use of white space, colors, pictures, charts, or other graphics may affect respondent's interest – or distract from the questions. There are four primary design elements: words (meaning), numbers (sequencing), symbols (e.g.
528:
The list of prepared responses should be collectively exhaustive; one solution is to use a final write-in category for "other ________". The possible responses should also be mutually exclusive, without overlap. Respondents should not find themselves in more than one category, for example in
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Before constructing a questionnaire survey, it is advisable to consider how the results of the research will be used. If the results won't influence the decision-making process, budgets won't allow implementing the findings, or the cost of research outweighs its usefulness, then there is little
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The way that a question is phrased can have a large impact on how a research participant will answer the question. Thus, survey researchers must be conscious of their wording when writing survey questions. It is important for researchers to keep in mind that different individuals, cultures, and
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This method works well if the survey contains several branching questions. Help or instructions can be dynamically displayed with the question as needed, and automatic sequencing means the computer can determine the next question, rather than relying on respondents to correctly follow skip
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Matrix questions – Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and the respondents'
431:(or behavior coding) monitors the interviewer and respondent' verbal interactions in live or recorded interviews, or from transcripts. Questions are identified as needing repair when certain behaviors are coded frequently, such as respondents asking for clarifications.
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examined how the use of the terms "global warming" versus "climate change" influenced
Americans' opinions about the world's changing enviroment. Another study also demostrates the importance of question wording and how it affects subsets of respondents.
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This method has a low ongoing-cost, and most surveys cost little for the participants and surveyors. However, initial set-up costs can be high for a customised design due to the effort required in developing the back-end system or programming the questionnaire
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Contingency question – A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them (for example, asking men if they have ever been
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Not all of the sample may be able to use the electronic form due to accessibility issues, software compatibility, bandwidth requirements, server load, or internet access, and therefore results may not be representative of the target
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for the report. Unneeded questions should be avoided, as they are an expense to the researcher and an unwelcome imposition on the respondents. All questions should contribute to the objective(s) of the research.
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examines the respondent's thought process as they answer the questions or afterwards. The interviewer directs the respondent to think aloud or administer verbal probes. It can also be conducted online without an
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Kapousouz, Evgenia; Johnson, Timothy; Holbrook, Allyson (2020). "Seeking
Clarifications for Problematic Questions: Effects of Interview Language and Respondent Acculturation". In Sha, Mandy; Gabel, Tim (eds.).
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Questions can be more detailed and obtains more comprehensive information. However, respondents are often limited to their working memory: specially designed visual cues (such as prompt cards) may help in some
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Scaled questions – Responses are graded on a continuum (e.g.: rate the appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples of types of scales include the
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Questionnaires can be administered by research staff, by volunteers or self-administered by the respondents. Clear, detailed instructions are needed in either case, matching the needs of each audience
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and should avoid leading or loaded questions. If multiple questions are being used to measure one construct, some of the questions should be worded in the opposite direction to evade response bias.
92:
carrying out a small pretest of the questionnaire, using a small subset of target respondents. Results can inform a researcher of errors such as missing questions, or logical and procedural errors.
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A multiple-method approach helps to triangulate results. For example, cognitive interviews, usability testing, behavior coding, and/or vignettes can be combined for pretesting.
202:– No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. Examples include:
963:
Dillman, Don A., Smyth, Jolene D., Christian, Leah Melani. 2014. Internet, Phone, Mail and Mixed-Mode
Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, 4th edition. John Wiley: Hoboken, NJ
1648:
Holbrook, Allyson L.; Green, Melanie C.; Krosnick, Jon A. (2003). "Telephone versus Face-to-Face
Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires".
144:
The degree of standardization varies, ranging from strictly prescribed questions with predetermined answers to open-ended questions with subjective evaluation criteria.
1772:(Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183–209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.
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2304:
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Presser, S.; Couper, M. P.; Lessler, J. T.; Martin, E.; Martin, J.; Rothgeb, J. M.; Singer, E. (March 2004). "Methods for
Testing and Evaluating Survey Questions".
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1621:
Kreuter, F.; Presser, S.; Tourangeau, R. (December 2008). "Social
Desirability Bias in CATI, IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity".
41:
useful information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires can provide valuable data about any given subject.
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1782:
Schuldt, J. P.; Konrath, S. H.; Schwarz, N. (1 March 2011). "'Global warming' or 'climate change'?: Whether the planet is warming depends on question wording".
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Different methods can be useful for checking a questionnaire and making sure it is accurately capturing the intended information. Initial advice may include:
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Can be extremely expensive and time-consuming to train and maintain an interviewer panel. Each interview also has a cost associated with collecting the data.
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Mail is subject to postal delays and errors, which can be substantial when posting to remote areas, or given unpredictable events such as natural disasters.
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A common method is to "research backwards" in building a questionnaire by first determining the information sought (i.e., Brand A is more/less preferred by
479:
The manner (random or not) and location (sampling frame) for selecting respondents will determine whether the findings will be representative of the larger
1598:
M. Mandy, Sha; Wang, Kevin (2013). "A Comparison of
Results from a Spanish and English Mail Survey: Effects of Instruction Placement on Item Missingness".
779:
77:
using questionnaire construction guidelines to inform drafts, such as the
Tailored Design Method, or those produced by National Statistical Organisations.
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both the "married" category and the "single" category (in such a case there may be need for separate questions on marital status and living situation).
856:
95:
estimating the measurement quality of the questions. This can be done for instance using test-retest, quasi-simplex, or mutlitrait-multimethod models.
127:). Each item produces a value, typically a raw score, which can be aggregated across all items to generate a composite score for the measured trait.
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Questionnaires used to collect quantitative data usually comprise several multi-item scales, together with an introductory and concluding section.
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In general, the vocabulary of a question should be very simple and direct, and preferably under twenty words. Each question should be edited for
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Using multiple modes can improve access to the population of interest when some members have different access, or have particular preferences.
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63:. They are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of individuals, often referred to as respondents.
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Tourangeau, Roger; Maitland, Aaron; Steiger, Darby; Yan, Ting (2020). "A Framework for Making
Decisions About Question Evaluation Methods".
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are short descriptions of hypothetical situations that are presented to research participants to examine their survey-relevant decisions.
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89:. By asking a sample of potential-respondents about their interpretation of the questions and use of the questionnaire, a researcher can
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Are more prone to social desirability biases than other modes, so telephone interviews are generally not suitable for sensitive topics.
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focuses on how people interact with the survey, such as navigating the survey, entering survey responses, and finding help information.
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217:– Respondents complete an incomplete sentence. For example, "The most important consideration in my decision to buy a new house is..."
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is conducted by an individual expert or a panel of experts in questionnaire design to identify potential problems and solutions.
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Robinson, Mark A. (May 2018). "Using multi-item psychometric scales for research and practice in human resource management".
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119:. These items serve as fundamental components within questionnaire and psychological tests, often tied to a specific latent
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517:, the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering. Care should be taken to ask one question at a time.
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2182:
1872:
1031:
Andrews, Frank M. (1984). "Construct
Validity and Error Components of Survey Measures: A Structural Modeling Approach".
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Usually, for clarity and efficiency, a single set of anchors is presented for multiple rating scales in a questionnaire.
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predicting the measurement quality of the question. This can be done using the software Survey Quality Predictor (SQP).
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Answer format: The manner in which the respondent provides an answer, including options for multiple-choice questions.
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According to the three-stage theory (also called the sandwich theory), questions should be asked in three stages:
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Limited ability to build rapport with the respondent, or to answer questions about the purpose of the research.
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313:
1478:
Yan, T.; Kreuter, F.; Tourangeau, R (December 2012). "Evaluating Survey Questions: A Comparison of Methods".
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Each response point has an accompanying verbal anchor (e.g., “strongly agree”) ascending from left to right.
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Low cost-per-response for small samples. Large samples can often be administered more efficiently by using
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Aizpurua, Eva (2020). "Pretesting Methods in Cross-Cultural Research". In Sha, Mandy; Gabel, Tim (eds.).
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Martin, Elizabeth (2004). "Vignettes and Respondent Debriefing for Questionnaire Design and Evaluation".
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Interviewers sometimes rephrase questions during the interview, reducing the level of standardisation.
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1980:
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Heise, David R. (February 1969). "Separating Reliability and Stability in Test-Retest Correlation".
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Usually administered via a HTML-based webpage, or other electronic channel such as a smartphone app.
233:– Respondents explain a picture or create a story about what they think is happening in the picture.
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1990:
1965:
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Collectively, a statement or question with an accompanying rating scale is referred to as an item.
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2012:
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Empirical tests also provide insight into the quality of the questionnaire. This can be done by:
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Each statement or question has an accompanying set of equidistant response-points (usually 5-7).
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The following types of reliability and validity should be established for a multi-item scale:
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Collectively, a set of response-points and accompanying verbal anchors are referred to as a
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2007:
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Design of a questionnaire to gather statistically useful information about a given topic
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1985:
1960:
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Usually a simple questionnaire, printed on paper to be filled-out with a pen or pencil.
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224:
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Survey participants can choose to remain anonymous, though risk being tracked through
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2241:
2157:
2119:
2057:
1910:
1831:
Reynolds, Cecil R.; Altmann, Robert A.; Allen, Daniel N. (2021). "Item Development".
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Relatively few limits to the population, so long as an interviewer is granted access.
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375:
332:
321:
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Verbal anchors should be balanced to reflect equal intervals between response-points.
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108:
50:
34:
17:
211:– Words are presented and the respondent mentions the first word that comes to mind.
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2017:
891:
832:
379:
300:
296:
179:
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1508:
1453:
1091:
Osterlind, Steven J. (2002). "Definition, Purpose, and Characteristics of Items".
729:
subcultures can interpret certain words and phrases differently from one another.
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Allows survey participants to remain anonymous (e.g. using identical paper forms).
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Multiple statements or questions (minimum ≥3; usually ≥5) are presented for each
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881:
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757:
737:
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Questions can be more detailed, as opposed to the limits of paper or telephones.
658:
556:
205:
Completely unstructured – For example, "What is your opinion on questionnaires?"
501:
vs. Brand C), then being certain to ask all the needed questions to obtain the
2205:
1266:
1607:
982:
445:
test the impact of the revised items by comparing it with the original items.
147:
Responses to test items serve as indicators in the realm of social sciences.
1100:
1095:. Evaluation in Education and Human Services. Vol. 47. pp. 17–57.
901:
38:
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may be substantial enough that they threaten the validity of the research.
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1400:
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594:
Surveys are limited to populations that are contactable by a mail service.
267:
research and practice, questionnaires are most frequently used to collect
1857:
1795:
1634:
1203:
622:
Opportunity to build rapport with respondents may improve response rates.
140:
Evaluation criteria: The criteria used to assess and score the response.
1385:"The Use of Vignettes in Evaluating Asian Language Questionnaire Items"
1017:
1173:
1060:
Design, Evaluation, and Analysis of Questionnaires for Survey Research
724:
Survey methodology § Guidelines for the effective wording of questions
555:
may not operate in the same way when administered by telephone. These
134:
Item stem: This represents the question, statement, or task presented.
2350:
1955:
1259:
Advances in Questionnaire Design, Development, Evaluation and Testing
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way, they are collectively referred to as a multi-item scale, or a
1217:
Rothgeb, Jennifer (2008). "Pilot Test". In Lavrakas, Paul (ed.).
896:
397:, and can be conducted in a laboratory setting or in the field.
162:– Respondents' answers are limited to a fixed set of responses.
1861:
654:
Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly, without postal delays.
751:
700:
Rapport with respondents is generally higher than other modes.
220:
Story completion – Respondents complete an incomplete story.
2285:
Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey
615:
Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly, particularly if
521:
also relevant; early questions may bias later questions.
174:– The respondent has several option from which to choose.
130:
Test items generally encompass three primary components:
1349:
Methods for Testing and Evaluating Survey Questionnaires
1058:
Saris, Willem E.; Gallhofer, Irmtraud N., eds. (2014).
335:(if the variable is expected to be stable over time),
1703:
Shaughnessy, J.; Zechmeister, E.; Jeanne, Z. (2011).
111:, an individual task or question is referred to as a
632:
Surveys are limited to populations with a telephone.
2351:
European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research
2338:
2229:
2193:
2118:
2038:
1946:
1896:
1124:Haladyna, Thomas M.; Rodriguez, Michael C. (2013).
312:When multiple items measure the same variable in a
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
223:Picture completion – Respondents fill-in an empty
1501:The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research
1445:The essential role of language in survey research
1416:"Methods of Behavior Coding of Survey Interviews"
1328:GESIS - Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences
2346:American Association for Public Opinion Research
2305:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
703:Typically higher response-rate than other modes.
525:evoke emotional responses and may skew results.
168:– The respondent answers with a "yes" or a "no".
1565:Pan, Yuling; Sha, Mandy; Park, Hyunjoo (2019).
2300:List of household surveys in the United States
1155:
1153:
2366:World Association for Public Opinion Research
1873:
299:. One very frequently-used rating scale is a
8:
2315:Suffolk University Political Research Center
1532:Graeff, Timothy R. (2005). "Response Bias".
786:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1880:
1866:
1858:
1567:The Sociolinguistics of Survey Translation
975:Statistical theories of mental test scores
386:for interviewers or survey respondents.
107:In the realm of psychological testing and
1452:
857:Automated computer telephone interviewing
806:Learn how and when to remove this message
353:is used in the scale development process.
847:Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
564:
486:The level of measurement – known as the
247:
2325:Quinnipiac University Polling Institute
1811:"Seven in 10 Americans Back Euthanasia"
1219:Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods
953:
852:Computer-assisted personal interviewing
695:Computer-assisted personal interviewing
513:If a survey question actually contains
2310:New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study
2257:Comparative Study of Electoral Systems
1833:Mastering Modern Psychological Testing
1378:
1376:
625:Researchers may be mistaken for being
55:Questionnaires are frequently used in
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1252:
1250:
1185:
1183:
977:. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
7:
1414:Ongena, Yfke; Dijkstra, Wil (2006).
1126:Developing and Validating Test Items
959:
957:
784:adding citations to reliable sources
661:, unique links and other technology.
472:purpose in conducting the research.
374:is testing and evaluating whether a
275:with the following characteristics:
2356:International Statistical Institute
1749:Polling and the Public, 9th edition
2247:American National Election Studies
2237:List of comparative social surveys
1809:McCarthy, Justin (June 18, 2014).
1534:Encyclopedia of Social Measurement
819:influenced by previous questions.
597:Reliant on high levels of literacy
378:causes problems that could affect
25:
467:Questionnaire construction issues
252:Labelled example of a multi-item
74:consulting subject-matter experts
756:
1764:(2008). Chapter 9: Surveys. In
922:Quantitative marketing research
826:screening and rapport questions
497:of the sample vs. Brand B, and
57:quantitative marketing research
1711:(9th ed.). New York, NY:
1707:Research methods in psychology
1542:10.1016/B0-12-369398-5/00037-2
1481:Journal of Official Statistics
1424:Journal of Official Statistics
67:opinions of the participants.
1:
1509:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004
1454:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004
1447:. RTI Press. pp. 23–46.
586:optical character recognition
186:, and rank-order scale. (See
155:Questions, or items, may be:
1674:Respicius, Rwehumbiza (2010)
998:American Sociological Review
2290:International Social Survey
1841:10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_6
664:It is not labour-intensive.
184:semantic differential scale
2461:
2430:Questionnaire construction
973:Lord, Frederic M. (1968).
867:Bureau of Labor Statistics
829:product-specific questions
721:
547:
389:Pretesting methods can be
364:
231:Thematic apperception test
48:
33:refers to the design of a
31:Questionnaire construction
2374:
2320:The Phillips Academy Poll
2148:Exploratory data analysis
2001:Sample size determination
1383:Sha, Mandy (2016-08-01).
1267:10.1002/9781119263685.ch3
1162:Human Resource Management
942:Automatic Item Generation
259:as used in questionnaires
1784:Public Opinion Quarterly
1650:Public Opinion Quarterly
1623:Public Opinion Quarterly
1608:10.13094/SMIF-2013-00006
1192:Public Opinion Quarterly
1033:Public Opinion Quarterly
451:applies methods such as
443:Experimental comparisons
190:for further information)
2261:Emerson College Polling
2153:Multivariate statistics
1996:Nonprobability sampling
1290:Willis, Gordon (2005).
1101:10.1007/0-306-47535-9_2
1093:Constructing Test Items
912:Scale (social sciences)
683:Personally administered
333:test-retest reliability
121:psychological construct
2270:European Social Survey
2252:Asian Barometer Survey
2143:Descriptive statistics
2028:Cross-sequential study
1981:Simple random sampling
1357:10.1002/0471654728.ch8
1292:Cognitive Interviewing
937:Congeneric reliability
571:Benefits and cautions
550:Survey data collection
403:Cognitive interviewing
271:data using multi-item
260:
160:Closed-ended questions
87:cognitive interviewing
2280:General Social Survey
2163:Statistical inference
2023:Cross-sectional study
1575:10.4324/9780429294914
1401:10.29115/SP-2016-0013
1300:10.4135/9781412983655
1231:10.4135/9781412963947
1134:10.4324/9780203850381
1068:10.1002/9781118634646
697:may assist with this.
544:Methods of collection
453:latent class analysis
251:
18:Pretesting (research)
2201:Audience measurement
2138:Level of measurement
1971:Sampling for surveys
1835:. pp. 223–262.
1747:Asher, Herb (2017).
1536:. pp. 411–418.
1503:. pp. 129–150.
1351:. pp. 149–171.
932:Item response theory
780:improve this section
457:item response theory
449:Statistical modeling
329:internal reliability
200:Open-ended questions
2361:Pew Research Center
2330:World Values Survey
2073:Specification error
1991:Stratified sampling
862:Official statistics
515:more than one issue
215:Sentence completion
2445:Survey methodology
2168:Statistical models
2068:Non-sampling error
1966:Statistical sample
1906:Collection methods
1796:10.1093/poq/nfq073
1635:10.1093/poq/nfn063
1261:. pp. 47–73.
1204:10.1093/poq/nfh008
917:Statistical survey
907:Marketing research
835:types of questions
345:criterion validity
341:construct validity
261:
151:Types of questions
125:operationalization
2417:
2416:
2133:Contingency table
2108:Processing errors
2093:Non-response bias
2083:Measurement error
2063:Systematic errors
1850:978-3-030-59454-1
1762:Mellenbergh, G.J.
1584:978-0-429-29491-4
1551:978-0-12-369398-3
1518:978-1-934831-24-3
1464:978-1-934831-23-6
1366:978-0-471-45841-8
1309:978-0-7619-2804-1
1276:978-1-119-26362-3
1174:10.1002/hrm.21852
1143:978-1-136-96198-4
1077:978-1-118-63461-5
816:
815:
808:
748:Question sequence
715:
714:
617:computer-assisted
428:Behavioral coding
412:Usability testing
244:Multi-item scales
16:(Redirected from
2452:
2128:Categorical data
1882:
1875:
1868:
1859:
1854:
1819:
1818:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1779:
1773:
1770:G.J. Mellenbergh
1759:
1753:
1752:
1744:
1731:
1730:
1710:
1700:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1456:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1420:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1380:
1371:
1370:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1254:
1245:
1244:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1187:
1178:
1177:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1039:(2): 409–42=42.
1028:
1022:
1021:
993:
987:
986:
970:
964:
961:
811:
804:
800:
797:
791:
760:
752:
718:Question wording
565:
523:Loaded questions
367:Pilot experiment
337:content validity
209:Word association
166:Yes/no questions
21:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2440:Market research
2420:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2370:
2334:
2295:LatinobarĂłmetro
2225:
2211:Market research
2189:
2114:
2088:Response errors
2034:
2008:Research design
1976:Random sampling
1942:
1926:Semi-structured
1898:Data collection
1892:
1890:survey research
1886:
1851:
1830:
1827:
1825:Further reading
1822:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1745:
1734:
1727:
1702:
1701:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1418:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1389:Survey Practice
1382:
1381:
1374:
1367:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1332:
1330:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1277:
1256:
1255:
1248:
1241:
1223:Sage Publishing
1216:
1215:
1211:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1159:
1158:
1151:
1144:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1111:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1030:
1029:
1025:
1010:10.2307/2092790
995:
994:
990:
972:
971:
967:
962:
955:
951:
946:
842:
812:
801:
795:
792:
777:
761:
750:
726:
720:
552:
546:
469:
384:data collection
369:
363:
351:Factor analysis
283:being examined.
246:
172:Multiple choice
153:
105:
61:social research
53:
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2458:
2456:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2422:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2221:Public opinion
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2103:Pseudo-opinion
2100:
2098:Coverage error
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2053:Standard error
2050:
2048:Sampling error
2044:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1986:Quota sampling
1983:
1978:
1968:
1963:
1961:Sampling frame
1958:
1952:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1913:
1908:
1902:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1877:
1870:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1849:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1801:
1790:(1): 115–124.
1774:
1754:
1732:
1725:
1676:
1667:
1662:10.1086/346010
1640:
1629:(5): 847–865.
1613:
1600:Survey Methods
1590:
1583:
1557:
1550:
1524:
1517:
1491:
1470:
1463:
1434:
1406:
1372:
1365:
1339:
1315:
1308:
1282:
1275:
1246:
1239:
1209:
1198:(1): 109–130.
1179:
1168:(3): 739–750.
1149:
1142:
1116:
1109:
1083:
1076:
1050:
1045:10.1086/268840
1023:
988:
965:
952:
950:
947:
945:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
872:Questionnaires
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
843:
841:
838:
837:
836:
830:
827:
814:
813:
796:September 2016
764:
762:
755:
749:
746:
722:Main article:
719:
716:
713:
712:
711:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
691:
685:
679:
678:
677:
676:
672:
668:
665:
662:
655:
652:
648:
643:
639:
638:
637:
636:
633:
630:
623:
620:
611:
607:
606:
605:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
582:
577:
573:
572:
569:
548:Main article:
545:
542:
468:
465:
461:
460:
446:
440:
432:
424:
416:
408:
362:
359:
358:
357:
354:
348:
325:
310:
307:
304:
293:
290:
287:
284:
265:social science
245:
242:
241:
240:
236:
235:
234:
228:
225:speech balloon
221:
218:
212:
206:
197:
196:
195:
191:
175:
169:
152:
149:
142:
141:
138:
135:
109:questionnaires
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
93:
90:
79:
78:
75:
49:Main article:
46:
45:Questionnaires
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2457:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:Psychometrics
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2265:Eurobarometer
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2242:Afrobarometer
2240:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2230:Major surveys
2228:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2158:Psychometrics
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2120:Data analysis
2117:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2058:Sampling bias
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2040:Survey errors
2037:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1911:Questionnaire
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1871:
1869:
1864:
1863:
1860:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1726:9780078035180
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1656:(1): 79–125.
1655:
1651:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1488:(4): 503–529.
1487:
1483:
1482:
1474:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1435:
1431:(3): 419–451.
1430:
1426:
1425:
1417:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1340:
1329:
1325:
1324:"Web Probing"
1319:
1316:
1311:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1283:
1278:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1240:9781412918084
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1110:0-7923-8077-0
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1004:(1): 93–101.
1003:
999:
992:
989:
984:
980:
976:
969:
966:
960:
958:
954:
948:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
927:Item analysis
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
887:NIPO Software
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
839:
834:
831:
828:
825:
824:
823:
820:
810:
807:
799:
789:
785:
781:
775:
774:
770:
765:This section
763:
759:
754:
753:
747:
745:
741:
739:
734:
730:
725:
717:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
692:
688:
687:
686:
684:
681:
680:
673:
671:instructions.
669:
666:
663:
660:
656:
653:
649:
646:
645:
644:
641:
640:
634:
631:
628:
627:telemarketers
624:
621:
618:
614:
613:
612:
609:
608:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
583:
580:
579:
578:
575:
574:
570:
567:
566:
563:
560:
558:
551:
543:
541:
538:
534:
530:
526:
524:
518:
516:
511:
507:
504:
500:
496:
491:
489:
484:
482:
477:
473:
466:
464:
458:
454:
450:
447:
444:
441:
438:
437:
436:Expert review
433:
430:
429:
425:
422:
421:
417:
414:
413:
409:
405:
404:
400:
399:
398:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
376:questionnaire
373:
368:
360:
355:
352:
349:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
308:
305:
302:
298:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
278:
277:
276:
274:
270:
266:
258:
255:
250:
243:
237:
232:
229:
226:
222:
219:
216:
213:
210:
207:
204:
203:
201:
198:
192:
189:
185:
181:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
163:
161:
158:
157:
156:
150:
148:
145:
139:
136:
133:
132:
131:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
102:
97:
94:
91:
88:
84:
83:
82:
76:
73:
72:
71:
68:
64:
62:
58:
52:
51:Questionnaire
44:
42:
40:
39:statistically
36:
35:questionnaire
32:
19:
2339:Associations
2216:Opinion poll
2194:Applications
2018:Cohort study
1931:Unstructured
1832:
1814:
1804:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1757:
1748:
1706:
1670:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1599:
1593:
1566:
1560:
1533:
1527:
1500:
1494:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1444:
1437:
1428:
1422:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1348:
1342:
1331:. Retrieved
1327:
1318:
1291:
1285:
1258:
1218:
1212:
1195:
1191:
1165:
1161:
1125:
1119:
1092:
1086:
1059:
1053:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1001:
997:
991:
974:
968:
892:DIY research
821:
817:
802:
793:
778:Please help
766:
742:
735:
731:
727:
682:
561:
557:mode effects
553:
539:
535:
531:
527:
519:
512:
508:
498:
494:
492:
485:
478:
474:
470:
462:
448:
442:
434:
426:
419:
411:
407:interviewer.
402:
391:quantitative
388:
380:data quality
371:
370:
322:psychometric
301:Likert scale
297:rating scale
269:quantitative
262:
254:psychometric
180:Likert scale
154:
146:
143:
129:
116:
112:
106:
80:
69:
65:
54:
30:
29:
2275:Gallup Poll
2078:Frame error
2013:Panel study
1948:Methodology
1715:. pp.
1713:McGraw Hill
882:Data mining
877:Paid survey
833:demographic
738:readability
675:population.
642:Electronic
395:qualitative
85:conducting
2424:Categories
2407:Statistics
2397:Psychology
2206:Demography
2183:Structural
2178:Log-linear
1921:Structured
1395:(3): 1–8.
1333:2023-10-24
949:References
610:Telephone
481:population
372:Pretesting
365:See also:
361:Pretesting
239:pregnant).
103:Test items
37:to gather
2402:Sociology
2383:Projects
2173:Graphical
1916:Interview
1766:H.J. Adèr
983:769112327
902:Marketing
767:does not
420:Vignettes
113:test Item
2392:Politics
2387:Business
2379:Category
840:See also
476:survey.
314:reliable
281:variable
1888:Social
1018:2092790
788:removed
773:sources
659:cookies
651:itself.
576:Postal
568:Method
503:metrics
263:Within
1956:Census
1936:Couple
1847:
1815:Gallup
1768:&
1723:
1719:–175.
1581:
1548:
1515:
1461:
1363:
1306:
1273:
1237:
1140:
1107:
1074:
1016:
981:
690:cases.
343:, and
324:scale.
273:scales
1419:(PDF)
1014:JSTOR
488:scale
318:valid
257:scale
194:time.
188:scale
123:(see
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