173:
521:, despite abundant evidence of highly complex social organization, was one of the most striking aspects of the IVC cities for early excavators, and clear evidence in the usual forms of grand tombs and palaces remains lacking. Whether a ruling class was necessary in Bronze Age conditions to achieve large-scale urbanization remains an unsettled question, also related to the question of whether the IVC was a state, and if so, one state or several. Given the lack of evidence for a military-based monarch or ruling class, the model of some sort of
452:
42:
576:, which was roughly contemporary with the IVC, rising and falling a few centuries later, but whose discovery and excavation had been a couple of decades earlier. Like the IVC, this had no readable texts, so archaeologists had only the physical evidence to go on. In contrast to the IVC, a number of large and lavishly decorated "palaces" were extremely evident, but there was an absence of indications as to who, if anyone, had lived in them. The head of the excavations, Sir
301:, it is the treatment of the facial hair in particular that suggests the figure was not fully finished. While the main beard is carefully worked with parallel lines, the upper lip is also raised above the level of the surrounding flesh, but no lines have been added to show moustache hair; it is simply smooth. On the cheeks the lines for the beard continue more faintly onto the cheek, which in a finished piece would probably have been smoothed away.
264:
attached, and there are various theories as whether it was a carved "bun" or a more elaborate headdress, perhaps in other materials and only worn at times. Two holes below the ears may have been for attaching this, or perhaps a necklace. Mackay suggested the flattening was because the head was damaged, which few later writers agree with. Another possibility is that it was designed to fit into a niche with a sloping top.
419:
281:. The interiors of the raised trefoil and other shapes on this were originally filled with a red material, probably some type of paste. The interiors of the shapes were left rough, to help this adhere. The space around the shapes showed traces, at the time of the original excavation, of a material which by then was "blackish" but may originally have given a green or blue background to the relief shapes.
529:
240:
252:
shock. There is an uneven break at the bottom of the piece, with the patterned robe continuing further down at the back than the front. The nose is also damaged at the tip, but many other areas are in good condition. It has been compared to other IVC male figures, more fully complete, which show a seated position, with in some cases one raised knee and the other leg tucked beneath the body. The
509:("BMAC"). Possibly the pieces were made for people from further north living in IVC cities. Unlike the IVC, the BMAC left some rich graves suggesting a considerable degree of social differentiation, and the large settlements excavated so far each centre on a large fortified complex. These were previously described as "temples", but were perhaps more likely the residence of a local ruler.
327:
169:, single circle and double circle motifs, which show traces of red. His eyes might have originally been inlaid. The sculpture is incomplete, broken off at the bottom, and possibly unfinished. Originally it was presumably larger and probably was a full-length seated or kneeling figure. As it is now, it is 17.5 centimetres (6.9 in) high.
251:
The statuette is carved in the soft mineral of steatite, and (despite being apparently unfinished) has been fired or baked at over 1000 °C to harden it. The long crack running down the right hand side of the face, already present when it was excavated, may have been caused by this, or by a later
463:
The statue is one of the "seven principal pieces of human sculpture from
Mohenjo-daro". The others include two small full-length nude bronze female figures, both called "dancer"s by some, but alternative activities have been suggested, such as carrying offerings. There are also three male heads in
263:
The eyes are wide but narrow, apparently half-closed; there were probably inlaid pieces of shell or stone representing the pupils. The ears are very simply shaped, as on some other stone heads from the site. The back of the top of the head is flat, probably so that something now missing could be
568:
that he postulated, an explanation for the end of the IVC that is now generally discredited. In the 21st-century, power in the IVC tends to be seen as more widely spread, perhaps between families or clans, and possibly involving councils, and the decline of the cities as more gradual.
293:
and somewhat similar
Mesopotamian figures. The art historian Benjamin Rowland concluded that "the plastic conception of the head in hard, mask-like planes and certain other technical details are fairly close, and yet not close enough to prove a real relationship".
288:
had been very close, and his preliminary reports, up to 1926, called it the "Indo-Sumerian
Civilization". He then realized this was wrong, and started to use "Indus Civilization". There has been much discussion of the possible relationship between the
434:(Cat. 136). This first display of IVC finds outside India attracted considerable notice in the press. Other exhibitions include "Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus" in 2003, at the
210:
A replica is normally displayed at the
National Museum of Pakistan, while the original is kept secure. Mr. Bukhari, the director of the museum explained in 2015 "It's a national symbol. We can't take risks with it". The
729:
Several sources say that when the piece was found, one eye had the inlay still in place, though many others say the existence of inlays in the original work is "possible" or "probable"; e.g. Aruz, 385 "may have held
352:. The sculpture was found in a small passage between two of these walls, but this seems unlikely as its normal position, and it is thought that it fell or rolled into this space as the city fell into ruin.
145:
as NMP 50-852. It is widely admired, as "the sculptor combined naturalistic detail with stylized forms to create a powerful image that appears much bigger than it actually is," and excepting possibly the
494:
Steatite was widely used in the IVC; in one technique it was ground into a paste, and then fired to make decorated beads, many of which were exported. It was also the main material used for carving
438:
in New York (Cat. 272a). Replicas of the statue are popular in
Pakistan and beyond, and a replica that is much larger than the original has been erected at the entrance to the Mohenjo-daro site.
548:, who was in India in the 1940s, thought the IVC was "a state ruled by priest-kings, wielding autocratic and absolute power from two main seats of government". Wheeler agreed, and asserted:
594:
is now the usual title given to Evans's reconstruction. Like
Marshall (who had trained under Evans), he used his "priest-king" as the image on the cover of his main book on his excavations.
491:
figures from all over the IVC, most female, generally similar to those produced over much of India later, indeed up to the present day. Elaborate headdresses are a notable feature of these.
338:(later head of the ASI) in the "D-K B" area of the city, and given the find number DK-1909. The precise findspot was "a small enclosure with some curious parallel walls", possibly the
1330:
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in 1901. This was even more speculative than
Wheeler's doing so for the Mohenjo-daro figure; most scholars now doubt the fragments all come from a single figure at all, and
480:
have been proposed; there is a considerable variety in the depiction of details among them. The headless seated man may show the pose of the missing lower part of the
379:
requested the return of the IVC artefacts, as almost all of those found by the time of independence had come from sites, like
Mohenjo-daro, that were now in Pakistan.
376:
207:. An alternative designation for this and a few other IVC male figure sculptures is that they "are commemorative figures of clan leaders or ancestral figures".
304:
Possible support for interpreting the figure as a religious person are the apparent representation of the eyes as fixed on the tip of his nose, a practice in
172:
989:
Possehl, 18; Jacobsen, Thorkild (Ed) (1939),"The
Sumerian King List" (Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; Assyriological Studies, No. 11., 1939)
506:
1315:
505:
and the handful of similar pieces found in IVC contexts may draw on traditions from further north, especially the contemporary culture known as the
1340:
1310:
1253:
552:
It can no longer be doubted that, whatever the source of their authority—and a dominant religious element can fairly be assumed—the lords of
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367:, and the headquarters of the ASI, with a view to displaying them in the "Central Imperial Museum" that was planned. Eventually, after the
1281:
Ardeleanu-Jansen, A., "The
Sculptural Art of the Harappa Culture", pp. 167–178 in Michael Jansen; Máire Mulloy; Günter Urban (eds.),
1092:
916:
781:, "The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Reexamined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas", 1978,
137:, in 1925–26. It is dated to around 2000–1900 BCE, in Mohenjo-daro's Late Period, and is "the most famous stone sculpture" of the
314:. The focus on the tip of the nose was noticed by one of Marshall's Indian assistants, and Marshall saw the same feature in the
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around his head, possibly all that is left of a once-elaborate hairstyle or headdress; his hair is combed back. He wears an
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Wheeler saw the damage inflicted on the large male figures as deliberate, done during the violent overthrow of the IVC by
326:
189:
386:
188:, the archaeologist leading the excavations at the site when the piece was found, thought it might represent a "priest".
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880:
Possehl, 113–117; two of the male pieces have pages on "Harappa" (by Kenoyer); Aruz includes two as Cats. 272b and 277.
244:
142:
93:
260:, believe that this and other statues were "broken and defaced" deliberately, as their subjects lost their prestige.
435:
459:
and the three other male heads at the museum at the site; 4th ("Monkey God") and 5th from left are animal figures.
427:
335:
138:
410:
372:
1126:
199:("ASI") at the time, regarded it as possibly a "king-priest", but it appears to have been his successor, Sir
1325:
1080:
402:
451:
415:, a smaller bronze sculpture also found at Mohenjo-daro, and told Bhutto he could only choose one of them.
544:
are still thought to have had rulers combining political and religious roles. The British archaeologist
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1146:
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administered their city in a fashion not remote from that of the Priest-Kings or governors of Sumer and
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title used by the museum (with the English "King-Priest") is not an exact translation, but حاکم اعلی (
590:
498:, sometimes fired and sometimes not; many were carved then given a coating which was lightly fired.
231:
meaning a sovereign or bishop (who is entitled to sit in a chair of state on ceremonial occasions).
41:
1283:
Forgotten Cities on the Indus: Early Civilization in Pakistan from the 8th to the 2nd Millennium BC
1258:
1118:
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308:, and the similarity of the robe worn over one shoulder to later garments, including the Buddhist
832:
368:
193:
1177:"“Exciting a Wider Interest in the Art of India”: The 1931 Burlington Fine Arts Club Exhibition"
1229:
Singh, Kavita, "The Museum Is National", Chapter 4 in: Mathur, Saloni and Singh, Kavita (eds),
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1109:
1088:
924:
912:
154:
1269:
1096:
1131:
Green, A.S. "Killing the Priest-King: Addressing Egalitarianism in the Indus Civilization",
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The figure wears a toga-like outer garment that only covers one shoulder, with a pattern of
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Because of some similarities with art from there, some scholars have suggested that the
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17:
1067:
Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus
1299:
1244:
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century
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126:
1285:, 1991, Oxford University Press/Verlag Philipp von Zabern, ISBN 978-3-8053-1171-7.
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426:
The statue was exhibited in London at the exhibition of "The Art of India" at the
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85:
17.5 cm × 11 cm (6.9 in × 4.3 in )
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405:. According to a Pakistani archaeologist, Gandhi refused to return both the
360:
339:
184:
is now generally used, it is highly speculative, and "without foundation".
118:
1254:"With King Priest 'in hiding', Dancing Girl yet to take the road back home"
1121:, "The 'Priest King' from Moenjo-daro: An Iconographic Assessment", 1985,
580:, had favoured the idea of a Priest-King, and had so titled a fragmentary
476:. Various points of contrast and comparison between these pieces and the
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1142:
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The sculpture was found at a depth of 1.37 metres by the archaeologist
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166:
158:
97:
1288:
Vidale, Massimo, "A “Priest King” at Shahr-i Sokhta?", December 2017,
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344:
228:
1152:
Humes, Cynthia Ann, "Hindutva, Mythistory, and Pseudoarchaeology",
720:
Kenoyer, 62 (quoted); though in Aruz, 385 Kenoyer is more cautious.
256:
may have originally had this shape. Some archaeologists, including
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130:
1266:
Treasures from the Oxus: The Art and Civilization of Central Asia
1169:, 2005, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195222432, 0195222431,
1085:
Confronting the Classics: Traditions, Adventures, and Innovations
484:. Very likely sculpture existed in wood, but none has survived.
150:, "nothing has come to symbolize the Indus Civilization better."
305:
220:
1231:
No Touching, No Spitting, No Praying: The Museum in South Asia
176:
Views from different angles, from Marshall's published report.
389:, represented by their heads of government, respectively
271:; Pakistani sources like to suggest this is in the local
1201:
The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain
1193:, 2002, AltaMira Press, ISBN 9780759101722, 0759101728,
711:
Possehl, 115–116; Aruz, 385–388; Kenoyer, 62–63; Harappa
382:
The statue was only returned to Pakistan after the 1972
1226:
1843 online magazine, 19 January 2015 (log-in required)
284:
Marshall's first thoughts on the IVC had been that the
472:, apparently broken-off, and the headless figure of a
1069:, 2003, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.),
572:
Priest-King figures had also been postulated for the
1203:, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin,
1025:
Possehl, 57; Green; Singh (2008), 176-179; Aruz, 377
681:
Possehl, 115 (quoted); Aruz, 385; Singh (2008), 178
355:The finds from Mohenjo-daro were first sent to the
89:
81:
70:
62:
51:
32:
1191:The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective
824:Kumar; see notes 38 and 39, including quotes from
610:See for example the museum label illustrated below
871:Possehl, 113; Kenoyer thinks they carry offerings
540:archaeology, where indeed the earliest cities of
525:was widely adopted by the early archaeologists.
815:Kumar, who includes a pdf of the full catalogue.
153:The sculpture shows a neatly bearded man with a
409:and the other most iconic Indus sculpture, the
330:Discovery of the statue, 1925–26, Mohenjo-daro.
27:Stone sculpture found at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan
1108:, 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in USA),
765:
763:
487:There are also very numerous small and simple
1331:Collection of the National Museum of Pakistan
1246:, 2008, Pearson Longman, ISBN 9788131716779,
853:Aruz, Cat #s 272b and 275b are included here.
141:("IVC"). It is now in the collection of the
8:
1123:Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale
121:found during the excavation of the ruined
29:
1268:, 2017, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 9781838609764,
998:Quoted by Possehl, 19; Singh (2008), 176
532:Tourist replicas on sale at Mohenjo-daro
923:, 1994, 157-160, British Museum Press,
668:
666:
629:
627:
625:
603:
507:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
689:
687:
517:The absence of evidence of a powerful
1149:), Harappa.com. retrieved 6 June 2021
1073:, (relevant IVC catalogue entries by
371:in 1947, this was established as the
117:, is a small male figure sculpted in
7:
1125:, vol. 45, issue=1, pp. 19–24,
739:Aruz, 385; Possehl, 114–115; Harappa
1133:Journal of Archaeological Research
619:Kenoyer, 62 (quoted); Possehl, 114
25:
1292:15, DOI:10.1016/j.ara.2017.12.001
931:; Aruz, 391–392; Clark, Sharri, "
911:, 12, 2000, Thames & Hudson,
422:The over-size replica at the site
40:
1316:1925 archaeological discoveries
1290:Archaeological Research in Asia
430:in 1931 (Cat. 114), as was the
377:Pakistani heritage authorities
219:), a well-known expression in
197:Archaeological Survey of India
1:
1341:Sculptures of men in Pakistan
1167:The Ancient South Asian World
1165:, Heuston, Kimberley Burton,
1106:Indian Art: A Concise History
322:Excavation and recent history
1311:2nd-millennium BC sculptures
1135:, volume 29, 153–202, 2021,
980:Green; Singh (2008), 176-179
1143:"Priest King," Mohenjo-daro
748:Possehl, 114–115; Aruz, 385
702:Shamsie (with quote); Tunio
359:, but later transferred to
245:National Museum of Pakistan
243:The cast on display in the
203:, who was the first to use
143:National Museum of Pakistan
94:National Museum of Pakistan
1357:
953:Aruz, 355, 366; Vidale, 56
935:", Harappa.com; Craven, 19
909:Hindu Art and Architecture
436:Metropolitan Museum of Art
387:between Pakistan and India
1083:, "Builder of Ruins", in
428:Burlington Fine Arts Club
336:Kashinath Narayan Dikshit
139:Indus Valley civilization
39:
1119:During Caspers, E. C. L.
962:Vidale, 40-42; Aruz, 351
907:Michell, George (2000),
373:National Museum of India
1218:"The birth of a nation"
944:Rowland, 37; Craven, 14
919:; Blurton, T. Richard,
403:Prime Minister of India
18:Priest-king (sculpture)
562:
536:This had support from
533:
460:
423:
331:
286:links with Mesopotamia
248:
177:
1306:20th-century BC works
1147:Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
1007:Quoted by Possehl, 18
797:Singh (2015), 111–112
642:Possehl, 114 (quoted)
550:
531:
454:
421:
395:President of Pakistan
363:, the new capital of
329:
258:Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
242:
175:
1156:, 59(2/3), 178–201,
933:Embodying Indus Life
785:, 73(5/6), 767-797,
591:Prince of the Lilies
111:, in Pakistan often
1321:Pakistani sculpture
1259:The Express Tribune
1235:PDF on academia.edu
1233:, 2015, Routledge,
1199:Rowland, Benjamin,
1187:Possehl, Gregory A.
1181:British Art Studies
1087:, 2013, Liveright,
574:Minoan civilization
391:Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
186:Ernest J. H. Mackay
833:The Times of India
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369:partition of India
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192:, head of the pre-
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1264:Vidale, Massimo,
1065:Aruz, Joan (ed),
190:Sir John Marshall
103:
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16:(Redirected from
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1141:"Harappa": "
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1081:Beard, Mary
1043:Possehl, 10
769:Rowland, 34
757:Possehl, 12
503:Priest-King
496:Indus seals
482:Priest-King
478:Priest-King
407:Priest-King
291:Priest-King
254:Priest-King
235:Description
205:Priest-King
182:Priest-King
114:King-Priest
108:Priest-King
57:prehistoric
34:Priest-King
1300:Categories
1209:0140561021
1183:, Issue 13
1114:0500201463
1060:References
898:Craven, 24
489:terracotta
474:Seated Man
457:Seated Man
375:. The new
217:hakim aala
123:Bronze Age
82:Dimensions
1052:Beard, 20
921:Hindu Art
889:Aruz, 388
827:The Times
783:Anthropos
633:Aruz, 385
523:theocracy
470:alabaster
466:limestone
361:New Delhi
340:hypocaust
194:Partition
55:unknown,
311:saṃghāti
269:trefoils
247:in 2013.
161:, and a
135:Pakistan
125:city of
119:steatite
90:Location
76:steatite
844:Shamsie
730:inlay".
651:Harappa
586:Knossos
554:Harappa
442:Context
225:Persian
167:trefoil
159:armband
98:Karachi
1207:
1145:" (by
1137:online
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582:relief
401:, the
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393:, the
345:hammam
342:for a
229:Arabic
155:fillet
74:fired
52:Artist
1158:JSTOR
1154:Numen
806:Tunio
787:JSTOR
598:Notes
558:Akkad
542:Sumer
350:sauna
274:ajrak
163:cloak
131:Sindh
1205:ISBN
1110:ISBN
1089:ISBN
925:ISBN
913:ISBN
306:yoga
221:Urdu
105:The
71:Type
63:Year
1179:,
1127:PDF
468:or
447:Art
348:or
129:in
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