Product liability - Knowledge (XXG)

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the recurrence of others, as the public cannot. Those who suffer injury from defective products are unprepared to meet its consequences. The cost of an injury and the loss of time or health may be an overwhelming misfortune to the person injured, and a needless one, for the risk of injury can be insured by the manufacturer and distributed among the public as a cost of doing business. It is to the public interest to discourage the marketing of products having defects that are a menace to the public. If such products nevertheless find their way into the market it is to the public interest to place the responsibility for whatever injury they may cause upon the manufacturer, who, even if he is not negligent in the manufacture of the product, is responsible for its reaching the market. However intermittently such injuries may occur and however haphazardly they may strike, the risk of their occurrence is a constant risk and a general one. Against such a risk there should be general and constant protection and the manufacturer is best situated to afford such protection.

1634:. In the United States, Volkswagen quickly settled the consolidated consumer class action and agreed to pay US$ 11.2 billion directly to consumers affected by its allegedly defective diesel vehicles. In contrast, consumers in Europe and elsewhere around the world had to fight much longer and harder for less compensation. Many of them were unimpressed with Volkswagen's vigorous advocacy of legal defenses based on technical differences between different nations' environmental laws; from their perspective, they had paid for a "clean diesel" car, they did not get a "clean diesel" car, and did not understand why they deserved far less compensation than American consumers for what they perceived to be the same defect. This embarrassed Germany into dropping its longstanding opposition to European 1133:) embraced this "bold new doctrine" during the late 1960s and 1970s. As of 2018, the five exceptions who have rejected strict liability are Delaware, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, and Virginia. In four of those states, warranty law has been so broadly construed in favor of plaintiffs that only North Carolina truly lacks anything resembling strict liability in tort for defective products. (North Carolina's judiciary never attempted to adopt the doctrine, and the state legislature enacted a statute expressly banning strict liability for defective products in 1995.) In a landmark 1986 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court also embraced strict liability for defective products by adopting it as part of 1558:(NHS) in 1948, 80% of pharmaceuticals were provided to patients through the NHS. By assuming financial responsibility for the provision of drugs, the government had thereby barred the majority of mothers (the actual product users) and their infants from bringing breach of warranty claims sounding in contract. For such victims, their only possible claim was a negligence claim sounding in tort, but it is so difficult under English law to prove the standard of care of a reasonable drug manufacturer that as of late 1993, none had ever been held liable in an English court under a negligence theory (although there had been a number of out-of-court settlements). 3850:"Commission Staff Working Document, Evaluation of Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products Accompanying the document Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee on the Application of the Council Directive on the approximation of the laws, regulations, and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products (85/374/EEC) (SWD/2018/157 final)" 1336:

intended to build, but the plaintiff is contending that the design itself is defective. The Third Restatement expressly prefers to measure defective design in terms of whether the product design's risks outweigh its benefits, and expressly deprecates the consumer expectations test associated with Section 402A of the Second Restatement. As noted above, state courts either use one test or the other or both. The Third Restatement also places the burden of proof on the plaintiff to prove that risks outweigh benefits by proving the feasibility of a safer alternative design.

1227:) to manage an ever-increasing number of complex civil cases. For the first time, by the end of 2018 more than half (51.9%) of all pending American federal civil cases had been centralized into MDLs, with 156,511 cases in 248 MDLs out of a total of 301,766 civil cases. Product liability was the dominant category both in terms of percentage of total active MDLs (32.9%) and percentage of total civil cases centralized into MDLs (91%). 1294:. This attempt to resurrect negligence and to limit strict liability to its original home in manufacturing defects "has been highly controversial among courts and scholars." In arguing in 2018 that U.S. product liability law as restated in 1998 had come full circle back to where it started in 1964, two law professors also conceded that "some courts" continue to "tenaciously cling to the rationale and doctrine of 402A." 791: 1517:

products that cause damage only to themselves. In other words, strict liability is unavailable for defects that merely render the product unusable (or less useful), and hence cause only economic injury, but do not cause personal injury or damage to other property. Breach of warranty actions governed by Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code also often fail to provide adequate remedies in such situations.

1212:, the number of product liability civil actions filed per year increased from 2,393 in 1975 to 13,408 in 1989, and product liability's percentage of all federal civil cases increased from 2.0% to 5.7% during the same period. These numbers reflect only a small portion of the 1980s explosion in product liability cases; the vast majority of American lawsuits are heard in state courts and not federal courts. 1286:

Risk-benefit analysis, of course, can be seen as a way of measuring the reasonableness of the defendant's conduct—or in other words, negligence. A neo-conservative turn among many American courts and tort scholars during the 1980s led to a recognition that liability in design defect and failure-to-warn cases had never been entirely strict, or had been operating in some respects as a

1769:, price-sensitive markets, price increases cause some consumers to seek substitutes for that product. As a result, they say, manufacturers may not produce the socially optimal level of goods. Proponents respond that these consumer opt outs reflect a product whose absolute harm outweighs its absolute value; products that do more harm than good ought not be produced. 1591:, the Directive's preface states that "liability without fault on the part of the producer is the sole means of adequately solving the problem, peculiar to our age of increasing technicality, of a fair apportionment of the risks inherent in modern technological production." The Directive gave each member state the option of imposing a liability cap of 70 million 1762:. They claim that strict liability causes consumers to under invest in care even when they are the least-cost avoiders. This, they say, results in a lower aggregate level of care than under a negligence standard. Proponents counter that people have enough natural incentive to avoid inflicting serious harm on themselves to mitigate this concern. 968:. For example, one method was to find implied warranties implicit in the nature of certain contracts; by the end of the 19th century, enough U.S. states had adopted an implied warranty of merchantable quality that this warranty was restated in statutory form in the U.S. Uniform Sales Act of 1906, which drew inspiration from the British 1600:"turn from the law on the books to the law in action." In the real world, the actual protection afforded to consumers by product liability law "depends heavily on whether claims are realistically enforceable," and that depends upon whether the procedural law of the forum state is actually able to facilitate access to justice. 1609:

raised as a defense to discovery by French defendants in American product liability cases. Since the defendant usually possesses most of the extant evidence of a product defect, in most European countries it is "very difficult, if not impossible, for a victim or her lawyer to investigate a product liability case."

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of 1971 for the 11 countries that are party to it. The country where the damage occurred determines the applicable law, if that country is also the residence of the person suffering damage, the principal place of business of the person held liable or the place where the product was bought. If that is

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staff reported that from 2000 to 2016, a total of only 798 product liability claims had been filed in the national courts of EU member states. As of 2020, the much smaller number of cases in the UK meant that "English case law ha barely begun to consider" many of the product liability issues already

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As of 2003, on the one hand, product liability had expanded around the world within the past two decades to become a "global phenomenon," and therefore, "the United States is no longer the only country with tough product liability rules." On the other hand, the picture looked very different when one

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Failure-to-warn defects arise in products that carry inherent nonobvious dangers which can be mitigated through adequate warnings to the user, and which are present regardless of how well the product is manufactured and designed for its intended purpose. This class of defects also includes failure to

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decision which led to the emergence of product liability as a distinct field of private law. In 1993, it was reported that "o other country can match the United States for the number and diversity of its product liability cases, nor for the prominence of the subject in the eyes of the general public

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The overwhelming majority of countries have strongly preferred to address product liability through legislative means. In most countries, this occurred either by enacting a separate product liability act, adding product liability rules to an existing civil code, or including strict liability within a

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proposals, and the country also made reforms to its domestic civil procedure. As a result, on 25 November 2020, the European Parliament and Council adopted the Directive on Representative Actions. Paragraph 1 of Article 1 of the Directive states that it is intended "to improve consumers' access to

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From the mid-1960s onward, state courts struggled for over four decades to develop a coherent test for design defects, either phrased in terms of consumer expectations or whether risks outweigh benefits or both (i.e., a hybrid test in which the first does not apply to defects that are too complex).

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heralded a fundamental shift in how Americans thought about product liability towards a theory of enterprise liability—instead of basing liability on the defendant's "fault" or "warranty", the defendant's liability should be predicated, as a matter of public policy, on the simple question of whether

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In addition to common law remedies, many states have enacted consumer protection statutes that provide specific remedies for certain specific types of product defects. One reason for the appearance of such statutes is that under the "economic loss rule", strict liability in tort is unavailable for

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Even if there is no negligence, however, public policy demands that responsibility be fixed wherever it will most effectively reduce the hazards to life and health inherent in defective products that reach the market. It is evident that the manufacturer can anticipate some hazards and guard against

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Between two parties who are not negligent (manufacturer and consumer), one will necessarily shoulder the costs of product defects. Proponents say it is preferable to place the economic costs on the manufacturer because it can better absorb them and pass them on to other consumers. The manufacturer

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strongly dislike and oppose the American principle of broad discovery in civil litigation. For example, since 1968, it has been a crime for a French company to produce commercial information in foreign legal proceedings without express authorization from a French court, and in turn, this has been

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per defect. Unlike the United States, the Directive only imposed strict liability upon "producers"—that is, manufacturers of raw materials, component parts, and finished products, as well as importers—and deviated significantly from the American model by deciding not to impose strict liability on

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country outside of the United States where plaintiffs were able to recover noneconomic damages above US$ 300,000 for even the most catastrophic injuries. As of 2015, product liability in Europe "has remained a fairly minor field which generates fewer cases, more modest awards, and rarely makes it

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The various implied warranties cover those expectations common to all products (e.g., that a tool is not unreasonably dangerous when used for its proper purpose), unless specifically disclaimed by the manufacturer or the seller. They are implied by operation of law from the act of manufacturing,

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published competing visions for the future of the nascent field of product liability. James acknowledged that traditional negligence and warranty law were inadequate solutions for the problems presented by defective products, but argued in 1955 those issues could be resolved by a modification of

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Early proponents of strict liability believed its economic impact would be minor because they were focused on manufacturing defects. They failed to foresee the logical implications of applying the rule to other types of product defects. Only in the late 1960s did Americans begin to draw a clear

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Traditionally, European courts have provided no discovery or rather minimal discovery (by American standards). Where available, European discovery is rarely self-executing (that is, automatically effective by operation of law), meaning that the defendant and third parties have no obligation to

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analytical distinction between manufacturing and design defects, and since the early 1980s, defective design claims "have formed the overwhelming bulk" of American product liability lawsuits. It was "the unintended application of 402A to the design context" which resulted in the explosion of

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Prosser inexplicably imposed in Section 402A a requirement that a product defect must be "unreasonably dangerous." Since the "unreasonably dangerous" qualifier implicitly connotes some sense of the idea of "fault" which Traynor was trying to exorcise from product liability, it was subsequently

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of the 19th century. As a subset of personal injury cases, product liability cases were extraordinarily rare, but it appears that in the few that were brought, the general rule at early common law was probably what modern observers would call no-fault or strict liability. In other words, the

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Design defects occur where the product design is inherently dangerous or useless (and hence defective) no matter how carefully manufactured. In other words, the defective product is the same as every other one on the same assembly line because it is exactly what the manufacturer designed and

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Rather than focus on the behavior of the manufacturer (as in negligence), strict liability claims focus on the product itself. Under strict liability, the manufacturer is liable if the product is defective, even if the manufacturer was not negligent in making that product defective.

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parties involved in the manufacturing, distribution, and sale of defective products (including retailers). In 1969, the court then held that such defendants were liable not only to direct customers and users, but also to any innocent bystanders randomly injured by defective products.

1153:, which would eventually cause Congress to enact several landmark federal product safety and vehicle safety statutes. Between 1960 and 1977, Congress passed at least forty-two laws dealing with consumer and worker safety. Second, American academic experts in the field of 1046:

which led to the actual emergence of product liability as a distinct field of private law in its own right. Before this point, products had appeared in case law and scholarly literature only in connection with the application of existing doctrines in contract and tort.

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court helped articulate the rationale for the imminent shift from breach of warranty (sounding in contract) to strict liability (sounding in tort) as the dominant theory in product liability cases, but did not actually impose strict liability for defective products.

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purely domestic distributors or retailers. By using the 20-year-old Section 402A as their model, the Directive's drafters decided not to include a number of changes such as the subsequent differentiation between three major types of product defects used in the US.

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literature, there is a debate about whether liability and regulation are substitutes or complements. If they are substitutes, then either liability or regulation should be used. If they are complements, then the joint use of liability and regulation is optimal.

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Other obstacles—especially in civil law countries—include high filing fees, no right to a jury trial, low damages for pain and suffering, the unavailability of punitive damages, and the unavailability (before the 2010s) of class actions. As of 2003, there was

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The United States and the European Union's product liability regimes are the two leading models for how to impose strict liability for defective products, meaning that "irtually every product liability regime in the world follows one of these two models."

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and legal practitioners." This was still true as of 2015: "In the United States, product liability continues to play a big role: litigation is much more frequent there than anywhere else in the world, awards are higher, and publicity is significant."

961:(1842)). During the Second Industrial Revolution of the mid-to-late 19th century, consumers increasingly became several steps removed from the original manufacturers of products and the unjust effects of all these doctrines became widely evident. 1320:

However, in most states, these are not legal claims in and of themselves, but are pleaded in terms of the legal theories mentioned above. For example, a plaintiff might plead negligent failure to warn or strict liability for defective design.

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In the United States, the majority of product liability laws are determined at the state level and vary widely from state to state. Each type of product liability claim requires proof of different elements in order to present a valid claim.

1191:'s editorial board to extending warranties to bystander victims before 1966—in states whose legislatures had not already acted, state courts were more receptive to extending the common law to grant bystanders a strict liability tort claim. 1524:, which provide protection to purchasers of defective new vehicles and, in a small number of states, used vehicles. In the United States, "cars are typically the second most valuable asset most people own, outranked only by their home." 1739:

between manufacturers and consumers. Manufacturers have better knowledge of their own products' dangers than do consumers. Therefore, manufacturers properly bear the burden of finding, correcting, and warning consumers of those dangers.

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explored thoroughly by American courts, which therefore required an English legal treatise to cite to a "significant proportion" of American cases in order to illustrate where English product liability law could go in the future.

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The thalidomide scandal highlighted the need for a strict product liability claim sounding in tort because the affected infants were mere bystander victims, as distinguished from product buyers or users. After the UK formed the

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warranty law "tailored to meet modern needs," while Prosser argued in 1960 that strict liability in tort ought to be "declared outright" without "an illusory contract mask." Ultimately, it was Prosser's view which prevailed.

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The legislatures of many other countries outside the EU (then: EEC) subsequently enacted strict liability regimes based on the European model (that is, generally applying only to manufacturers and importers), including

1728:. Strict liability thus requires manufacturers to evaluate the full costs of their products. In this way, strict liability provides a mechanism for ensuring that a product's absolute good outweighs its absolute harm. 1282:. However, the majority of states left untouched the basic rule of strict liability for defective products, and all efforts at the federal level to enact a uniform federal product liability regime were unsuccessful. 3956:"Directive (EU) 2020/1828 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2020 on representative actions for the protection of the collective interests of consumers and repealing Directive 2009/22/EC" 1170:

To this, Kyle Graham adds three more factors: (3) the rise of attorneys specializing exclusively in plaintiffs' personal injury cases and their professional associations like the organization now known as the

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on the part of the defendant (i.e., that the defendant was at fault because its conduct had failed to meet the standard of care expected of a reasonable person), and to overcome the defense of lack of

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it was part of a business enterprise responsible for inflicting injuries on human beings. The theoretical foundation for enterprise liability had been laid by James as well as another law professor,

1546:), UK product liability law did not change any further for many decades, despite "trenchant academic criticism". Strict liability for defective products finally came to Europe as a result of the 947:(due to increased mobility of both people and products), common law courts in both England and the United States in the 1840s erected further barriers to plaintiffs by requiring them to prove 1290:

fault-based regime all along, and the American Law Institute expressly backed a return to tests associated with negligence for design and warning defects with the 1998 publication of the

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in the world. No other country has adopted the U.S. standard of disclosure of information that is "reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence." American

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for the injuries those products cause. Although the word "product" has broad connotations, product liability as an area of law is traditionally limited to products in the form of

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As of 2015, in most countries outside of the United States and European Union, "product liability remains largely a regime of paper rules with little practical impact"

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not the case, the law of the country of residence is used, provided the product was bought there, or it was the principal place of business of the person held liable.

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Common law courts began to shift towards a no-liability regime for products (except for cases of fraud or breach of express warranty) by developing the doctrine of

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Express warranty claims focus on express statements by the manufacturer or the seller concerning the product (e.g., "This chainsaw is useful to cut turkeys").

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The copy available through the direct link from the article title is the preprint version. The final version with as-published pagination, linked from the

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rejected as incompatible with strict liability for defective products by Alaska, California, Georgia, New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico and West Virginia.

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Critics charge that the requiring manufacturers to internalize costs they would otherwise externalize increases the price of goods. Critics claim that in

1755:, not imprudence. Where causation is easy to establish, parties to a strict liability suit will most likely settle, because only damages are in dispute. 214: 4074:

Kolstad, Charles D.; Ulen, Thomas S.; Johnson, Gary V. (1990). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements?".

3965: 1332:. In other words, the defective product differs from the others on the same assembly line and does not conform to the manufacturer's intended design. 1373:

Warranties are statements by a manufacturer or seller concerning a product during a commercial transaction. Warranty claims historically required

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Ewerhart, Christian; Schmitz, Patrick W. (1998). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements? Comment".

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vividly highlighted the deficiencies of European civil procedure as applied to a defendant who had already publicly admitted to violations of

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Reimann, Mathias (2003). "Liability for Defective Products at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century: Emergence of a Worldwide Standard".

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and Section 402A "with great interest", European countries did not initially adopt such a doctrine. For example, after the landmark case of

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Among the factors which led to the large numbers of product liability cases seen today in the United States are relatively low fees for

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Advocates of strict liability laws argue that strict products liability causes manufacturers to internalize costs they would normally

1220: 1092:"has had an enormous impact on the way legal scholars have understood products liability and tort law more generally". The year after 821: 4058: 3992: 3886: 3771: 3737: 3700: 3650: 3614: 3580: 3541: 3503: 3412: 3376: 3340: 3311: 3272: 3231: 3192: 3135: 3103: 3036: 3000: 2973: 2943: 2913: 2883: 2856: 2822: 2795: 2672: 2601: 2564: 2523: 2490: 2463: 2429: 2390: 2293: 2259: 2225: 2077: 2045: 2013: 1979: 1130: 3453: 2139: 1172: 1067: 965: 3924: 1631: 540: 2736: 2341: 1328:

Manufacturing defects are those that occur in the manufacturing process and usually involve poor-quality materials or shoddy

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State courts in the United States began to look for ways to ameliorate the harsh effects of such legal doctrines, as did the

943:(buyer beware) in the early 1600s. As personal injury and product liability claims began to slowly increase during the early 3955: 2357: 2101: 1550:

and the victims' ensuing struggle during the 1960s to obtain adequate compensation, especially in the UK and West Germany.

1262:" evidence of product defects and made defendants pay "a tremendous price" for their callous disregard for product safety. 2707: 1791: 1458: 990: 3157: 1627: 1114: 930: 330: 1117:. The Institute approved the Restatement's final draft in 1964 and published it in 1965; the Restatement codified the 1580: 1576: 1134: 1113:

holding to a nationwide audience because the American Law Institute had appointed him as the official reporter of the

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comprehensive Consumer Protection Act. In the United States, product liability law was developed primarily through

320: 1381:, they must be dealing directly with one another. As noted above, this requirement was demolished in the landmark 2178: 1819: 1275: 635: 484: 2140:"Technological Triggers to Tort Revolutions: Steam Locomotives, Autonomous Vehicles, and Accident Compensation" 1605: 1216: 1011:(1960), which demolished the privity bar to recovery in actions for breach of implied warranty. Prosser cited 846: 668: 652: 219: 179: 1732:

thus becomes a de facto insurer against its defective products, with premiums built into the product's price.

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The United States was the birthplace of modern product liability law during the 20th century, due to the 1963

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in the world, the highest awards of monetary damages in the world (frequently in the millions of dollars for

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and Section 402A. First, they came along just as Americans were coalescing around a consensus in favor of

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Online access to this source requires a subscription to JSTOR or the Oxford Academic database operated by

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displaced glass bottles as the primary beverage container during the 1970s; and (5) the resistance of the

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movement appeared in the 1980s which persuaded many state legislatures to enact various limitations like

3833: 2758: 1736: 1472:(using a manufacturer's violation of a law or regulation, in place of proof of a duty and a breach) and 976: 957: 944: 689: 663: 582: 472: 467: 429: 224: 184: 171: 4015: 3849: 994:(1916), which demolished the privity bar to recovery in negligence actions. By 1955, James was citing 998:

to argue that "he citadel of privity has crumbled," although Maine, the last holdout, would not adopt

1807: 1786: 1538: 161: 101: 1456:, the scope of the duty of care was limited to those with whom one was in privity. Later cases like 3923:; Kalajdzic, Jasminka; Cashman, Peter; Gómez, Manuel A.; Halfmeier, Axel; Tzankova, Ianika (2021). 2538: 1850: 1802: 1619: 1547: 1362: 1150: 1126: 952: 526: 520: 479: 416: 239: 40: 3796: 4153: 4110: 4083: 4048: 2168: 1932: 1635: 1358: 1243: 1062: 1033:

openly articulated and adopted the doctrine of strict liability in tort for defective products.

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are replete with plaintiffs whose counsel artfully exploited this standard to obtain so-called "

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Over time, negligence concepts have arisen to deal with certain specific situations, including

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The first step towards modern product liability law occurred in the landmark New York case of

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distributing, or selling the product. Claims involving real estate (especially mass-produced

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developed new theories that helped to justify strict liability, such as those articulated by

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in cases where the plaintiff had not dealt directly with the manufacturer (as exemplified by

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In the conventional narrative, there are two main factors that explain the rapid embrace of

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The Globalization of Mass Civil Litigation: Lessons from the Volkswagen "Clean Diesel" Case

3920: 1855: 1835: 1752: 1251: 1175:; (4) the ubiquity of so-called "bottle cases" (personal injury cases arising from broken 1158: 926: 858: 381: 310: 293: 4128:

Shavell, Steven (1984). "A Model of the Optimal Use of Liability and Safety Regulation".

1075:, now also widely recognized as a landmark case, Justice Traynor laid the foundation for 1561:

The first international effort in Europe to harmonize product liability resulted in the

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Understanding Enterprise Liability: Rethinking Tort Reform for the Twenty-First Century

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Breach of warranty-based product liability claims usually focus on one of three types:

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Managing Records in Global Financial Markets: Ensuring Compliance and Mitigating Risk

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broadened the duty of care to all who could be foreseeably injured by one's conduct.

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In the United States, the claims most commonly associated with product liability are

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Under Cover of Science: American Legal-Economic Theory and the Quest for Objectivity

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O'Connell, Jeffrey; Linehan, John (2006). Carrington, Paul D.; Jones, Trina (eds.).

2995:. Washington, D.C.: AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies. p. 10. 1759: 1697: 1235: 1231: 1180: 1176: 777: 764: 754: 719: 673: 259: 3667:"European Convention on Products Liability in regard to Personal Injury and Death" 1224: 975:

During the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, American law professors Fleming James Jr. and

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Area of law in which product manufacturers are held responsible for damages caused

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Product Liability Forum - British Institute of International and Comparative Law

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The best-known examples of consumer protection statutes for product defects are

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The law that needs to be applied in product liability cases is governed by the

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During the late 2010s, the comparative outcomes for consumers affected by the

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In subsequent decades, American federal judges began to heavily rely upon the

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product liability cases during the 1980s throughout the United States. In the

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For a variety of complex historical reasons beyond the scope of this article,

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Société Nationale Industrielle Aérospatiale v. United States District Court,

3094:. In Coleman, Lynn; Lemieux, Victoria L.; Stone, Rod; Yeo, Geoffrey (eds.). 1748: 1673: 1661: 1521: 1205: 929:

lawsuits in tort for monetary damages were virtually nonexistent before the

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into the headlines" (in comparison to its American cousin). In July 2018,

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A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America

2156: 1418:) may also be brought under a theory of implied warranty of habitability. 1096:, the Supreme Court of California proceeded to extend strict liability to 2992:

Product Liability Entering the Twenty-First Century: The U.S. Perspective

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disclose anything unless and until the plaintiff obtains a court order.

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the breach was the cause in fact of the plaintiff's injury (actual cause)

879: 866: 749: 609: 372: 269: 91: 4217:

Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Product Liability

2418:"The Rise and Fall (and Rise Again?) of Accident Law: A Continuing Saga" 2288:(Expanded ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 169–170. 4157: 4087: 3960: 3575:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 3407:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 3335:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 3187:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 2667:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 2385:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 2254:(2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 202–230. 1936: 1566:

Convention on Products Liability in regard to Personal Injury and Death

1374: 604: 572: 452: 274: 4114: 3490:

Speidel, Richard E. (2006). Carrington, Paul D.; Jones, Trina (eds.).

3029:

The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics

1494:

Under a strict liability theory, the plaintiff merely needs to prove:

2543:, 24 Cal. 2d 453, 462, 150 P.2d 436 (1944) (Traynor, J., concurring). 2100:

Logan, Michael A.; Mayer, Zach T.; Fisher, Brian J. (5 August 2010).

1681: 1665: 1653: 1649: 1340:

provide relevant product instructions or sufficient product warnings.

1306:

distinguishes between three major types of product liability claims:

850: 647: 614: 4141: 3856:. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 5 July 2018 1928: 1324:

The three types of product liability claims are defined as follows:

1246:

noneconomic damages and in rare cases soaring into the billions for

2102:"Products Liability: Protection for the "Innocent" Seller in Texas" 3303:

A History of Civil Litigation: Political and Economic Perspectives

2935:

A History of Civil Litigation: Political and Economic Perspectives

2848:

A History of Civil Litigation: Political and Economic Perspectives

2455:

A History of Civil Litigation: Political and Economic Perspectives

1677: 1406:

Breach of an implied warranty of fitness for a particular purpose.

1329: 424: 3571:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 3454:"Products Defective because of Inadequate Directions or Warnings" 3403:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 3331:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 3183:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 2663:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 2381:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 2250:. In Howells, Geraint; Ramsay, Iain; Wilhelmsson, Thomas (eds.). 1652:(March 1980, based on an early proposed draft of the Directive), 1657: 1592: 1446:

and the plaintiff suffered actual quantifiable injury (damages).

438: 31: 3763:

Failures of American Civil Justice in International Perspective

1498:

the defendant manufactured, distributed, or supplied a product;

3797:"Grenfell cladding manufacturer declines to release documents" 2485:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 166. 838: 3881:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 15. 3025:"Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts" 1377:

between the injured party and the manufacturer or seller; in

1125:

and Section 402A "spread like wildfire across America". The

4221: 3987:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 3695:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 3645:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–47. 3536:. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. pp. 62–63. 3371:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 3226:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 3066:"Multidistrict Litigation: Dominating the Federal Docket" 2220:(3rd ed.). St. Paul: West Academic. pp. 14–22. 2072:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 1974:. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 250–278. 3533:

Net Worth: Shaping Markets when Customers Make the Rules

3092:"Chapter 2: Conflicts of laws in multiple jurisdictions" 2040:. Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Company. p. 201. 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3492:"Consumers and the American Contract System: A Polemic" 1874:

Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability, § 19.

1476:(an inference of negligence under certain conditions). 3766:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 151. 2596:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 117. 1735:

Strict liability also seeks to diminish the impact of

1713:

Convention on the Law Applicable to Products Liability

1015:

in 1960 as the "fall of the citadel of privity." The

934:

plaintiff only needed to prove causation and damages.

4173:"On the joint use of liability and safety regulation" 3609:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 37. 3151: 3149: 3147: 3130:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 33. 2968:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 26. 2790:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 30. 1758:

Critics charge that strict liability creates risk of

1443:

the breach proximately caused the plaintiff's injury.

1129:

of nearly all U.S. states and territories (and a few

4050:

Product Liability: Winning Strategies and Techniques

2905:

Product Liability: Winning Strategies and Techniques

2553:

Goldberg, John C. P.; Zipursky, Benjamin C. (2010).

2002:

Goldberg, John C. P.; Zipursky, Benjamin C. (2010).

1088:

Traynor's argument for imposing strict liability in

1005:

The second step was the landmark New Jersey case of

3721: 3719: 3496:

Law and Class in America: Trends Since the Cold War

3267:. New York: New York University Press. p. 63. 3119: 3117: 3115: 2957: 2955: 2938:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–32. 2851:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2750:

East River S. S. Corp. v. Transamerica Delaval Inc.

2422:

Law and Class in America: Trends Since the Cold War

1023:The third step was the landmark California case of 3795: 3573:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 3562: 3560: 3405:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 3333:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 3185:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 2665:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 2654: 2652: 2507: 2383:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 2372: 2370: 2252:Handbook of Research on International Consumer Law 2241: 2239: 2237: 2138: 3875:Fairgrieve, Duncan; Goldberg, Richard S. (2020). 3295: 3293: 3291: 3213: 3211: 3085: 3083: 2927: 2925: 2708:"Strict Products Liability at 50: Four Histories" 2585: 2583: 1316:Failure to warn (also known as marketing defects) 3498:. New York: New York University Press: 260–278. 3252: 3250: 2559:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 280. 2424:. New York: New York University Press: 349–363. 2059: 2057: 2008:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 270. 1961: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1583:. In language resembling what Traynor wrote in 1304:Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability 3983:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 3691:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 3367:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 3306:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 91. 3222:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 2458:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 27. 2068:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 1970:. In Bussani, Mauro; Sebok, Anthony J. (eds.). 1908: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1292:Restatement of Torts, Third: Products Liability 4053:. New York: Law Journal Press. pp. 2–10. 3569:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 3401:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 3329:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 3181:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 2878:. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 111. 2661:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 2379:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 2248:"Products liability law in America and Europe" 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1504:the defect caused injury to the plaintiff; and 3059: 3057: 3055: 2908:. New York: Law Journal Press. pp. 2–9. 2514:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 2358:Top 10 in torts: evolution in the common law. 2332:Kiely, Terrence F.; Ottley, Bruce L. (2006). 1507:as a result, the plaintiff sustained damages. 1266:Tort reform and the neo-conservative reaction 815: 8: 4047:Heafey, Richard J.; Kennedy, Don M. (2006). 3098:. London: Facet Publishing. pp. 17–32. 2902:Heafey, Richard J.; Kennedy, Don M. (2006). 2285:Tort Law in America: An Intellectual History 75:Intentional infliction of emotional distress 3064:Wittenberg, Daniel S. (February 19, 2020). 3031:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 37–96. 2989:Moore, Michael J.; Viscusi, W. Kip (2001). 2556:The Oxford Introductions to U.S. Law: Torts 2411: 2409: 2005:The Oxford Introductions to U.S. Law: Torts 1109:In turn, Prosser was able to propagate the 4042: 4040: 4038: 4036: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3729:European Community Law for the New Economy 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3072:. American Bar Association. Archived from 2897: 2895: 2817:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 360. 822: 808: 215:Negligent infliction of emotional distress 18: 4180:International Review of Law and Economics 3985:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 3966:Publications Office of the European Union 3693:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 3567:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 3399:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 3369:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 3327:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 3224:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 3179:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2659:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 2377:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 2336:. Newark: Matthew Bender. pp. 2–21. 2327: 2325: 2246:Howells, Geraint; Owen, David G. (2018). 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2070:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 1972:Comparative Tort Law: Global Perspectives 1199:The mass tort product liability explosion 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 1105:Nationwide adoption of product liability 2590:Nolan, Virginia; Ursin, Edmund (1995). 2211: 1916:The American Journal of Comparative Law 1867: 1057:was authored by then-Associate Justice 737: 681: 622: 564: 497: 437: 396: 371: 338: 249: 204: 116: 83: 48: 30: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 3732:. Antwerp: Intersentia. p. 420. 2510:American Law in the Twentieth Century 2151:(1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 71–143. 1532:Although European observers followed 1270:In response to these developments, a 1026:Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. 1008:Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc. 7: 2334:Understanding Products Liability Law 1250:), and the most extensive right to 3794:Evans, Judith (19 November 2019). 1797:Consumer Product Safety Commission 1141:Factors behind nationwide adoption 14: 2181:, requires a subscription to the 2137:Gifford, Donald G. (2018-09-25). 1720:Debate over strict liability laws 1450:As demonstrated in cases such as 2540:Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. 1173:American Association for Justice 1068:Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. 789: 3808:from the original on 2022-12-10 2640:Elmore v. American Motors Corp. 1061:, who cited to his own earlier 541:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio 3936:. pp. 31–33, 46–47, 62–63 2872:Hackney, James R. Jr. (2007). 2506:Friedman, Lawrence M. (2002). 1234:lawsuits, the availability of 1: 4192:10.1016/s0144-8188(00)00037-5 4130:The RAND Journal of Economics 2364:32, no. 7 (July 1996): 50–53. 2038:Comparative Product Liability 1792:Automobile products liability 1459:MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. 991:MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. 651:(term used for torts in some 4171:Schmitz, Patrick W. (2000). 4103:The American Economic Review 4076:The American Economic Review 2624:Vandermark v. Ford Motor Co. 1628:Volkswagen emissions scandal 1115:Restatement of Torts, Second 931:Second Industrial Revolution 873:Product liability by country 857:available to the public are 3760:Maxeiner, James R. (2011). 3027:. In Hogan, Sean O. (ed.). 1581:Product Liability Directive 1577:European Economic Community 1575:On July 25, 1985, the then- 1430:claim consists of proof of 1238:, the strongest right to a 1121:doctrine in Section 402A. 1031:Supreme Court of California 945:First Industrial Revolution 547:Joint and several liability 4253: 3300:Vandall, Frank J. (2011). 3023:Manweller, Mathew (2006). 2932:Vandall, Frank J. (2011). 2845:Vandall, Frank J. (2011). 2452:Vandall, Frank J. (2011). 1501:the product was defective; 1483: 321:Comparative responsibility 3979:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 3687:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 3669:. Council of Europe. 1977 3363:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 3218:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 2737:N.C. Gen. Stat. § 99B-1.1 2282:White, G. Edward (2003). 2179:digital object identifier 2064:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 2036:Howells, Geraint (1993). 1966:Reimann, Mathias (2015). 1743:Strict liability reduces 1042:. As noted above, it was 636:Non-economic damages caps 3726:Bergkamp, Lucas (2003). 3639:Stapleton, Jane (1994). 3603:Stapleton, Jane (1994). 3458:Southwestern Law Journal 3436:Merrill v. Navegar, Inc. 3124:Stapleton, Jane (1994). 2962:Stapleton, Jane (1994). 2811:Cohen, Lizabeth (2008). 2479:Feinman, Jay M. (2014). 2356:White, Robert Jeffrey. " 1217:multidistrict litigation 669:Private attorney general 623:Other topics in tort law 251:Principles of negligence 180:Alienation of affections 3530:; Singer, Marc (1999). 3156:Owen, David G. (2008). 2216:Owen, David G. (2015). 1943:Oxford University Press 1632:U.S. environmental laws 1556:National Health Service 1403:of merchantability, and 1210:federal judicial system 1189:Uniform Commercial Code 889:Restatements of the Law 534:Volenti non fit injuria 359:Ultrahazardous activity 326:Contributory negligence 3264:In Defense of Tort Law 2218:Products Liability Law 1831:Statute of limitations 1820:McDonald's coffee case 1814:Market share liability 1453:Winterbottom v. Wright 1437:a breach of that duty, 1164:The Costs of Accidents 1086: 970:Sale of Goods Act 1893 958:Winterbottom v. Wright 894:American Law Institute 853:, and others who make 552:Market share liability 485:Shopkeeper's privilege 463:Statute of limitations 306:Restitutio ad integrum 155:Intrusion on seclusion 50:Trespass to the person 3452:Noel, Dix W. (1969). 2706:Graham, Kyle (2014). 2157:10.1515/jtl-2017-0029 1810:- Scotland snail case 1737:information asymmetry 1696:(December 2007), and 1570:Strasbourg Convention 1345:Theories of liability 1135:federal admiralty law 1081: 1029:(1963), in which the 664:Conflict of tort laws 430:Tortious interference 185:Criminal conversation 172:Malicious prosecution 3090:Sautter, Ed (2011). 3076:on October 21, 2020. 2724:10.2139/ssrn.2385731 2712:Marquette Law Review 2106:National Law Journal 1808:Donoghue v Stevenson 1787:Asbestos and the law 1539:Donoghue v Stevenson 1310:Manufacturing defect 984:Landmark legal cases 162:Breach of confidence 3981:"Product liability" 3968:. 25 November 2020. 3921:Hensler, Deborah R. 3689:"Product liability" 3365:"Product liability" 3220:"Product liability" 3162:Missouri Law Review 2145:Journal of Tort Law 2066:"Product liability" 1968:"Product liability" 1851:Tombstone mentality 1803:Consumer protection 1620:European Commission 1606:Civil law countries 1548:thalidomide scandal 1512:Consumer protection 1363:consumer protection 1151:consumer protection 953:privity of contract 657:mixed legal systems 527:Respondeat superior 521:Vicarious liability 480:Defence of property 417:Insurance bad faith 331:Attractive nuisance 150:Invasion of privacy 1656:(September 1990), 1636:collective redress 1369:Breach of warranty 1359:breach of warranty 1298:Types of liability 1280:statutes of repose 1244:pain and suffering 1131:state legislatures 1079:with these words: 1063:concurring opinion 966:British Parliament 557:Transferred intent 448:Assumption of risk 412:Restraint of trade 388:Rylands v Fletcher 220:Employment-related 69:False imprisonment 4237:Product liability 3878:Product Liability 3642:Product Liability 3606:Product Liability 3127:Product Liability 2965:Product Liability 2787:Product Liability 1774:law and economics 1747:costs, because a 1672:(December 1992), 1668:(February 1992), 1660:(November 1991), 1563:Council of Europe 1474:res ipsa loquitur 1302:Section 2 of the 1155:law and economics 835:Product liability 832: 831: 705:England and Wales 660: 511:Last clear chance 506:Intentional torts 490:Neutral reportage 473:Defense of others 421: 354:Product liability 300:Res ipsa loquitur 287:Reasonable person 195:Breach of promise 44: 4244: 4204: 4203: 4177: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4109:(4): 1027–1028. 4098: 4092: 4091: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4044: 4031: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3934:RAND Corporation 3932:. Santa Monica: 3931: 3917: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3846: 3840: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3799: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3723: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3636: 3621: 3620: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3564: 3555: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3524: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3487: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3449: 3443: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3324: 3318: 3317: 3297: 3286: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3257:Koenig, Thomas; 3254: 3245: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3215: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3158:"Design Defects" 3153: 3142: 3141: 3121: 3110: 3109: 3087: 3078: 3077: 3061: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2959: 2950: 2949: 2929: 2920: 2919: 2899: 2890: 2889: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2778: 2765: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2703: 2686: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2656: 2647: 2637: 2631: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2587: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2550: 2544: 2536: 2530: 2529: 2513: 2503: 2497: 2496: 2476: 2470: 2469: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2413: 2404: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2374: 2365: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2329: 2300: 2299: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2243: 2232: 2231: 2213: 2186: 2176: 2142: 2134: 2117: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2097: 2091: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2061: 2052: 2051: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2024: 2022: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1963: 1946: 1940: 1910: 1875: 1872: 1751:need only prove 1692:(January 2000), 1676:(October 1993), 1542:(which followed 1486:Strict liability 1480:Strict liability 1401:implied warranty 1394:express warranty 1355:strict liability 1248:punitive damages 1059:Roger J. Traynor 1055:majority opinion 892:produced by the 859:held responsible 824: 817: 810: 794: 793: 650: 419: 282:Standard of care 167:Abuse of process 77: 38: 19: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4227: 4226: 4213: 4208: 4207: 4175: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4142:10.2307/2555680 4127: 4126: 4122: 4100: 4099: 4095: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4046: 4045: 4034: 4024: 4022: 4014: 4013: 4009: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3929: 3919: 3918: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3874: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3857: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3802:Financial Times 3793: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3725: 3724: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3686: 3685: 3681: 3672: 3670: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3653: 3638: 3637: 3624: 3617: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3566: 3565: 3558: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3528:Hagel III, John 3526: 3525: 3521: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3489: 3488: 3477: 3467: 3465: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3440:26 Cal. 4th 465 3433: 3429: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3299: 3298: 3289: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3259:Rustad, Michael 3256: 3255: 3248: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3217: 3216: 3209: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3178: 3177: 3173: 3155: 3154: 3145: 3138: 3123: 3122: 3113: 3106: 3089: 3088: 3081: 3070:Litigation News 3063: 3062: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2988: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2961: 2960: 2953: 2946: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2916: 2901: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2782:Stapleton, Jane 2780: 2779: 2768: 2747: 2743: 2735: 2731: 2705: 2704: 2689: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2658: 2657: 2650: 2638: 2634: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2589: 2588: 2581: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2505: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2466: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2415: 2414: 2407: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2376: 2375: 2368: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2331: 2330: 2303: 2296: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2245: 2244: 2235: 2228: 2215: 2214: 2189: 2136: 2135: 2120: 2110: 2108: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2063: 2062: 2055: 2048: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2001: 2000: 1996: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1965: 1964: 1949: 1929:10.2307/3649130 1912: 1911: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1856:Wyeth v. Levine 1836:Summers v. Tice 1783: 1722: 1709: 1688:(August 1999), 1645: 1530: 1514: 1488: 1482: 1424: 1371: 1347: 1300: 1268: 1219:(MDL) statute ( 1201: 1185:plastic bottles 1159:Guido Calabresi 1143: 1107: 986: 977:William Prosser 927:personal injury 923: 906: 886:as well as the 875: 837:is the area of 828: 788: 682:By jurisdiction 382:Public nuisance 311:Rescue doctrine 294:Proximate cause 206:Negligent torts 118:Dignitary torts 73: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4250: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4229: 4228: 4225: 4224: 4219: 4212: 4211:External links 4209: 4206: 4205: 4186:(3): 371–382. 4163: 4136:(2): 271–280. 4120: 4093: 4082:(4): 888–901. 4066: 4059: 4032: 4007: 3993: 3971: 3947: 3901: 3887: 3867: 3841: 3819: 3786: 3772: 3752: 3738: 3715: 3701: 3679: 3658: 3651: 3622: 3615: 3595: 3581: 3556: 3542: 3519: 3504: 3475: 3444: 3427: 3413: 3391: 3377: 3355: 3341: 3319: 3312: 3287: 3273: 3246: 3232: 3207: 3193: 3171: 3143: 3136: 3111: 3104: 3079: 3051: 3037: 3015: 3001: 2981: 2974: 2951: 2944: 2921: 2914: 2891: 2884: 2864: 2857: 2837: 2823: 2803: 2796: 2766: 2741: 2729: 2718:(2): 555–624. 2687: 2673: 2648: 2644:70 Cal. 2d 578 2632: 2628:61 Cal. 2d 256 2616: 2602: 2579: 2565: 2545: 2531: 2524: 2498: 2491: 2471: 2464: 2444: 2430: 2405: 2391: 2366: 2349: 2342: 2301: 2294: 2274: 2260: 2233: 2226: 2187: 2118: 2092: 2078: 2053: 2046: 2028: 2014: 1994: 1980: 1947: 1923:(4): 751–838. 1876: 1866: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1826:Product recall 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1800: 1794: 1789: 1782: 1779: 1721: 1718: 1708: 1707:Applicable law 1705: 1700:(April 2009). 1644: 1641: 1529: 1526: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1484:Main article: 1481: 1478: 1448: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1423: 1420: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1397: 1370: 1367: 1361:, and various 1346: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1299: 1296: 1267: 1264: 1256:reported cases 1221:28 U.S.C. 1200: 1197: 1142: 1139: 1127:highest courts 1106: 1103: 985: 982: 922: 919: 905: 902: 874: 871: 830: 829: 827: 826: 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1905: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1871: 1868: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1738: 1733: 1729: 1727: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1684:(June 1994), 1683: 1680:(June 1994), 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1664:(July 1992), 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1643:Other nations 1642: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1610: 1607: 1601: 1597: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1557: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1518: 1511: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1487: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1463: 1461: 1460: 1455: 1454: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1416:tract housing 1411: 1405: 1402: 1399:Breach of an 1398: 1395: 1392:Breach of an 1391: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1379:plain English 1376: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1315: 1313:Design defect 1312: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1305: 1297: 1295: 1293: 1289: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1236:class actions 1233: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1181:aluminum cans 1178: 1177:glass bottles 1174: 1168: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1140: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1053: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1027: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1009: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 992: 983: 981: 978: 973: 971: 967: 962: 960: 959: 954: 950: 946: 942: 941: 940:caveat emptor 935: 932: 928: 920: 918: 914: 911: 904:United States 903: 901: 897: 895: 891: 890: 885: 881: 872: 870: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 849:, suppliers, 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In 1066: 1051: 1049: 1043: 1034: 1024: 1022: 1016: 1012: 1006: 1004: 1002:until 1982. 999: 995: 989: 987: 974: 963: 956: 938: 936: 924: 915: 909: 907: 898: 887: 884:state courts 876: 847:distributors 834: 833: 755:Criminal law 674:Class action 539: 532: 525: 468:Self-defense 386: 364:Deep pockets 353: 298: 260:Duty of care 22:Part of the 4025:10 February 3940:31 December 3511:12 February 3434:See, e.g., 2437:12 February 1841:Tort reform 1726:externalize 1690:South Korea 1670:Switzerland 1467:negligence 1330:workmanship 1276:damage caps 1272:tort reform 1260:smoking gun 1225:§ 1407 631:Tort reform 265:Trespassers 230:Malpractice 225:Entrustment 145:False light 3894:10 October 3860:29 October 3673:2008-04-30 2609:19 January 2343:0820561088 2183:De Gruyter 2021:27 January 1862:References 1846:Toxic tort 1745:litigation 1639:justice." 1544:MacPherson 1522:lemon laws 1428:negligence 1422:Negligence 1383:Henningsen 1351:negligence 1240:jury trial 1040:Leon Green 1017:Henningsen 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565:Remedies 439:Defences 373:Nuisance 344:absolute 275:Invitees 102:chattels 92:Trespass 32:Tort law 4158:2555680 4088:2006714 3961:EUR-Lex 3854:EUR-Lex 3442:(2001). 2739:(1995). 2646:(1969). 2516:356–357 2482:Law 101 1937:3649130 1772:In the 1767:elastic 1375:privity 921:History 896:(ALI). 778:estates 605:Detinue 600:Tracing 583:Special 573:Damages 453:Consent 240:medical 136:Slander 64:Battery 59:Assault 41:Outline 4198: 4156: 4148: 4115:117018 4113: 4086: 4057: 3991: 3885: 3812:23 May 3779:9 June 3770: 3745:9 June 3736: 3699: 3649: 3613: 3588:31 May 3579: 3549:1 June 3540: 3502: 3420:31 May 3411: 3375: 3348:31 May 3339: 3310: 3280:9 June 3271: 3230: 3200:31 May 3191: 3134: 3102: 3035: 2999: 2972: 2942: 2912: 2882: 2855: 2821: 2794: 2680:31 May 2671: 2630:(1964) 2600: 2563: 2522: 2489: 2462: 2428: 2398:31 May 2389: 2340: 2292: 2267:31 May 2258: 2224: 2171: 2163: 2076: 2044: 2012: 1978: 1935: 1822:- U.S. 1816:- U.S. 1799:(U.S.) 1682:Taiwan 1666:Russia 1654:Brazil 1650:Israel 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