Occupational licensing

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long-distance moves, we find that the between-state migration rate for individuals in occupations with state-specific licensing exam requirements is 36 percent lower relative to members of other occupations. Members of licensed occupations with national licensing exams show no evidence of limited interstate migration. The size of this effect varies across occupations and appears to be tied to the state specificity of licensing requirements. We also provide evidence that the adoption of reciprocity agreements, which lower re-licensure costs, increases the interstate migration rate of lawyers. Based on our results, we estimate that the rise in occupational licensing can explain part of the documented decline in interstate migration and job transitions in the United States.

393: 1162:: is generally necessary in order to obtain a license to practice an occupation. The certification requirements include passing of a standardized, state-administered test and proof of minimum experience working under the supervision of a licensed practitioner. New entrants to the occupation can start working as trainees such as "apprentice electrician". Some workers in an occupation may never get certified and licensed but can continue working under the supervision of a licensed person indefinitely. 754:). Restrictions would include raising the pass rate on licensing exams, imposing higher general and specific requirements, and implementing tougher residency requirements that limit new arrivals in the area from qualifying for a license. Moreover, individuals who have finished schooling in the occupation may decide not to go to a particular political jurisdiction where the pass rate is low because both the economic and shame costs may be high. 44: 563:, before becoming eligible to receive their license. There are various resources available to assist professionals with the completion of these steps. Professional associations are often a tremendous resource to individuals looking to obtain a special level of certification or licensure. Upon the successful attainment of a license, individuals append an acronym to their name, such as CPA ( 928:(2010 and 2013) show that after controlling for education, labor market experience, occupation, and other controls, licensing is associated with a 15 to 18 percent wage premium in the labor market. This estimate may partially reflect a premium for higher unmeasured human capital, but it is also consistent and likely in large part due to rents. 1156:: Licensing refers to situations in which it is unlawful to carry out a specified range of activities for pay without first having obtained a license. This confirms that the license holder meets prescribed standards of competence. Workers who require such licenses to practice include doctors, lawyers, nurses, civil engineers, and surveyors. 966:

2000 of occupations that are licensed in some states to the same occupations that are not licensed in other states. In order to account for differential growth rates between states, he also compared the growth rate of occupations that are either fully licensed or fully unlicensed in both sets of states. Using a "

1114:

Individuals practicing a profession in one jurisdiction where no license is required, or where licensing requirements are more lax, face problems with employment when moving to a jurisdiction with more stringent licensing. This can be particularly burdensome on families where one spouse has no choice

887:

In the United States, critics have pointed out that (as of 2018) only 60 professions are licensed by all 50 states, but about 1100 by at least one state, including tour guides, bartenders, and interior designers. If many professions are functioning satisfactorily unlicensed in the majority of states,

780:

The effect of not reducing that administrative burden has been measured by a 2017 analysis that found that occupational licensing in different American states reduced between-state migration of individuals in professions with divergent licensing by 36 percent relative to members of other occupations,

631:

and monitor the quality of their practice for their entire working life. One qualification for life is no longer deemed sufficient. Consequently, medical licenses can now be withdrawn when evidence of serious malpractice emerges. Currently, though such reviews of CPD are entirely voluntary, some form

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Restricting entry by licensing is arguably a convenient and effective method of maintaining the high standards, high status and elite privileges of a profession as well as acting to eliminate competition from those who provide a cheaper but (allegedly) sub-standard service. Organizations such as the

738:

to restrict supply and raise the wages of licensed practitioners. There is assumed to be a once-and-for-all income gain that accrues to current members of the occupation who are "grandfathered" in, and do not have to meet the newly established standard. Generally, workers who are "grandfathered" are

700:

for license holders may require deliberate steps to ensure that loss of license entails significant financial loss. Such additional steps could include the imposition of fines, improved screening to prevent expelled practitioners from re-entering the occupation, or requiring all incumbents to put up

388:

professions and in the liberal professions organize their respective industries in guilds and chambers in European countries like Germany and Austria. One of the most important changes in licensing has been the 2004 reform in Germany, where workers in 53 of 94 crafts professions were not required to

1234:

were affected by occupational licensing. This varied significantly between member states, with Germany having the highest proportion (33%) affected, and Denmark the lowest (14%). The same paper also found the 'Health and Social Work' sector generally had the most licensing, but in general there was

1034:

cannot say which occupations can be justified based on quality-consideration, though studies have been conducted they have found at least in a number of cases at different stages of licensing reduces employment, but does not result in better services (Kleiner, 2013). For example, Kleiner and Kudrle

965:

on employment levels or growth rates, but the existing estimates suggest that they could be large. Kleiner (2006) examined employment growth rates in states and occupations with stronger versus weaker occupational licensing requirements. Specifically, he compares employment growth between 1990 and

1168:: Registration refers to situations in which one can register one's name and address and qualifications with the appropriate regulatory body. Registration provides a standard for being on the list, but complaints from consumers or improper listing of credentials can result in removal from the list. 883:

economy. A 2011 U.S. study estimated that occupational licenses result in 2.8 million fewer jobs, and cost the economy $ 203 billion per year. The number of jobs requiring a professional licensed represents an increasing fraction of the workforce, from 5% in 1950 to 22% in 2010s. Critics say that

1718:

Occupational licensure, one of the most significant labor market regulations in the United States, may restrict the interstate movement of workers. We analyze the interstate migration of 22 licensed occupations. Using an empirical strategy that controls for unobservable characteristics that drive

1118:

With occupational licensing varying by state, another channel through which licensing can affect employment is through reduced mobility. The patchwork of regulations raises the cost of cross-state mobility for workers in these occupations. This will result in slower adjustment costs to regional

978:

found that partially licensed occupations had a 20 percent lower growth rate in states with licensing relative to states without licensing and relative to the difference in growth rates between these sets of states of fully licensed and fully unlicensed occupations. This estimate implies that a

672:

to this otherwise mechanical model by noting that a key discipline on incumbents—the threat of revoking one's license—may not mean much if incumbents can easily re-enter the profession, such as by moving to a new firm, or by shifting to an alternative occupation with little loss of income. Since

730:

in order to attain additional requirements. The rents could also motivate potential entrants to invest in high levels of training in order to gain admittance. This suggests that licensing can raise quality within an industry by restricting supply, raising labor wages, and raising output prices.

656:

and discipline those whose performance is below standard with punishments that may include revocation of the license needed to practise. Assuming that entry and performance are controlled in these ways, the quality of service in the profession will almost automatically be maintained at or above

343:

into licensed occupations. Licensing advocates argue that it protects the public interest by keeping incompetent and unscrupulous individuals from working with the public. However, there is little evidence that it affects the overall quality of services provided to customers by members of the

896:

have tried to pressure state and local authorities to reduce overly burdensome licensing requirements. Excessive requirements include requiring hair braiders to have a full cosmetology license and learn about many unrelated tasks, and requiring casket salespersons to be full licensed funeral

815:

required by barring competition from entry to the rites and privileges of a professional group. This was initially the preferred route of regulation whether for physicians, lawyers, the clergy, accountants, bankers, scientists or architects. However, licensing has given way to membership of

555:, and sometimes synonymous (such as in the case with teacher licensure/certification); however, certification is an employment qualification and not a legal requirement for practicing a profession. In many cases, an individual must complete certain steps, such as training, acquiring an 1115:

with regard to location of work (such as military servicemembers), when the second spouse is in a licensed profession. These problems can be avoided by harmonizing laws across jurisdictions, or with reciprocity agreements where licenses from one jurisdiction are recognized in others.

1009:

While it is not possible to precisely estimate the effects of substantially reducing occupational licensing at the present time, both theory and the available evidence suggest that such a reduction could translate into significantly higher employment, better job matches, and improved

739:

not required to ever meet the standards of the new entrants. Individuals who attempt to enter the occupation in the future will need to balance the economic rents of the field's increased monopoly power against the greater difficulty of meeting the entrance requirements.

781:

while workers in nationally licensed occupations showed no evidence of reduced interstate migration. A 2020 follow up study by the same authors found that "the magnitude of the effect can only account for a small part of the overall decline in seen in recent decades."

2589: 355:

Alternatives to individual licensing include only requiring that at least one person on a premises be licensed to oversee unlicensed practitioners, permitting of the business overall, random health and safety inspections, general

592:, or CPD. In many professions this is fast becoming a standard, mandatory and annual requirement. For example, in the US, educators are subject to state re-certification requirements in order to continue teaching. The 1035:(2000) find that occupational licensing of dentists does not lead to improved measured dental outcomes of patients, but is associated with higher prices of certain services, likely because there are fewer dentists. 327:

Some claim higher public support for the licensing of professions whose activities could be a health or safety threat to the public, such as practicing medicine, and doctors require occupational licenses in most

1057:

Restrictions to employment without licensure can prevent people with criminal records or severe mental health issues from working in occupations that require public trust. Occupations of or affected by the

1131:

A 1983 study found that some occupational licensing schemes tended to exclude minorities and disadvantaged populations from entering such trades. However, a more recent study from 2009 found the opposite.

1459:

Katsuyama, Neil. "The economics of occupational licensing: Applying antitrust economics to distinguish between beneficial and anticompetitive professional licenses." S. Cal. Interdisc. LJ 19 (2009): 565.

705:

upon loss of the license. To offset the possibility that incumbents could shift to other occupations with little loss of income, entry requirements could be tightened to limit supply and create monopoly

583:

In places, licensure may still be a lifelong privilege, but increasingly nowadays, it requires periodic review by peers and renewal. It is very common for license renewal to depend, at least in part, on

681:

process. In the absence of grandfathering, lower-skilled workers in the occupation may have to seek alternative employment. For example, if sales skills are the key to both providing licensed sales of

603:, the government has recently proposed that they should all be legally required to produce formal proof, every five years, that they are upgrading their standard of practise. This tightening of the 1250:. The subsequent 'Proportionality Directive' passed in 2018 requires national governments to assess whether new barriers to practice are proportionate to achieve objectives in the public interest. 1054:

typically only requires a medical license; the substantial additional training and experience required to perform this operation competently is managed by the hospitals who employ the surgeons.

336:

also require licenses for a much wider range of professions, such as florists and hairdressers. Some studies find consumers are more responsive to reviews than to occupational licensing status.

1242:, which "enables the free movement of professionals" across Member States, by allowing licensed workers to have their professional qualifications recognised by other countries in the bloc. The 344:

regulated occupation. It can also harm consumers by raising prices and reducing innovation by new market entrants, and may slow overall economic growth. Some occupational licensing can violate

1285:

By 2008 occupational licensing in the U.S. had grown to 29 percent of the workforce, up from below five percent in the 1950s. In contrast, unions represented as much as 33 percent of the U.S.

871:

of specific occupations. "It is hard to regard altruistic concern for their customers as the primary motive behind their determined efforts to get legal power to decide who may be a plumber."

1277:

Comparison of Unions and Licensing over Time in the United States. (The dashed line shows the value from state estimates of licensing based on the Gallup Survey and PDII Survey results. The

106: 2597: 2566: 791:"People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." 607:

medical licensing system has largely been a response to public and government unease about a series of recent and well-publicised cases of alleged medical incompetence, including the

2537: 1274: 879:

have argued that this process is counterproductive as it seriously restricts the number of active professionals working in society and thus unnecessarily inhibits the working of a

429:

government, in order to ensure that the public will not be harmed by the incompetence of the practitioners, and to limit supply to incumbent practitioners and thus increase wages.

2216:

Kleiner, Morris M.; Todd, Richard M. (2009). "Mortgage Broker Regulations That Matter: Analyzing Earnings, Employment, and Outcomes for Consumers". In Autor, David H. (ed.).

750:

or examination pass rates and may gain relative to those who have easier requirements by further restricting the supply of labor and obtaining economic rents for incumbents (

596:

of 2001, enacted to improve performance in US schools, has led to an intensification of license requirements for both beginning and experienced educators. In the case of

884:

low-income consumers, who pay higher prices than required for the level of quality they might require, and low-income job seekers, are disproportionately affected.

652:. The gatekeepers screen entrants to the occupation, barring those whose skills or character suggest a tendency toward low-quality output. The enforcers monitor 863:. Advocates claim that licensure protects the consumer through the application of professional, educational and/or ethical standards of practice. Economist 2810: 2801: 731:

Increasing prices may signal either enhanced quality due to perceived or actual skill enhancements or restrictions on the supply of regulated workers.

990:

for 53 occupations in 2004 as a natural experiment. It finds that this policy change increased the propensity to work as self-employed substantially.

284: 1006:. This has been documented in a number of studies including Shepard (1978), Bond, et al. (1980) Cox and Foster (1990), and Kleiner and Todd (2009). 942:

showed that occupational licensing can lead to greater income inequality, with each step needed to open a business leading to an additional 1.4% of

1050:

are generally unlicensed, though opening a restaurant may require permits, inspection, and employee training or instructional signage. Becoming a

751: 2551: 765:, which can lower the overall cost and burden of adequately staffing the profession in all regions. For example, high demand and low supply for 1273: 2757: 2727: 2695: 2301: 2233: 1563: 2107: 2842: 811:

process by which trades have transformed themselves into true professions, licensing fast became the method of choice in obtaining the

2665: 1877: 421:

or to obtain a privilege such as to drive a car or truck. Many other privileges and professions require a license, generally from the

389:

be licensed anymore in order to start a business. In 2020, 12 of these deregulated professions reinstated the licensing requirement.

1823: 1665: 1643: 1301: 253: 1944:

Kleiner, Morris M., and Alan B. Krueger. 2013. "Analyzing the Extent and Influence of Occupational Licensing on the Labor Market."

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industry. People whose occupations put them in physical contact with the public might also be restricted by licensure, including a

1854: 1458: 1469: 2512: 2342:

Carroll, Sidney L., and Robert J. Gaston. 1981. "Occupational Restrictions and the Quality of Service Received: Some Evidence."

1966: 1214: 481: 392: 91: 2788: 2164:

Note that this estimate only reflects the differential growth rate between licensed and unlicensed occupations, not levels.

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can be used to demonstrate competence without the harmful economic effects of legalized occupational barriers. Examples of

673:

grandfathering (i.e., allowing current workers to bypass the new requirements) is the norm when occupations seek to become

1834: 1194: 277: 196: 1209: 1038:

In the case of midwifery, the introduction of occupation licensing led to substantial reductions in maternal mortality.

875:

American Medical Association were explicitly set up to restrict the number of practitioners. However, libertarians like

568: 1680: 2832: 2018: 1905: 564: 525: 441: 2709: 905:

It is well understood that occupational licensing can serve as a barrier to occupational entry resulting in reduced

2313:

Kleiner, Morris M., and Robert T. Kudrle. 2000. "Does Regulation Affect Economic Outcomes? The Case of Dentistry."

1326: 1178: 552: 365: 349: 125: 60: 2827: 1410: 1311: 888:

this implies to critics that the licensing is unnecessary for consumer protection. The administrations of both

867:

opposed this practice, believing that licensure effectively raises professional salary by placing limits on the

2280: 1991: 1182: 967: 612: 593: 589: 270: 757:

Conversely, efforts can be made at interstate reciprocity, so that a license or a certification earned in one

1331: 2655: 2124: 1079: 949:

A 2019 NBER paper found that occupational licensing contributed to an average welfare loss of 12 percent.

735: 2191:

Effects of Restrictions on Advertising and Commercial Practice in the Professions: The Case of Optometry

2065: 1865: 1523: 1146: 1011: 800: 572: 258: 1094:. Occupations that bring a person into the home might also be screened through licensure, including a 627:

in the 1990s are widely considered to have inspired the government to tighten professional control of

2651: 2152: 1447: 1239: 812: 628: 497: 321: 213: 208: 96: 1780: 1537: 1243: 1099: 971: 808: 727: 624: 505: 357: 329: 1292:

In April 2019, Arizona became the first US state to recognize out-of-state occupational licenses.

979:

licensed occupation that grew at a 10 percent rate between 1990 and 2000 would have grown at a 12

2837: 2775: 2493: 2439: 2431: 2392: 1797: 1760: 1570: 1505: 1336: 1075: 1046:

Many professions involving risk to the public do not require professional licenses. For example,

999: 868: 521: 489: 453: 232: 154: 1778:

Witz, Anne (1990). "Patriarchy and Professions: The Gendered Politics of Occupational Closure".

2225: 1266:

institutions. The figure shows the growth of occupational licensing relative to the decline of

1230:

Research funded by the European Commission in 2016 estimated that around 22% of workers in the

2753: 2723: 2691: 2661: 2485: 2384: 2297: 2229: 2103: 1819: 1752: 1391: 1316: 1235:"considerably large variation" in which professions were licensed in different member states. 1186: 1015: 723: 477: 457: 340: 218: 203: 86: 74: 2745: 2715: 2683: 2477: 2423: 2376: 2347: 2318: 2253: 2217: 2173: 2051: 1949: 1929: 1789: 1744: 1707: 1497: 1383: 1341: 1278: 1267: 1063: 702: 529: 401: 227: 181: 177: 79: 2465: 2647: 2078: 1921: 1732: 1669: 1647: 1371: 1306: 943: 939: 893: 889: 880: 876: 864: 758: 632:

of professional development is already strongly encouraged within the medical profession.

556: 473: 469: 373: 345: 186: 165: 111: 35: 2466:"Effects of Occupational Licensing Laws on Minorities: Evidence from the Progressive Era" 1658: 1637: 742:

Once an occupation is regulated, members of that occupation in a geographic or political

777:

is reduced, as long as that reduction does not truly harm competence and preparedness.

2737: 2705: 2675: 2364: 2363:

Anderson, D. Mark; Brown, Ryan; Charles, Kerwin Kofi; Rees, Daniel I. (June 26, 2020).

2273: 2144: 1247: 1231: 932: 913:

rents for workers in the occupation, and higher prices for consumers (Friedman, 1962).

682: 620: 616: 608: 397: 134: 116: 1608: 1470:

Gellhorn, Walter. "The abuse of occupational licensing." U. CHi. l. rev. 44 (1976): 6.

2821: 2513:"Measuring Prevalence and Labour Market Impacts of Occupational Regulation in the EU" 2497: 2443: 2396: 2277: 2218: 1967:"Measuring Prevalence and Labour Market Impacts of Occupational Regulation in the EU" 1933: 1801: 1764: 1509: 1486:"Entry regulation and entrepreneurship: A natural experiment in German craftsmanship" 1485: 1321: 1259: 1087: 1051: 844: 707: 693:, then individuals may shift between these lines of work with little loss of income. 533: 333: 223: 191: 588:. In the United Kingdom such regular upgrading of skills is often termed continuous 17: 2132: 1370:

Farronato, Chiara; Fradkin, Andrey; Larsen, Bradley J.; Brynjolfsson, Erik (2024).

1346: 1263: 1120: 1030:

Without doing a detailed analysis at the occupation-by-occupation and state level,

1019: 925: 743: 711: 513: 501: 361: 237: 150: 101: 2189:

Bond, Ronald S., John E. Kwoka Jr., John J. Phelan, and Ira Taylor Whitten. 1980.

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in the 1950s, but declined to less than 12 percent of the U.S. workforce by 2008.

43: 2365:"Occupational Licensing and Maternal Health: Evidence from Early Midwifery Laws" 1793: 1594: 1067: 935:

estimated a wage premium of 4%, with significant variation across professions.

852: 761:

qualifies the holder to practice in any of the other states or provinces of the

649: 645: 537: 449: 445: 369: 160: 1623: 1372:"Consumer Protection in an Online World: An Analysis of Occupational Licensing" 986:

For Germany, a study exploits the deregulation of occupational licenses called

2567:"A License to Braid Hair? Critics Say State Licensing Rules Have Gone Too Far" 2538:"Recognition of professional qualifications in practice - European Commission" 2148: 2128: 2120: 2019:"Regulation and Income Inequality The Regressive Effects of Entry Regulations" 1895: 1501: 1031: 998:

Because it restricts employment, licensing can also lead to higher prices for

906: 840: 796: 762: 719: 697: 678: 658: 653: 465: 432:

Examples of professions that require licensure in some jurisdictions include:

422: 418: 313: 305: 2489: 2388: 2248:

Shapiro, Carl. 1986. "Investment, Moral Hazard, and Occupational Licensing."

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that provide voluntary professional certification in various fields include:

2095: 1286: 1095: 1003: 962: 958: 860: 856: 820: 669: 600: 517: 461: 437: 139: 69: 2749: 2719: 2687: 2619: 1204: 640:

One simple theory of occupational licensing envisions a costless supply of

27:

Form of government regulation on professions or vocations for compensation

2811:"Occupational Licensing: Bad for Competition, Bad for Low-Income Workers" 2140: 1748: 1387: 1103: 1059: 910: 848: 836: 832: 774: 747: 715: 674: 662: 641: 585: 541: 426: 317: 65: 2552:"Proportionality test for new regulation of professions | EUR-Lex" 2435: 2427: 2411: 2136: 1917: 1899: 1199: 1091: 987: 980: 975: 921: 824: 770: 766: 545: 493: 433: 309: 2802:"Occupational Licensing: How A New Guild Mentality Thwarts Innovation" 2742:

Guild-Ridden Labor Markets: The Curious Case of Occupational Licensing

1014:. Low-income consumers, in particular, would benefit because reduced 417:

is sometimes used) is usually required by law to work in a particular

2206:. Washington, DC: U.S. Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Economics. 2099: 1855:

The Onerous, Arbitrary, Unaccountable World of Occupational Licensing

1145:

To distinguish various forms of regulation, there are three forms of

1083: 1071: 828: 509: 385: 145: 2351: 2257: 2047: 2680:

Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or Restricting Competition?

2481: 2380: 2322: 2093:

Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or Restricting Competition?

2056: 1953: 1712: 1699: 661:. Within this approach, only those who have the funds to invest in 1272: 686: 485: 391: 1246:

records occupational licensing restrictions across the EU on its

665:

and the ability to do the work are able to enter the occupation.

2193:. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Economics. 1924:. 2010. "The Prevalence and Effects of Occupational Licensing." 1047: 690: 560: 2620:"Arizona HB2569 | 2019 | Fifty-fourth Legislature 1st Regular" 2296:

Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.

2176:. 1978. "Licensing Restrictions and the Cost of Dental Care." 1733:"Is Occupational Licensing a Barrier to Interstate Migration?" 1700:"Is Occupational Licensing a Barrier to Interstate Migration?" 2048:"A Welfare Analysis of Occupational Licensing in U.S. States" 404:

established the first countrywide licensing body for doctors.

2294:

Stages of Occupational Regulation: Analysis of Case Studies.

42: 2711:

Stages of Occupational Regulation: Analysis of Case Studies

1611:

Alder Hey pathologist ordered removal of children's organs,

604: 597: 816:

professional bodies, as a means of excluding competition.

2590:"Arizona becomes 1st to match out-of-state work licenses" 1281:

estimates are from the Current Population Survey (CPS)).

1698:

Johnson, Janna E.; Kleiner, Morris M. (December 2017).

819:

Licensure restricts entry into professional careers in

2333:

For additional examples see Carroll and Gaston (1981).

1878:"OCCUPATIONAL LICENSING: A FRAMEWORK FOR POLICYMAKERS" 1541: 413:

In the United States and Canada, licensing (the term

773:, in any particular region, can be alleviated if the 2119:

The partially licensed occupations he considers are

1693: 1691: 1062:

industry, may be restricted by licensure, such as a

931:

A 2016 paper studying occupational licensing in the

1524:"Occupational Licensing = Protectionism, part 4552" 726:. This may also result in some increases in human 677:, incumbent workers are usually supportive of the 2813:. The Mercatus Center at George Mason University. 2270:The Costs and Benefits of Occupational Regulation 2224:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 2204:The Costs and Benefits of Occupational Regulation 1992:"Do Entry Regulations Promote Income Inequality?" 559:in a particular area of study, and/or passing an 1682:Guidance on Continuing Professional Development, 1177:In contrast to government regulation, voluntary 657:standards that are set by the gatekeeper to the 1262:, licensing has been among the fastest-growing 789: 1731:Johnson, Janna E.; Kleiner, Morris M. (2020). 1663:Pharmaceutical Journal, 277, October 2006, F14 1018:would reduce the prices of services provided ( 2789:"The Dubious Case for Professional Licensing" 2740:(2015). "Anatomy of Occupational Licensing". 2464:Law, Marc T.; Marks, Mindy S. (May 1, 2009). 1564:"No Child Left Behind A Toolkit for Teachers" 278: 8: 1376:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1850: 1848: 1846: 1119:economic shocks which can result in higher 2046:Kleiner, Morris M; Soltas, Evan J (2019). 1818:New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979 1737:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 1661:Why a first degree is not enough for life, 285: 271: 31: 2055: 1711: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 246:Enforcement authorities and organizations 2782:. The Library of Economics and Liberty. 2412:"Occupational Licensing and Minorities" 2147:. The fully unlicensed occupations are 1926:British Journal of Industrial Relations 1357: 752:credentialism and educational inflation 245: 124: 52: 34: 2787:Reinhardt, Uwe E. (October 11, 2013). 2268:Cox, Carolyn, and Susan Foster. 1990. 2220:Studies of Labor Market Intermediation 2202:Cox, Carolyn, and Susan Foster. 1990. 2074: 2063: 1026:Impact on quality of service provision 696:Under these circumstances, meaningful 2809:de Rugy, Veronique (March 25, 2014). 2780:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 2708:(2013). "Introduction and Overview". 2678:(2006). "Introduction and Overview". 2135:. The fully licensed occupations are 2017:McLaughlin, Patrick; Stanley, Laura. 1479: 1477: 1448:On Point: You Need A License For That 7: 1411:"A Primer on Occupational Licensing" 1365: 1363: 1361: 734:State-regulated occupations can use 2588:Cooper, Jonathan (April 10, 2019). 2102:Institute for Employment Research. 320:for compensation. It is related to 2511:Koumenta, Maria; Pagliero, Mario. 1965:Koumenta, Maria; Pagliero, Mario. 1022:, 1986 and Cox and Foster, 1990). 569:Private Detective and Investigator 384:Traditionally, occupations in the 25: 2565:Jenni Bergal (January 30, 2015). 1302:Employment protection legislation 946:going to the top 10% of earners. 623:and Richard Neale. Such cases of 254:International Competition Network 2800:Stangler, Dane (April 2, 2012). 2470:The Journal of Law and Economics 1934:10.1111/j.1467-8543.2010.00807.x 718:rents could, in principle, give 710:within the licensed occupation ( 685:and the non-licensed selling of 2804:. Progressive Policy Institute. 2660:. University of Chicago Press. 1596:Doctors facing 'five-year MOTs, 1215:American Meteorological Society 482:licensed professional counselor 339:Licensing creates a regulatory 1484:Rostam-Afschar, Davud (2014). 1248:Regulated Professions Database 714:). The threat of losing these 259:List of competition regulators 1: 1814:Friedman, Milton & Rose, 1625:Patients still not protected, 1195:Automotive Service Excellence 983:rate if it were unregulated. 2369:Journal of Political Economy 2315:Journal of Law and Economics 2178:Journal of Law and Economics 1704:NBER Working Paper No. 24107 1538:"Knowledge Delivery Systems" 1210:Project Management Institute 2569:. The Pew Charitable Trusts 1906:University of Chicago Press 1839:Freedom Daily, January 1994 1794:10.1177/0038038590024004007 1684:General Medical Council, UK 1409:McGrath, Lee (April 2008). 759:federated state or province 565:Certified Public Accountant 526:speech-language pathologist 442:certified public accountant 2859: 2843:Anti-competitive practices 2250:Review of Economic Studies 1946:Journal of Labor Economics 1639:The Richard Neale Scandal, 1613:The Guardian, 17 June 2005 1327:Professional certification 1179:professional certification 1173:Professional certification 722:to incumbents to maintain 553:professional certification 366:professional certification 350:anti-competitive practices 126:Anti-competitive practices 92:Herfindahl–Hirschman index 61:History of competition law 2344:Southern Economic Journal 2292:Kleiner, Morris M. 2013. 2091:Kleiner, Morris M. 2006. 1502:10.1007/s00181-013-0773-7 1312:Labour market flexibility 1183:professional associations 2776:"Occupational Licensing" 2774:Young, S. David (2002). 2652:"Occupational Licensure" 2281:Federal Trade Commission 2050:. Working Paper Series. 1893:Friedman, Milton. 1962. 1238:In 2005, the EU enacted 968:difference-in-difference 613:Alder Hey organs scandal 594:No Child Left Behind Act 590:professional development 551:Licensure is similar to 2410:Dorsey, Stuart (1983). 1332:Professional regulation 1193:National Institute for 961:work on the effects of 901:Evidence on the effects 312:to pursue a particular 2750:10.17848/9780880995023 2720:10.17848/9780880994613 2688:10.17848/9781429454865 2657:Capitalism and Freedom 2416:Law and Human Behavior 2283:, Bureau of Economics. 2125:respiratory therapists 2073:Cite journal requires 1866:Why License a Florist? 1282: 1080:professional wrestling 793: 746:can implement tougher 736:political institutions 701:capital that would be 405: 364:in favor of voluntary 298:Occupational licensing 171:Occupational licensing 47: 1627:BBC News, 1 June 2000 1598:BBC News 23 July 2008 1415:Institute for Justice 1276: 1147:government regulation 1141:Government regulation 1127:Impacts on minorities 1012:customer satisfaction 807:Historically, in the 801:The Wealth of Nations 629:medical practitioners 601:medical practitioners 573:Professional Engineer 395: 306:government regulation 46: 2153:computer programmers 1749:10.1257/pol.20170704 1526:. December 27, 2007. 1388:10.1257/app.20210716 1240:Directive 2005/36/EC 953:Impact on employment 813:occupational closure 615:and those involving 498:private investigator 322:occupational closure 214:Occupational closure 209:Dividing territories 197:Essential facilities 97:Market concentration 18:Professional license 2594:The Washington Post 2517:European Commission 1971:European Commission 1490:Empirical Economics 1244:European Commission 1160:State Certification 1100:landscape architect 1070:, or people in the 972:regression analysis 809:professionalization 728:capital investments 625:medical malpractice 506:landscape architect 454:general contractors 372:mechanisms such as 358:consumer protection 330:developed countries 2833:Libertarian theory 2793:The New York Times 2738:Kleiner, Morris M. 2706:Kleiner, Morris M. 2676:Kleiner, Morris M. 2428:10.1007/BF01044521 1918:Kleiner, Morris M. 1837:Medical Licensure, 1668:2008-12-17 at the 1646:2008-09-15 at the 1609:Steven Alexander, 1337:Regulatory capture 1283: 1187:trade associations 1076:mixed martial arts 522:real estate broker 490:physical therapist 406: 233:Regulatory capture 48: 2759:978-0-88099-501-6 2729:978-0-88099-459-0 2697:978-0-88099-284-8 2600:on April 11, 2019 2375:(11): 4337–4383. 2302:978-0-88099-459-0 2235:978-0-226-03288-7 2174:Shepard, Lawrence 1948:31(2): S173–202. 1835:Milton Friedman, 1659:Jennifer Archer, 1641:The Clarion, 2006 1317:Law and economics 1270:since the 1950s. 1092:massage therapist 1016:barriers to entry 938:A study from the 724:quality standards 567:) or LPD and PI ( 478:investment banker 458:financial analyst 295: 294: 224:Misuse of patents 219:Predatory pricing 204:Exclusive dealing 87:Barriers to entry 75:Coercive monopoly 16:(Redirected from 2850: 2828:Labour economics 2814: 2805: 2796: 2783: 2763: 2733: 2701: 2671: 2648:Friedman, Milton 2635: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2596:. 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