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with social nucleation that didn't continue any further (Ur, 2017. p. 140). Instead, these settlements and finds seem to point to a much more flexible and complex scenario of multiple trajectories and experiences that can be hardly restricted within linear and univocal narratives and that suggest the need for a focused contextual approach and a bottom-up perspective that rather of trying to restrict the different settlement forms and practices within normative categories is concerned with the way these sites were internally organized, on which socio-material practices formed their fabric and how they changed through time and space (Hodder, 2005; Asouti, 2006; Düring, 2007a,b, 2013; Wengrow, 2015; Mazzucato, 2016; Der and Issavi, 2017).
450:
evaluation of this particular association”. Another criticism of the
Childean approach has been its reliance on a Eurocentric framework with questionable validity on a global scale, ignoring site and cultural-specific details and ultimately constituting a “check-list approach”. Alternative, more flexible methods of differentiating a city from other types of sites have been less effective at differentiating between different site types, such as between urban, proto-urban or pre-urban. Thus, the precise classification of early urban phenomena is often ambiguous and subject to debate.
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lifestyle”. The Tower may also have been an indication of power struggles within the community, as an individual or a group may have “exploited the primeval fears of the residents and persuaded them to build it”. There is also evidence of human violence at the site, as the skeletons of twelve people apparently killed in a fight or riot have been found within the tower. Thus, despite new technologies in domestication, agriculture and architecture, social organisation was still a decisive factor in the success of the settlement. In 6000 B.C., a major
31:
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the fourth millennium B.C., households might have been replaced not by the state, but rather by a metaphorical household that spanned an entire city rather than just an immediate family. The formation of the first cities may have been somewhat accidental if ambitious household heads trying to expand their social connections unintentionally grew their settlement by attracting new followers, even if they originally aimed to sustain and expand their own household.
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305:. Social tensions and population pressures resulting from the dense settlements of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture may have instead been resolved by constant migration as opposed to the development of new social and political institutions in a sedentary population. It is thus ambiguous if the sites of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture represent an urbanisation process.
358:
experiments in settlement nucleation”. Extremely large in scale (250 ha, twice the size of Tell Brak), Uruk was a centre of religious and political power, with large, well-decorated households and temples indicating a political and religious elite. As the most prominent of the early
Mesopotamian cities, Uruk has yielded the earliest
441:
remains the prevailing framework for understanding the origins of cities, and lists ten criteria which differentiate
Neolithic villages from the first “proper” cities. Among other features, the most enduring of Childe’s criteria include: a large and dense settlement population, the specialisation of
424:
in
Mesopotamia shared the same layout with temples both in the proto-urban settlement at Tell Brak and in the city of Uruk in the fourth millennium B.C; a common resident of Uruk would still be able to recognise a temple as a house, albeit different in scale and grandeur. Thus, through the course of
134:
population alongside a level of organisation that facilitated the building of public works, the redistribution of food surpluses and raids into surrounding areas. In contrast, proto-urban sites such as Çatalhöyük are population dense but lack clear signs of central control and social stratification,
445:
Many of Childe’s criteria are still widely recognised as key milestones in the development of early complex societies, and his basic model can still be discerned within most modern accounts of the development of the earliest cities. More modern archaeological studies discuss the “origin of states”,
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The development of cities from proto-urban sites was not a linear progression in most cases. Rather, proto-cities are defined as "early experiments" in high-density living that "did not develop further", particularly in their level of population, suggesting a more flexible and complex trajectory to
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and livestock. Rather than showing signs of deliberate planning, Çatalhöyük displays an “organic modular development through the repetition of similar units (buildings)". Individual houses were largely self-sufficient in function, lacking specialisation. For example, there were no assigned builders
296:
in
Ukraine features approximately 1500 structures organised into two concentric circles with inner streets that separate the settlement into 14 quarters and over 140 neighbourhoods. Despite this layout suggesting planning from a central authority, individual neighbourhoods feature a high degree of
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Neolithic megasites, such as Çatalhöyük, have been variously defined as 'severe anomalies' (Fletcher, 1995. p. 189) or 'dead ends' (Ben-Shlomo and
Garfinkel, 2009. p. 203) on the way to true urbanity; alternatively, they have been viewed as proto-urban sites or 'proto-cities': early 'experiments'
449:
Childe's enduring influence in defining urban settlements has been frequently called into question, as his description features “nothing about the form or aesthetics of the City, or any particular city”, rather, it “combined urbanism and the state in a single sequence and permitted the uncritical
419:
An alternative explanation of the urbanisation process suggests that changes in social relations may not have been as revolutionary in the earliest cities, where kinship may not have been replaced, but rather redefined to incorporate entire settlements and cities. The temples and palaces of the
212:
The Tower required substantial communal effort to build, with an estimated 10,400 working days invested in the construction of the tower. It may have functioned as part of a fortification system, a flood-detection system, or as a symbolic monument to “motivate people to take part in a communal
357:
By the end of the fourth millennium B.C., the emergence of the city of Uruk in
Southern Mesopotamia reflected the social, cultural and political developments of proto-cities in the region during prior centuries. The city can be viewed as “the culmination of a series of increasingly successful
850:
Reading catastrophes : proceedings of the
International Conference "Reading catastrophes : Methodological Approaches and Historical Interpretation : Earthquakes, Floods, Famines, Epidemics between Egypt and Palestine, 3rd-1st Millennium BC" held in Rome, 3rd-4th December
321:
in
Northern Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. can be considered "successful experiments" that adopted new social and political institutions to mitigate internal conflicts. These sites anticipate the administrative practices of Southern Mesopotamian city-states such as
446:“primary state formation” or “archaic states” as opposed to any “Urban Revolution”, and it is noted that “Childe's concept of the Urban Revolution was about the transition to complex, state level societies, and not primarily about urbanism or cities per se”.
257:, 170 km away. The site has little evidence of significant social stratification or centralised authority, yet the complex culture and longevity of the settlement suggests different methods of achieving social cohesion.
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was the site of a large settlement with a dense population as early as the Ninth
Millennium BC, with estimates of the settlement's population ranging from 2000-3000 to only 200-300. Its proximity to fresh water from the
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The label of a proto-city is applied to Neolithic mega-sites that are large and population-dense for their time but lack most other characteristics that are found in later urban settlements such as those of the
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For many years, the southern Mesopotamia of Ur and Uruk, ancient Sumer, has been seen as the origin centre of civilisation and cities . But at Tell Brak Joan Oates and her team are turning this model upside
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of houses, and the bricks used to build them differed in composition and shape. There is some evidence of long-distance trade, with possible value-added production occurring with imports of obsidian from
442:
labour, the concentration of an agricultural surplus by a centralised authority, the creation of social classes, and the centralisation of political power away from families and households.
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Mesopotamian city-states were run like households, using household terminologies such as "father", "son" and "servant". Houses in the village settlements of the fifth millennium B.C.
369:) and also the largest area of public buildings from the fourth millennium B.C., making it among the most significant of the early settlements that archeologists classify as cities.
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around key institutions such as a ruler or other elements of government. In the first cities and states, this shifted societal relations from being based on
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that range between 100 and 340 ha. Owing to their size, the mega-sites created by the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture is classified by some as proto-cities.
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They appear to have been experiments with nucleated settlement, but experiments that did not develop further, especially in the realm of population .
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that was inhabited from 7100-6000 B.C., and had a population of up to 8000 people in a site measuring 34 acres. The site consists of sequences of
105:, many proto-cities show little correlation with later urban settlements. The development of cities and proto-cities and the transition away from
62:. While the precise classification of many sites considered proto-cities is ambiguous and subject to considerable debate, common examples include
1108:"Extraordinary Cities: Early 'City-ness' and the Origins of Agriculture and States: Early 'city-ness' and the origins of agriculture and states"
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The precise definition of what constitutes a proto-urban, urban or rural settlement has been a source of ambiguity and debate. As noted by
101:. Whilst the proto-urban sites of the Ubaid period in northern Mesopotamia anticipate the social and political developments of the first
1554:
1241:
Ur, Jason (19 August 2016). "The Birth of Cities in Ancient West Asia". In Tsuneki, Akira; Yamada, Shigeo; Hisada, Ken-ichiro (eds.).
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The emergence of cities from proto-urban settlements is a non-linear development that demonstrates the varied experiences of early
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suggests the authority of a senior official; in later periods Mesopotamians considered the lion a symbol of kingship.
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to being based on residence or class. Monumental architecture - attributed to the state - served as a symbol of
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404:, and may have also served to bind commoners emotionally to their city and to their ruler through the act of
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that mark the development of the first indisputable urban settlements, with the emergence of cities such as
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The archaeology of Syria : from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (c. 16,000-300 BC)
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30:
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1346:"V. Gordon Childe and the Urban Revolution: A Historical Perspective on a Revolution in Urban Studies"
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variability, and the site is undistinguishable from preceding or contemporary settlements in terms of
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281:(4100-3400 B.C.) is notable for creating the largest settlements in south-eastern Europe during the
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to construct ancient monuments, much of the labour was provided by free commoners as part of their
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shifted or interrupted the Spring of Ain es-Sultan, likely causing the end of Neolithic Jericho.
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have also been classed as proto-cities. These sites pre-date the Mesopotamian city-states of the
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Oates, Joan; McMahon, Augusta; Karsgaard, Philip; Quntar, Salam Al; Ur, Jason (2007-09-01).
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Oates, Joan; McMahon, Augusta; Karsgaard, Philip; Quntar, Salam Al; Ur, Jason (2007-09-01).
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Ancient West Asian Civilization: Geoenvironment and Society in the Pre-Islamic Middle East
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The settlement was built over an area of 2 or 3 ha, and its most notable features include
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in the 4th Millennium B.C. These later urban sites are commonly distinguished by a dense,
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regarded large public buildings as one of the defining features of the earliest cities.
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633:
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63:
55:
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437:, “The concept of ‘city’ is notoriously hard to define”. Childe’s 1950 concept of the
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1288:"Socio-Material Archaeological Networks at Çatalhöyük a Community Detection Approach"
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768:"Socio-Material Archaeological Networks at Çatalhöyük a Community Detection Approach"
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1142:"Proto-Cities or Non-Proto-Cities? On the Nature of Cucuteni–Trypillia Mega-Sites"
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The Archaeology Coursebook: An Introduction to Themes, Sites, Methods and Skills
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to denote ownership or control. At Tell Brak, a stamp sealing with a motif of a
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Ur, Jason (2017), Tsuneki, Akira; Yamada, Shigeo; Hisada, Ken-ichiro (eds.),
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3m wide and 4m tall, as well as the oldest known monumental building, the
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854:. Lorenzo Nigro, PRINThe Seven Plagues. Rome. 2014. pp. 55–85.
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The rise of urban settlements such as Uruk is often attributed to a
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906:"Tell es-Sultan 2015: A Pilot Project for Archaeology in Palestine"
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Alternatively, a number of proto-urban population centres such as
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816:. Glenn M. Schwartz. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
564:"Near Urban Living: Çatalhöyük and the Late Neolithic Megasites"
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1499:"Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia"
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buildings built atop one another and separated by spaces for
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Prehistoric settlement that has both rural and urban features
186:, making the site among the most advanced centres of the
1393:"Early Mesopotamian urbanism: a new view from the north"
1063:"'World's first skyscraper sought to intimidate masses'"
722:"Early Mesopotamian urbanism: a new view from the north"
1140:
Diachenko, Aleksandr; Menotti, Francesco (2017-09-01).
1013:"The Walls of Jericho: An Alternative Interpretation"
1112:
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
526:
Grant, Jim; Gorin, Sam; Fleming, Neil (2015-03-27).
640:, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 133–147,
1082:"An Ancient Proto-City Reveals the Origin of Home"
50:settlement that is largely distinguished from a
408:. As opposed to the popular view of the use of
1247:. Singapore: Springer Singapore. p. 141.
8:
240:is a mega-site of the Neolithic in Southern
38:, a commonly cited example of a proto-city.
882:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
676:"The 'disappearance' of Trypillia culture"
634:"The Birth of Cities in Ancient West Asia"
380:where - among other factors - the complex
94:at the end of the Fourth Millennium, B.C.
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1194:"The City Is Dead! Long Live the City!"
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1286:Mazzucato, Camilla (2019-05-09).
1080:Newitz, Annalee (March 1, 2021).
766:Mazzucato, Camilla (2019-05-09).
562:Mazzucato, Camilla (2016-01-02).
1503:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
1124:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01101.x
964:Barkai, Ran; Liran, Roy (2008).
674:Videiko, Mykhailo (2011-12-31).
292:The Cucuteni-Trypillian site of
1292:Frontiers in Digital Humanities
1198:Norwegian Archaeological Review
772:Frontiers in Digital Humanities
638:Ancient West Asian Civilization
568:Norwegian Archaeological Review
388:resulted in the development of
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904:Nigro, Lorenzo (2016-03-01).
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1555:Archaeological terminology
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1344:Smith, Michael E. (2009).
1061:O'Sullivan, Arieh (2011).
279:Cucuteni-Trypillia culture
261:Cucuteni-Trypillia Culture
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1106:Taylor, Peter J. (2012).
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384:and the production of an
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128:Mesopotamian city-states
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1266:. Retrieved
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1236:
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659:, retrieved
637:
574:(1): 65–69.
571:
567:
528:
485:Lepenski Vir
475:Göbekli Tepe
460:Aşıklı Höyük
448:
444:
432:
422:Ubaid Period
418:
410:slave labour
406:construction
374:"revolution"
371:
356:
343:Anu Ziggurat
316:
312:
291:
276:
236:
196:
162:
137:public works
124:
99:urbanization
96:
80:Ubaid period
43:
41:
18:Proto-cities
1449:(1): 3–17.
1356:(1): 3–29.
916:(1): 4–17.
686:: 373–382.
429:Controversy
199:stone walls
184:agriculture
111:agriculture
88:Uruk period
84:Mesopotamia
34:A model of
1544:Categories
661:2022-05-16
511:References
470:Çatalhöyük
287:Eneolithic
255:Cappadocia
238:Çatalhöyük
231:Çatalhöyük
221:Çatalhöyük
215:earthquake
132:stratified
121:Definition
72:mega-sites
68:Çatalhöyük
44:proto-city
36:Çatalhöyük
1523:0959-7743
1463:0041-0020
1417:0003-598X
1397:Antiquity
1370:0041-0020
1314:2297-2668
1220:0029-3652
1174:164415808
1166:1573-7802
1037:0011-3204
998:161987206
990:1751-696X
948:163776801
940:1094-2076
878:cite book
870:890135827
794:2297-2668
746:0003-598X
726:Antiquity
702:1854-2492
596:163831269
588:0029-3652
319:Tell Brak
294:Nebelivka
283:Neolithic
48:Neolithic
1531:17256327
1479:39517784
1471:40102108
1378:27715085
1268:16 April
1228:53328012
832:50322834
490:Mehrgarh
465:Bhirrana
454:See also
246:mudbrick
242:Anatolia
70:and the
56:planning
1045:7798010
398:kinship
299:economy
250:middens
190:in the
167:Jericho
148:Jericho
109:toward
74:of the
64:Jericho
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500:Sarazm
495:Sesklo
172:spring
1527:S2CID
1475:S2CID
1467:JSTOR
1422:down.
1374:JSTOR
1298:: 8.
1224:S2CID
1170:S2CID
1041:S2CID
994:S2CID
944:S2CID
778:: 8.
592:S2CID
480:Jiahu
328:seals
303:trade
273:site.
1519:ISSN
1459:ISSN
1413:ISSN
1366:ISSN
1310:ISSN
1270:2023
1257:ISBN
1216:ISSN
1162:ISSN
1033:ISSN
986:ISSN
936:ISSN
888:link
884:link
866:OCLC
856:ISBN
851:2012
828:OCLC
818:ISBN
790:ISSN
742:ISSN
698:ISSN
650:ISBN
584:ISSN
534:ISBN
347:Uruk
341:The
332:lion
324:Uruk
301:and
277:The
182:and
92:Uruk
58:and
52:city
1511:doi
1451:doi
1405:doi
1358:doi
1300:doi
1249:doi
1206:doi
1154:doi
1120:doi
1025:doi
978:doi
926:hdl
918:doi
780:doi
734:doi
688:doi
642:doi
576:doi
414:tax
376:in
345:at
174:at
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