106:
1805:) are large (1–5 kg or 2.2–11.0 lb) cakes or bricks of dough that have been incubated for long periods, typically 3–4 or 6–8 weeks, and then matured for an extended period of six months or more. They are rarely available outside of China. Wheat flour is the main ingredient, but some specific types call for the use of barley-wheat and barley-pea flour. The four most famous
36:
1997:
1989:
450:
1914:
can be generally categorized into three kinds according to the highest temperature achieved during incubation: high-temperature (60–70 °C or 140–158 °F), medium-temperature (50–60 °C or 122–140 °F) and low-temperature (40–50 °C or 104–122 °F), respectively. As an example
1189:
to one step. The use of microbial cultured starches for fermentation has a long history in East Asian countries, as evidenced by the diversity of foods and beverages produced. Brewing alcoholic beverages from grains typically involves the use of sprouted cereal grains that supply natural enzymes to
1074:
manufacturing process using solid-state fermentation. Yeasts and bacteria are often used in industrial submerged fermentation because they thrive at high water activity and reduced oxygen levels. Molds, however, prefer the lower water content and increased oxygen found in solid-state fermentation.
1030:
to the raw material, the process, and the locale simply grew upon the grains or dough. At some stage in history, it was discovered that using small amounts (2–8% weight) of a previous successful batch to inoculate the current one gave more consistent results. The starter cultures are often handed
1014:
used to shape the dough are made of wood. All of these elements unknowingly provided access to the microbes. The cakes are deemed ready when a colored coating forms on the outside. They are then dried and stored until used. The control of moisture and temperature levels and a lack of atmospheric
1868:
fermentations due to their greater starch degrading capacity, i.e., they contribute a high number of enzymes. The greater degree of microbial metabolism because of a longer, higher temperature conversion phase of incubation is also said to provide certain organoleptic qualities that would be
1209:), the enzymes responsible for the conversion of carbohydrates to fermentable sugars are absent and thus fermentation cannot proceed. Culturing microbes on cereal grains is a time-honored tradition in East Asia and the necessary way around this dilemma, as they exude the enzymes that allow
2126:: rice is steamed, cooled, and then mixed with the inoculum (1–2%). It is then transferred to an incubation room where the temperature is maintained at 35–40 °C (95–104 °F) for four to five days and the rice is stirred frequently. Modern practice is to steep the rice in weak
1075:
The steaming of grain or making of dough creates a solid substrate with reduced water activity. Thus, the actual technique passed down through history unknowingly favored the growth and reproduction of the mold genera, organisms capable of excreting large amounts of functional
995:
are used, but often herbs are added. To keep the grains or dough relatively moist and warm, they are housed in closed straw-roofed huts and typically kept in straw baskets, stacked on wooden shelves, or simply placed on the floor. Leaves of various plants, often straw,
1291:
Although only one type of starter is required, many
Chinese breweries use two or more types of starters for added flavor complexity. Modern Chinese brewing adopted many practices to optimize production and a 'seed mash' is now commonly prepared where the
1563:
and are partly responsible for the breakdown of proteins and carbohydrates and the conversion of fermentable sugars into organic acids. Lactic acid is the most common organic acid found in
Chinese alcoholic beverages and plays a vital role in both the
2475:
McGovern, Patrick E.; Zhang, Juzhong; Tang, Jigen; Zhang, Zhiqing; Hall, Gretchen R.; Moreau, Robert A.; Nuñez, Alberto; Butrym, Eric D.; Richards, Michael P.; Wang, Chen-shan; Cheng, Guangsheng; Zhao, Zhijun; Wang, Changsui (2004-12-21).
1899:
preparation and has undergone the most modernization. It involves the manipulation of specific time-temperature control schemes to achieve slightly different types, which in turn are used to generate several types of liquor. The four
1754:
is added only to inoculate a fermentation and constitutes very little of the substrate in producing cereal wines (typically 3–8%). As such, xiao contributes very minor flavor, aroma, or enzymatic function when compared to
1620:
can be produced by manipulating the ingredients and processes across the different environments. Some types are produced by exploiting natural temperature shifts, others by mechanical temperature adjustments. Some
1443:. In turn, the dominant mold species is dependent on the climate, the substrate, and the production techniques. Both substrate and incubation phases can be adjusted to favor the growth of desired species, e.g.
1719:) are generally small (10–100 grams or 0.35–3.53 ounces) cubes or flattened or rounded balls made of rice dough incubated for usually only several days. Rice flour or bran and inoculum are used, with
990:
are saturated with water (e.g., steaming rice or mixing flour with water to form a dough) and subsequently incubated in a warm, humid environment during a favorable season, typically spring or autumn. No
889:
rice to make wine. Therefore, when consumed in large quantities, occurs, hot and sweaty head even after the effects of intoxication have subsided, as the drink contains toxic herbs. The roots of
1539:, is also reported frequently, and together they appear to be co-involved in starch breakdown with the mold genera. Both species have limited but capable (3–5% alcohol) fermentative capacities.
1233:, in ground form, is directly applied to cooked grain at a temperature suitable for microbe growth. When rehydrated, any enzymes present become activated. However, due to the small amount of
1055:, so an important step in manufacturing is to allow some of the cultured substrate to mature and sporulate to inoculate the next batch. Most of the other microbes present are capable of
1332:
making process favored the development of regional microbiota assemblages across China. By comparison, the industrial
Japanese koji-making process favors a single monoculture species,
1161:
laboratory conditions are used to mono-culture specific favorable strains of mold, yeast, and bacteria grown on independent, fortified substrates. Such isolates now find usage in
2175:
is used only to provide red pigmentation and saccharification and as such, should generally be used in conjunction with another starter with high fermentative capability.
1904:
aromas most typical are considered to be sauce-aroma (e.g., Maotai), strong-aroma (e.g., Luzhou
Laojiao), mixed-aroma (e.g., Xifengjiu) and light-aroma (e.g., Fenjiu).
3395:
Yuan, Huawei; Chen, Wenhao; Chen, Yuanlin; Wang, Lian; Zhang, Chao; Deng, Wuyuan; Zhang, Liqiang; Liu, Guangqian; Shen, Caihong; Lou, Kai; Wang, Songtao (2021-11-17).
61:
3588:"Yeast diversity of traditional alcohol fermentation starters for Hong Qu glutinous rice wine brewing, revealed by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods"
2985:
Zheng (2005-10-11). "Fermentation
Biotechnology of Traditional Foods in China". In Pometto, Anthony; Shetty, Kalidas; Paliyath, Gopinadhan; Levin, Robert E. (eds.).
3640:"Effect of different Bacillus strains on the profile of organic acids in a liquid culture of Daqu: Different Bacillus spp. on the profile of organic acids in Daqu"
3049:
1763:
is the
Chinese equivalent of what most other East, South, and Southeast Asian countries use as a fermentation starter, e.g. banh men, bubo, Murcia, ragi, nuruk.
3170:"Isolation and Identification of Representative Fungi from Shaoxing Rice Wine Wheat Qu Using a Polyphasic Approach of Culture-Based and Molecular-Based Methods"
2337:
441:
The starter creation process in China traditionally took place in homes, villages, or small manufacturing facilities, later shifting to large-scale facilities.
1633:
contains its own distinctive, region-specific mix of microorganisms, the temperature schemes involved in preparation manipulates the microbial ecology, e.g.,
3381:
Lv, Xu-Cong, et al. "Identification and characterization of filamentous fungi isolated from fermentation starters for Hong Qu glutinous rice wine brewing".
1227:
with fermentative yeast and bacteria initiates the complex saccharification-liquefaction-fermentation process to produce the sought-after alcoholic liquid.
1169:
or enzyme production. An important objective is continued research into the biotechnological domestication of such microbes and as such, standardization of
3201:"Characterization of microbial communities in strong aromatic liquor fermentation pit muds of different ages assessed by combined DGGE and PLFA analyses"
2692:
Tamang, Jyoti
Prakash (2010-07-01). "Diversity of Fermented Beverages and Alcoholic Drinks". In Tamang, Jyoti Prakash; Kailasapathy, Kasipathy (eds.).
3833:
1324:
The environment exerts a significant influence on Xiu microbiology. Relevant microbe species and genera prefer different climatic conditions, and
1185:
for alcohol production is its two-fold effect. The enzymes and microorganisms break down the starches and sugars, reducing the process of making
1978:
The scientific basis for these processes need to be clarified, as standardizing production methods is a goal of the
Chinese alcohol industry.
3802:
3481:"Complex microbiota of a Chinese "Fen" liquor fermentation starter (Fen-Daqu), revealed by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods"
3025:
2996:
2750:
2703:
2593:
2449:
2387:
1649:. In turn, the starch ingredients used also alter the microbial ecology dictating both the type and the number of metabolites present, e.g.,
3525:
Wu, Q., Y. Xu, and L. Chen. "Diversity of yeast species during fermentative process contributing to
Chinese Maotai‐flavour liquor making".
1941:
a higher temperature (50–70 °C or 122–158 °F) conversion phase for 3–5 days to increase the metabolic activities of the microbes,
1346:
extraction methods often miss entire species or misrepresent their statistical importance. Studies have failed to establish any pattern in
2376:
Chen (1999-04-05). "Perspectives on
Alcoholic Beverages in China", in Ang". In Ang, Catharina Y. W.; Liu, Keshun; Huang, Yao-Wen (eds.).
3479:
Zheng, Xiao-Wei; Yan, Zheng; Han, Bei-Zhong; Zwietering, Marcel H.; Samson, Robert A.; Boekhout, Teun; Robert Nout, M. J. (2012-09-01).
1766:
Incubation is relatively simple and done at ambient temperatures of 25–35 °C (77–95 °F) for four to five days, before drying.
2727:
History of Koji-Grains And/or Soybeans Enrobed with a Mold Culture (300 BCE To 2012): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook
3823:
2456:
79:
3624:
Zhao, Wen-jing, et al. "Isolation and Preliminary Identification of Bacteria from Distiller's Yeast of Buzi Wine in Hougou, Yuci".
3330:"Filamentous fungal diversity and community structure associated with the solid state fermentation of Chinese Maotai-flavor liquor"
1113:
manufacturing techniques still vary widely, with each brewery or factory using a slightly different process and locally indigenous
1545:
is almost ubiquitous and although incapable of elevated alcohol production, it appears to be vital in developing taste and aroma.
3076:"A comparative study on the fungal communities of wheat Qu for Qingshuang-type Chinese rice wine: Fungi communities of wheat Qu"
1723:
as a bulking agent. Traditionally various herbs (from one to fifteen varieties) are incorporated into the preparation as either
46:
1938:
a low-temperature (30–40 °C or 86–104 °F) incubation phase for 3–5 days to stimulate the initial growth of microbes,
2884:"Microbial diversity of traditional fermentation starters for Hong Qu glutinous rice wine as determined by PCR-mediated DGGE"
1257:
and reproduction of microbes after inoculation releases more enzymes in the process, inducing further catabolism, to produce
1249:
are used, sometimes reaching as high as 50%, which consequently provides a major enzyme contribution to the mash to initiate
885:). The dough, the size of an egg, is left in dense bushes under the shade. After a month, it is done and is used to mix with
196:
119:
1031:
down from generation to generation in a continuous cycle of serial re-culturing. The most important functional organisms in
1608:
species are known to be large producers of enzymes and therefore contribute to the overall breakdown of the cereal grains.
212:
135:
2667:
1869:
otherwise unachievable in the final product. This directly relates to the greater use of data as an ingredient in making
1101:
processing can be carried out synchronously in the factory or workplace that produces a fermented end-product (such as a
616:
57:
2045:
and rice vinegar, this starter gives the beverage a unique red or purple color due to pigments produced by members of
1735:). They are commonly referred to as Chinese or Shanghai yeast balls when available through Western Chinese suppliers.
352:
3280:"PCR-DGGE analysis of the microbial communities in three different Chinese "Baiyunbian" liquor fermentation starters"
3278:
Xiong, Xiaomao; Hu, Yuanliang; Yan, Nanfeng; Huang, Yingna; Peng, Nan; Liang, Yunxiang; Zhao, Shumiao (August 2014).
3669:
Liu, Chen-jian; Gong, Fu-ming; Li, Xiao-ran; Li, Hai-yan; Zhang, Zhong-hua; Feng, Yue; Nagano, Hiroko (April 2012).
2742:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 3, Agro-Industries and Forestry
2041:, available as dried, mold-encrusted rice with a unique red color, and sold as "red yeast rice". Used mostly for
2156:
1881:
is used only to inoculate a fermentation (3–8%). The heavy use (50%) of large 5 kg (11 lb) bricks of
1547:
3741:"Characterization and comparison of microbial community of different typical Chinese liquor Daqus by PCR-DGGE"
1136:
is a pre-production process tailored to suit the growth and subsequent reproductive cycle of select microbes.
1778:
are now prepared by mixing yeast sediment with the normal inoculum to produce a more fermentative starter.
3541:"Yeast community associated with the solid state fermentation of traditional Chinese Maotai-flavor liquor"
2093:
1105:
or soy sauce factory) or it can be produced independently for sale. Traditionally, breweries did not make
3169:
3127:
1026:
One aspect that has changed is the method of re-culturing for later preparation. Traditionally, microbes
3397:"Isolation and characterization of yeast for the production of rice wine with low fusel alcohol content"
1968:
a curing phase (45 °C or 113 °F) for 7–8 days to create flavor and further dehydrate the cake.
783:
3587:
3480:
3200:
2883:
973:
involves only whole rice grains. Herbs of many kinds are variously included in the rice dough of many
3408:
2489:
1944:
a curing phase (45 °C or 113 °F) for 9–12 days to create flavors and dehydrate the cake and
1479:, but it is uncertain if they were identified correctly or if those specific strains were capable of
1475:
1048:
1027:
858:
853:
831:
812:
709:
348:
2193:
is a starter for wheat only. It is used as a major component (15–25%) of the total starter for some
1657:
both produce more starch degrading enzymes and are found commonly on 100% flour substrates, whilst
1316:), to a small amount of the substrate. After incubation for 2–7 days, the seed mash is then added.
1281:
941:
862:
801:
and pressed into cakes or bricks for handling. The earliest reference to the actual preparation of
735:
417:
105:
1962:
a cooling phase (25–35 °C or 77–95 °F) For 3–5 days to stabilize the growth of microbes.
1665:
produce more proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes and are more abundant when pulse flours are added.
1495:
starter and can be enzymatic (substrate-degrading) and/or fermentative. Yeast genera observed for
3828:
3043:
2859:
Xiaoqing Mu et al "Solid-State Fermented Alcoholic Beverages", in Chen, Jian, and Yang Zhu, eds.
2315:
2031:
1965:
a heating phase (40–50 °C or 104–122 °F) For 4–5 days to increase metabolic activities.
1469:
1334:
1254:
1237:
used (2–8%) in most cases, only a minor contribution of enzymes comes from the starter. As such,
1219:
1124:
is inherently more complex as the two end products are sought to be manufactured by the factory:
917:. Traditional practices vary and diverge from the later processes used for industrially-produced
914:
620:
434:
3199:
Zheng, Jia; Liang, Ru; Zhang, Liqiang; Wu, Chongde; Zhou, Rongqing; Liao, Xuepin (2013-11-01).
961:
Substrate ingredients vary across China by regional preferences, availability, and the type of
3798:
3768:
3760:
3708:
3690:
3607:
3568:
3560:
3508:
3500:
3444:
3426:
3357:
3349:
3307:
3299:
3220:
3168:
Xie, Guang-fa; Li, Wang-jun; Lu, Jian; Cao, Yu; Fang, Hua; Zou, Hui-jun; Hu, Zhi-ming (2007).
3031:
3021:
2992:
2960:
2942:
2903:
2807:
2789:
2746:
2740:
2699:
2589:
2525:
2507:
2445:
2383:
2087:
1205:
As the grains used for traditional East Asian alcoholic fermentations are raw and unsprouted (
1060:
1002:
611:
2159:
activity, but poor proteolytic and lipolytic enzyme production. Also, the fermentative yeast
822:
are described in detail, along with their usage in the manufacture of 37 wines. The usage of
3752:
3698:
3682:
3651:
3599:
3552:
3492:
3434:
3416:
3341:
3291:
3212:
3181:
3139:
3087:
2950:
2934:
2895:
2797:
2779:
2515:
2497:
1860:
Both the larger size and the longer incubation ensure higher enzyme and microbial load than
1837:
can come in three colors that mostly reflect the dominant mold species present: grey-white (
1517:
1501:
1214:
1186:
909:
in starchy materials and is a separate process that precedes the fermentation of grains and
686:
429:
306:
273:
243:
166:
3638:
Yan, Zheng; Zheng, Xiao-Wei; Chen, Jing-Yu; Han, Jian-Shu; Han, Bei-Zong (September 2013).
1676:, or cereal wines, can incorporate one or several of the starters with the combination of
1424:
958:
can be sold fresh or stored for up to three years, without significant loss of viability.
2921:
Meussen, Bas J.; de Graaff, Leo H.; Sanders, Johan P. M.; Weusthuis, Ruud A. (May 2012).
1366:
and other fermentable sugars from the source of carbohydrates used (along with the yeast
724:
in Han Tomb Number 1 documented an inventory of tomb contents that included two sacks of
3412:
2493:
1439:
The mold species appears to be an important factor in determining the resulting type of
1091:
optimal, but still grow effectively in solid-state fermentation. Their relationships to
3703:
3439:
3396:
3185:
3143:
2955:
2922:
2802:
2767:
2305:
1814:
1541:
1274:
1262:
1258:
1147:
Non-inoculum, spontaneous growth of microbiota from the natural surroundings through to
713:
596:
591:
is believed to have originated in China 3000–4000 years ago, and introduced throughout
3556:
3345:
2520:
2477:
3817:
3756:
3639:
3075:
1971:
an equilibration phase (<35 °C or 95 °F) for 4–5 days to cool the cakes.
1578:
1509:
1325:
1162:
997:
757:
748:
721:
628:
1535:, as is typical for traditional East Asian fermentation starters. A close relative,
760:
flower. This was interpreted as referring to the distinctive yellow color formed on
3671:"Natural populations of lactic acid bacteria in douchi from Yunnan Province, China"
3603:
3126:
Zheng, Xiao-Wei; Tabrizi, Minoo Rezaei; Nout, M. J. Robert; Han, Bei-Zhong (2011).
2923:"Metabolic engineering of Rhizopus oryzae for the production of platform chemicals"
2899:
2280:
1927:
made from barley and pea flour but differ in the coarseness of the crushed grains.
1586:
1569:
1565:
1505:
1411:
1285:
1210:
1191:
1166:
982:
807:
624:
413:
405:
313:
250:
173:
3216:
2784:
2097:) to make the rice black on the outside and red inside. A rarer variety is called
1362:
and are considered to be the dominant enzymatic agents responsible for liberating
3792:
3421:
3237:
Zhong Fangda, Hu Feng, and Tang Yunrong. "Investigation on Microecology of Shelf
3074:
Shang, Yue-Ling; Chen, Liang-Liang; Zhang, Zhong-Hua; Lu, Jian (September 2012).
2986:
2693:
2583:
2439:
2377:
1959:
a low temperature (35–40 °C or 95–104 °F) incubation phase for 2–4 days
1572:. The bacterial species most commonly found (in decreasing significance) include
865:. "In there are many fine wines, prepared not with yeast leaven but by pounding
2127:
1596:
1590:
1582:
1523:
1415:
1342:
appears to be bias introduced by the analytical technique. Culture-dependent or
1071:
1037:
992:
931:
787:
765:
584:
421:
280:
203:
126:
2130:
solution for a short period to help create the optimum pH of 3–3.5 that favors
1629:, while others are wrapped in straw and hung from the rafters to dry. Although
3586:
Lv, Xu-Cong; Huang, Xiao-Lan; Zhang, Wen; Rao, Ping-Fan; Ni, Li (2013-11-01).
3035:
2938:
2671:
1396:
1266:
1250:
1114:
945:
935:
866:
600:
3764:
3694:
3611:
3564:
3504:
3496:
3430:
3353:
3303:
3224:
2946:
2907:
2793:
2511:
673:) or might refer to a single preparation made of fermenting sprouted grains (
3740:
3540:
3329:
3279:
2502:
1818:
1720:
1626:
1224:
944:
in a warm, humid environment for a set duration to stimulate the growth and
886:
871:
717:
592:
572:
409:
3772:
3712:
3670:
3572:
3512:
3448:
3361:
3311:
3295:
2964:
2811:
2529:
1467:
microbiology, potentially harmful strains of mold were encountered such as
3686:
1087:(the biomolecules). Most yeast and bacteria do not find the conditions of
2882:
Lv, Xu-Cong; Weng, Xing; Zhang, Wen; Rao, Ping-Fan; Ni, Li (2012-12-01).
2209:
2151:
2037:
1746:
1740:
1574:
1384:
1064:
1052:
1043:
906:
576:
564:
548:
397:
385:
2739:
Needham, Joseph; Daniels, Christian; Menzies, Nicholas K. (1996-06-20).
1923:, and both are made from wheat flour. Fenjiu and Xifengjiu use low-temp
1885:
incubated at high temperatures is responsible for the pungent aroma and
1150:
Inoculation with a previous batch to improve consistency, culminating in
2275:
2026:
1422:, but their production capabilities vary widely from strain to strain.
1390:
1363:
1270:
1206:
1195:
1158:
1102:
1084:
1056:
910:
827:
770:
743:
556:
532:
2056:
is the name for this starter, inoculated with a "seed" culture called
1810:
1513:
1419:
1076:
980:
Traditional methods have changed little since the publication of the
928:
Preparation of cereal grains, usually rice, or a dough made from them
798:
779:
697:
662:
391:
1996:
1988:
1774:
is the dominant mold species and saccharifying agent. Some types of
1370:). Molds found in traditional Chinese fermentation starters include
449:
3655:
3091:
1908:
preparation is manipulated to help produce these different aromas.
2270:
1995:
1987:
1886:
1480:
1463:
prefer substrates richer in protein. In some reported examples of
1402:
1199:
987:
815:. There the techniques employed for making nine separate kinds of
794:
658:
524:
520:
508:
504:
448:
17:
1877:
typically constitutes 15–25% of the overall fermentable, whereas
1241:
is used only to inoculate the mash with microbes. In the case of
2227:
2116:) to make the rice yellow on the outside and red on the inside.
1974:
maturation for up to six months or more at ambient temperatures.
1947:
maturation for up to six months or more at ambient temperatures.
1217:
to occur (up to fifty different enzymes have been isolated from
1011:
869:
mixed with many kinds of herb leaves and soaked in the juice of
730:
639:
540:
1083:
itself became a dried product carrying both microbes and their
1992:
Red Yeast Rice (Hongqu), a dried culture of Monascus purpureus
1343:
778:, which are interpreted as distinguished by the source of the
29:
1551:
is the most common highly fermentative yeast present in Xiu.
1117:, which in turn have generated diverse strains across China.
2668:"Grandiose Survey of Chinese Alcoholic Drinks and Beverages"
3739:
Wang, H.-Y.; Gao, Y.-B.; Fan, Q.-W.; Xu, Y. (August 2011).
1015:
access was recognized as vital to making consistently good
2582:
Huang (2006). "Chinese Wines: Jiu". In Hui, Yiu H. (ed.).
2197:. The manufacturing process and microbiota are similar to
1350:
microbiology across China, reflecting regional diversity.
1157:
A fourth step was introduced in 21st century China, where
965:
ultimately being produced. The most common flours used in
3128:"Daqu- A Traditional Chinese Liquor Fermentation Starter"
1672:
can be used individually or in conjunction with others.
428:
is similar to, but distinct from, the more widely known
1338:. One difficulty in identifying the species present in
53:
2478:"Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China"
1915:
of the differing usage schemes, Maotai uses high-temp
1568:
qualities, as well as acting as a naturally occurring
2585:
Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering
1491:
Yeast species form part of the symbiotic nature of a
857:
has the earliest description of preparing a natural "
318:
255:
178:
2064:
species. A popular alternative variety also used is
742:
as one of six requisites to make good wine. Another
1451:prefer higher water activities and temperatures to
1128:for use in alcohol production and so-called 'seed'
1010:to promote a beneficial condition. The presses and
746:from the Eastern Han dynasty, the first-century AD
312:
305:
300:
288:
272:
267:
249:
242:
237:
225:
211:
195:
190:
172:
165:
160:
148:
134:
118:
94:
3273:
3271:
2134:growth. Afterward, the rice is removed and dried.
1604:species are the dominant bacterial genera in Xiu.
1559:Bacterial species are present in large numbers in
3539:Wu, Qun; Chen, Liangqiang; Xu, Yan (2013-09-02).
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3251:
1527:. The yeast species most frequently reported for
1070:The incubation and maturation phase is a typical
951:Dessication to preserve the functional properties
3794:Solid State Fermentation for Foods and Beverages
3377:
3375:
3373:
3371:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2861:Solid State Fermentation for Foods and Beverages
2344:教育部重編國語辭典修訂本 (Official dictionary by MoE Taiwan)
1358:Molds are the most prevalent organisms found in
1132:for continued culturing of the microbiota. Seed
1109:but later often specialized in the preparation.
3383:The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology
2482:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2085:, a "seed" culture that contains a black mold (
681:predates 500 BC, so the ancient predecessor of
404:Other forms of starters are used for different
2768:"The Role of Yeasts in Fermentation Processes"
1035:have been recognized as the filamentous molds
969:are wheat and barley/peas. The preparation of
3786:
3784:
3782:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3059:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
861:" with rice, used to make a special wine for
839:
653:describes the preparation of ferments, while
278:
217:
201:
140:
124:
8:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3323:
3321:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2071:, which involves seeding the rice with both
1750:and most popular in the southern provinces,
1688:, a distilled beverage, generally uses only
1499:in decreasing order of significance include
661:. They may have formed separate elements of
3163:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3153:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2745:. Cambridge University Press. p. 183.
2444:. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press.
1825:only. Some huangjiu are often started with
3791:Zhu, Yang (2013-11-23). Chen, Jian (ed.).
3734:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3545:International Journal of Food Microbiology
3334:International Journal of Food Microbiology
3048:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2695:Fermented Foods and Beverages of the World
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2183:The following form the fourth category of
1864:. They are the only starter used for most
1432:are the two most common molds isolated in
297:
234:
157:
104:
3702:
3438:
3420:
3328:Chen, Bi; Wu, Qun; Xu, Yan (2014-06-02).
3284:Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
3121:
2954:
2801:
2783:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2519:
2501:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2149:are utilized. Studies have revealed that
2122:is prepared in a way similar to Japanese
1153:Industrial culturing in a special process
734:(100 AD), a collection of texts from the
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
3675:Journal of Zhejiang University Science B
3119:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2605:
924:The major manufacturing principles are:
359:specifically refers to a type of yeast (
3018:and the world's oldest drinking culture
2329:
2292:
2216:) uses raw, roasted, and steamed wheat,
1955:typically undergo a six-step process:
1934:generally undergo a four-step process:
471:are known as "starter cake" (
3243:Liquor-Making Science & Technology
3041:
2927:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
2725:Shurtleff, William, and Akiko Aoyagi.
2441:Part 5, Fermentations and Food Science
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
1296:is added, often along with the yeast (
1245:production, typical amounts of 15–25%
1067:) and propagate without intervention.
351:used in the production of traditional
91:
2035:or other red rice molds of the genus
1120:The process of making industrialized
844:, 965) recorded the use of a special
834:, and soy sauces are documented. The
685:may be the world's oldest example of
7:
1919:and Luzhou Laojiao uses medium-temp
1873:rather than simply as an inoculant.
1684:being the most common. In contrast,
47:research paper or scientific journal
3644:Journal of the Institute of Brewing
3174:Journal of the Institute of Brewing
3132:Journal of the Institute of Brewing
3080:Journal of the Institute of Brewing
2379:Asian Foods: Science and Technology
2201:, but is made entirely from wheat.
485:), "liquor product" (
3186:10.1002/j.2050-0416.2007.tb00287.x
3144:10.1002/j.2050-0416.2011.tb00447.x
2029:, is rice cultured primarily with
1738:Used mostly for the production of
793:was produced in China from mostly
708:), a collection of texts from the
467:In China, particular cultivars of
25:
3557:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.07.003
3346:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.03.011
3012:Sandhaus, Derek (November 2019).
2457:Science and Civilisation in China
720:(200 BC – 10 AD),
3757:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2011.03076.x
2000:A bag of Red Yeast Rice (Hongqu)
1006:, are used to wrap or cover the
774:(151) mentions several types of
649:". Most authorities concur that
34:
3834:Fermentation in food processing
3745:Letters in Applied Microbiology
3527:Letters in Applied Microbiology
1895:is the most complex process of
1770:is almost always white because
1645:prefer lower temperatures than
756:modified to include the yellow
712:. It is described in preparing
453:Fermentation starter, known as
27:East Asian fermentation starter
3604:10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.020
2900:10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.025
2310:
2300:
2189:
2017:
2012:
2008:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1791:or "large starter" (
1715:
1710:
1706:
1705:or "small starter" (
1312:
1302:
1143:practices have evolved from:
881:
840:
495:
490:
486:
481:
476:
472:
455:
379:
369:
364:
360:
319:
279:
256:
218:
202:
179:
141:
125:
1:
3217:10.1016/j.foodres.2013.07.058
2785:10.3390/microorganisms8081142
1930:High- and medium-temperature
1731:) or bark (white or herbless
1223:starters). Their mutualistic
702:
636: 17th–11th centuries BC
632:
3422:10.1371/journal.pone.0260024
2766:Maicas, Sergi (2020-07-28).
2007:or "red starter" (
1889:-like the flavor of Maotai.
1418:and ethanol as they excrete
3626:Hubei Agricultural Sciences
3205:Food Research International
2438:Huang, H. T. (2000-11-30).
2137:Often in the production of
1533:Saccharomycopsis fibuligera
1368:Saccharomycopsis fibuligera
845:
786:. It claims that since the
716:and a grain–meat paste. At
623:and a foundational work in
353:Chinese alcoholic beverages
3850:
2250:) uses only roasted wheat,
2240:) uses only steamed wheat,
1845:, yellow to yellow-green (
1616:An exponential variety of
1079:onto their substrate. The
642:or sweet liquor one needs
621:ancient Chinese literature
587:. The tradition of making
401:(alcoholic rice pudding).
2939:10.1007/s00253-012-4033-0
2257:
2247:
2237:
2223:
2213:
1625:are wrapped in straw and
1410:are capable of producing
1307:
1297:
876:
460:
374:
330:
296:
233:
156:
103:
99:
3824:Chinese alcoholic drinks
3497:10.1016/j.fm.2012.03.008
2338:
2167:starters but present in
2161:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1548:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1095:have been understudied.
1049:reproduce only asexually
752:records a character for
395:(distilled spirits) and
373:) used to make alcohol (
197:Traditional Chinese
120:Traditional Chinese
62:overly technical phrases
54:help improve the article
2729:. Soyinfo Center, 2012.
2503:10.1073/pnas.0407921102
2163:was mostly absent from
1537:Issatchenkia orientalis
1181:The advantage of using
938:(generally 4–8% weight)
638:) states that "to make
341:, also simply known as
213:Simplified Chinese
136:Simplified Chinese
3296:10.4014/jmb.1401.01043
2001:
1993:
1051:through spores called
934:with previously grown
464:
3687:10.1631/jzus.b1100221
3529:55.4 (2012): 301–307.
2260:) uses only raw wheat
1999:
1991:
1165:applications such as
905:involves cultivating
452:
2155:species show strong
2108:with a yellow mold (
1821:, are all made with
1476:Rhizopus microsporus
854:Nanfang Caomu Zhuang
848:for the first time.
813:Northern Wei dynasty
782:and the form of the
710:Eastern Zhou dynasty
695:is mentioned in the
609:is mentioned in the
499:), or simply as
349:fermentation starter
3413:2021PLoSO..1660024Y
3385:58.1 (2011): 33–42.
3241:for Xijiu Liquor".
2494:2004PNAS..10117593M
2488:(51): 17593–17598.
2021:), also called
915:alcoholic beverages
863:marriage ceremonies
851:The fourth-century
736:Eastern Han dynasty
657:refers to sprouted
418:fermented bean curd
347:is a type of dried
56:by rewriting it in
2988:Food Biotechnology
2863:. CRC Press, 2013.
2060:, containing only
2032:Monascus purpureus
2002:
1994:
1847:Aspergillus oryzae
1829:and finished with
1651:Aspergillus oryzae
1635:Aspergillus oryzae
1470:Aspergillus flavus
1430:Aspergillus oryzae
1335:Aspergillus oryzae
1255:exponential growth
1220:Aspergillus oryzae
1057:vegetative budding
627:. A book from the
465:
58:encyclopedic style
45:is written like a
3804:978-1-4398-4496-0
3485:Food Microbiology
3027:978-1-64012-259-8
2998:978-1-4200-2797-6
2752:978-0-521-41999-4
2705:978-1-040-06802-1
2666:Rong; Fa (2013).
2595:978-0-8493-9849-0
2451:978-0-521-65270-4
2389:978-1-56676-736-1
2346:(in Chinese). 教育部
986:(544). Grains or
948:of the microbiota
872:Gelsemium elegans
679:Book of Documents
665:production (both
612:Book of Documents
503:. Qū is known as
432:starter known as
334:
333:
326:
325:
307:Standard Mandarin
263:
262:
244:Standard Mandarin
186:
185:
167:Standard Mandarin
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
3841:
3809:
3808:
3788:
3777:
3776:
3736:
3717:
3716:
3706:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3635:
3629:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3536:
3530:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3476:
3453:
3452:
3442:
3424:
3407:(11): e0260024.
3392:
3386:
3379:
3366:
3365:
3325:
3316:
3315:
3290:(8): 1088–1095.
3275:
3246:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3165:
3148:
3147:
3123:
3096:
3095:
3071:
3054:
3053:
3047:
3039:
3014:Drunk in China:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2982:
2969:
2968:
2958:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2879:
2864:
2857:
2816:
2815:
2805:
2787:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2736:
2730:
2723:
2710:
2709:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2670:. Archived from
2663:
2600:
2599:
2579:
2534:
2533:
2523:
2505:
2472:
2459:
2455:
2435:
2394:
2393:
2373:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2334:
2318:
2312:
2302:
2297:
2259:
2249:
2239:
2225:
2215:
2191:
2141:rice wine, both
2019:
2014:
2010:
1951:Low-temperature
1803:
1798:
1794:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1502:Saccharomycopsis
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1263:mono-saccharides
1215:saccharification
1019:as early as the
893:are poisonous."
883:
878:
843:
842:
707:
704:
687:biotechnological
637:
634:
497:
492:
488:
483:
478:
474:
462:
457:
381:
376:
371:
366:
362:
322:
321:
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284:
283:
259:
258:
235:
221:
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207:
206:
182:
181:
158:
144:
143:
130:
129:
108:
92:
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3849:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3805:
3790:
3789:
3780:
3738:
3737:
3720:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3628:20 (2012): 048.
3623:
3619:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3524:
3520:
3478:
3477:
3456:
3394:
3393:
3389:
3380:
3369:
3327:
3326:
3319:
3277:
3276:
3249:
3236:
3232:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3167:
3166:
3151:
3125:
3124:
3099:
3073:
3072:
3057:
3040:
3028:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2984:
2983:
2972:
2920:
2919:
2915:
2881:
2880:
2867:
2858:
2819:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2724:
2713:
2706:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2677:
2675:
2665:
2664:
2603:
2596:
2581:
2580:
2537:
2474:
2473:
2462:
2452:
2437:
2436:
2397:
2390:
2375:
2374:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2267:
2181:
2179:Minor varieties
2104:which involves
1986:
1839:Rhizopus oryzae
1786:
1772:Rhizopus oryzae
1700:
1655:Rhizopus oryzae
1647:Rhizopus oryzae
1637:and species of
1614:
1557:
1489:
1425:Rhizopus oryzae
1356:
1322:
1278:
1179:
998:mulberry leaves
899:
805:appears in the
705:
689:manufacturing.
635:
447:
389:(cereal wine),
289:Literal meaning
226:Literal meaning
149:Literal meaning
114:
86:
75:
69:
66:
51:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3847:
3845:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3816:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3803:
3778:
3751:(2): 134–140.
3718:
3681:(4): 298–306.
3661:
3656:10.1002/jib.58
3650:(1–2): 78–83.
3630:
3617:
3598:(1): 183–190.
3578:
3551:(2): 323–330.
3531:
3518:
3491:(2): 293–300.
3454:
3387:
3367:
3317:
3247:
3245:7 (2012): 008.
3230:
3211:(1): 660–666.
3191:
3180:(3): 272–279.
3149:
3097:
3092:10.1002/jib.28
3086:(2): 243–248.
3055:
3026:
3004:
2997:
2970:
2933:(4): 875–886.
2913:
2894:(2): 426–434.
2865:
2817:
2772:Microorganisms
2758:
2751:
2731:
2711:
2704:
2684:
2601:
2594:
2535:
2460:
2450:
2395:
2388:
2357:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2306:mainland China
2291:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2241:
2231:
2217:
2180:
2177:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1849:), and black (
1815:Luzhou Laojiao
1785:
1780:
1721:bentonite clay
1699:
1694:
1613:
1610:
1556:
1553:
1542:Pichia anomala
1488:
1485:
1355:
1352:
1321:
1318:
1276:
1178:
1175:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1061:binary fission
977:preparations.
953:
952:
949:
939:
929:
898:
895:
832:soybean pastes
714:fermented meat
597:Southeast Asia
446:
443:
332:
331:
328:
327:
324:
323:
316:
310:
309:
303:
302:
301:Transcriptions
294:
293:
290:
286:
285:
276:
270:
269:
265:
264:
261:
260:
253:
247:
246:
240:
239:
238:Transcriptions
231:
230:
229:yeast and malt
227:
223:
222:
215:
209:
208:
199:
193:
192:
188:
187:
184:
183:
176:
170:
169:
163:
162:
161:Transcriptions
154:
153:
150:
146:
145:
138:
132:
131:
122:
116:
115:
109:
101:
100:
97:
96:
88:
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42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3846:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3806:
3800:
3797:. CRC Press.
3796:
3795:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3779:
3774:
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3762:
3758:
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3554:
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3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
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3486:
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3179:
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3141:
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3122:
3120:
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3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3005:
3000:
2994:
2991:. CRC Press.
2990:
2989:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2944:
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2914:
2909:
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2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
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2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2854:
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2813:
2809:
2804:
2799:
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2791:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2701:
2698:. CRC Press.
2697:
2696:
2688:
2685:
2674:on 2014-07-29
2673:
2669:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2591:
2588:. CRC Press.
2587:
2586:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2546:
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2542:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2382:. CRC Press.
2381:
2380:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2293:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2255:
2252:
2245:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:) uses wheat
2221:
2218:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2157:gluco-amylase
2154:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2094:A. luchuensis
2090:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2078:as above and
2077:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2006:
1998:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1855:A. luchuensis
1852:
1848:
1844:
1843:R. chinensis)
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1668:Each type of
1666:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1579:Lactobacillus
1576:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1510:Saccharomyces
1507:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1406:. Species of
1405:
1404:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1392:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1326:domestication
1319:
1317:
1315:
1305:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1286:organic acids
1283:
1279:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:carbohydrates
1188:
1187:grain spirits
1184:
1176:
1174:
1173:preparation.
1172:
1168:
1164:
1163:biotechnology
1160:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
985:
984:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
959:
957:
950:
947:
943:
940:
937:
933:
930:
927:
926:
925:
922:
920:
916:
913:into food or
912:
908:
904:
896:
894:
892:
888:
884:
874:
873:
868:
864:
860:
856:
855:
849:
847:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
818:
814:
811:(544) of the
810:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
772:
767:
763:
759:
758:chrysanthemum
755:
751:
750:
749:Shuowen Jiezi
745:
741:
737:
733:
732:
727:
723:
722:bamboo strips
719:
715:
711:
706: 150 BC
700:
699:
694:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
645:
641:
630:
629:Shang dynasty
626:
622:
618:
617:Five Classics
615:, one of the
614:
613:
608:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
484:
470:
458:
451:
444:
442:
439:
437:
436:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
406:fermentations
402:
400:
399:
394:
393:
388:
387:
382:
372:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:
340:
339:
329:
317:
315:
311:
308:
304:
299:
295:
292:liquor origin
291:
287:
282:
277:
275:
271:
266:
254:
252:
248:
245:
241:
236:
232:
228:
224:
216:
214:
210:
205:
200:
198:
194:
189:
177:
175:
171:
168:
164:
159:
155:
151:
147:
139:
137:
133:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
107:
102:
98:
93:
84:
81:
73:
63:
60:and simplify
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
3793:
3748:
3744:
3678:
3674:
3664:
3647:
3643:
3633:
3625:
3620:
3595:
3592:Food Control
3591:
3581:
3548:
3544:
3534:
3526:
3521:
3488:
3484:
3404:
3400:
3390:
3382:
3337:
3333:
3287:
3283:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3208:
3204:
3194:
3177:
3173:
3138:(1): 82–90.
3135:
3131:
3083:
3079:
3017:
3013:
3007:
2987:
2930:
2926:
2916:
2891:
2888:Food Control
2887:
2860:
2775:
2771:
2761:
2741:
2734:
2726:
2694:
2687:
2676:. Retrieved
2672:the original
2584:
2485:
2481:
2440:
2378:
2348:. Retrieved
2343:
2332:
2309:
2299:
2295:
2281:Chinese wine
2253:
2243:
2233:
2219:
2205:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2182:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2099:Huangyi Hong
2098:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2022:
2016:
2004:
2003:
1982:
1977:
1952:
1950:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1806:
1800:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1714:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1587:Streptomyces
1573:
1570:preservative
1566:organoleptic
1560:
1558:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:starters is
1528:
1522:
1506:Issatchenkia
1500:
1496:
1492:
1490:
1483:production.
1474:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1412:fumaric acid
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1359:
1357:
1347:
1339:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1311:
1301:
1293:
1290:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1218:
1211:liquefaction
1204:
1182:
1180:
1170:
1167:fuel ethanol
1156:
1140:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1069:
1059:(yeasts) or
1042:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1021:Qimin Yaoshu
1020:
1016:
1007:
1001:
983:Qimin Yaoshu
981:
979:
974:
970:
966:
962:
960:
955:
954:
923:
918:
902:
900:
890:
880:
870:
859:herb ferment
852:
850:
835:
823:
819:
816:
808:Qimin yaoshu
806:
802:
790:
775:
769:
761:
753:
747:
739:
729:
725:
696:
692:
691:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
654:
650:
646:
643:
625:Confucianism
610:
606:
605:
588:
580:
568:
560:
552:
544:
536:
528:
516:
512:
500:
494:
480:
468:
466:
454:
440:
433:
425:
414:rice vinegar
403:
396:
390:
384:
378:
368:
356:
343:
342:
337:
336:
335:
314:Hanyu Pinyin
251:Hanyu Pinyin
174:Hanyu Pinyin
152:liquor yeast
111:
76:
67:
44:
3020:. Lincoln.
2778:(8): 1142.
2128:acetic acid
1659:Actinomucor
1639:Actinomucor
1597:Clostridium
1591:Acetobacter
1583:Leuconostoc
1524:Rhodotorula
1461:Actinomucor
1453:Aspergillus
1416:lactic acid
1372:Aspergillus
1267:amino acids
1190:break down
1072:biomolecule
1038:Aspergillus
932:Inoculation
846:red starter
788:Han dynasty
768:molds. The
766:sporulating
738:, mentions
585:Philippines
553:mochi kouji
355:. The word
110:Packets of
3818:Categories
3036:1119664948
2678:2015-05-29
2350:10 January
2325:References
1813:, Fenjiu,
1397:Rhizomucor
1380:Amylomyces
1320:Microbiota
1306:or simply
1251:catabolism
1115:microflora
1028:indigenous
946:metabolism
942:Incubation
936:microbiota
897:Production
867:rice flour
826:in making
601:South Asia
408:, such as
383:) such as
70:April 2023
3829:Rice wine
3765:1472-765X
3695:1673-1581
3612:0956-7135
3565:1879-3460
3505:0740-0020
3431:1932-6203
3354:1879-3460
3340:: 80–84.
3304:1738-8872
3225:0963-9969
3044:cite book
2947:1432-0614
2908:0956-7135
2794:2076-2607
2512:0027-8424
2254:Sengmaiqu
2114:A. flavus
2110:A. oryzae
1819:Xifengjiu
1627:sun-dried
1455:, whilst
1225:symbiosis
1177:Functions
1139:As such,
1003:artemisia
887:glutinous
836:Qing yilu
784:substrate
718:Mawangdui
593:East Asia
573:Indonesia
561:mae domba
545:loog pang
410:soy sauce
3773:21554340
3713:22467371
3573:23978339
3513:22608236
3449:34788334
3401:PLOS ONE
3362:24742997
3312:24809292
2965:22526790
2812:32731589
2530:15590771
2265:See also
2234:Shumaiqu
2210:Shenzhen
2195:huangjiu
2171:. Thus,
2152:Monascus
2132:Monascus
2106:Monascus
2088:A. niger
2062:Monascus
2047:Monascus
2043:huangjiu
2038:Monascus
1851:A. niger
1747:jiuniang
1741:huangjiu
1674:Huangjiu
1606:Bacillus
1602:Bacillus
1575:Bacillus
1555:Bacteria
1445:Rhizopus
1408:Rhizopus
1385:Monascus
1376:Rhizopus
1271:peptides
1207:unmalted
1196:proteins
1065:bacteria
1047:, which
1044:Rhizopus
907:microbes
577:Malaysia
565:Cambodia
549:Thailand
529:banh men
430:Japanese
398:jiuniang
386:huangjiu
3704:3323945
3440:8598244
3409:Bibcode
2956:3339055
2803:7466055
2490:Bibcode
2276:Awamori
2027:Hokkien
2023:bangkok
1853:and/or
1841:and/or
1518:Candida
1420:zymases
1391:Absidia
1364:glucose
1328:in the
1282:alcohol
1159:aseptic
1103:brewery
1085:enzymes
1077:enzymes
1053:conidia
993:inocula
911:legumes
901:Making
828:vinegar
771:Shiming
744:almanac
677:). The
675:qu nigh
583:in the
557:Myanmar
533:Vietnam
445:History
274:Chinese
52:Please
3801:
3771:
3763:
3711:
3701:
3693:
3610:
3571:
3563:
3511:
3503:
3447:
3437:
3429:
3360:
3352:
3310:
3302:
3223:
3034:
3024:
3016:baijiu
2995:
2963:
2953:
2945:
2906:
2810:
2800:
2792:
2749:
2702:
2592:
2528:
2521:539767
2518:
2510:
2448:
2386:
2316:Taiwan
2308:, and
2208:(from
2206:Shenqu
2139:Hongqu
2120:Hongqu
2069:hongqu
2054:hongqu
2051:Gutian
2018:hóngqū
2005:Hongqu
1983:Hongqu
1902:baijiu
1871:baijiu
1866:baijiu
1817:, and
1811:Maotai
1807:baijiu
1768:Xiaoqu
1761:Xiaoqu
1727:(herb
1716:xiǎoqū
1703:Xiaoqu
1697:Xiaoqu
1686:baijiu
1514:Pichia
1400:, and
1303:jiàomǔ
1253:. The
1243:baijiu
1200:lipids
1198:, and
988:flours
799:barley
780:starch
728:. The
698:Zhouli
663:liquor
599:, and
579:, and
537:pacing
517:marcha
496:jiǔyào
482:qūbǐng
456:jiǔyào
420:, and
392:baijiu
2287:Notes
2271:Agkud
2244:Benqu
2190:màiqū
1887:umami
1663:Mucor
1643:Mucor
1612:Types
1487:Yeast
1481:toxin
1457:Mucor
1449:Mucor
1403:Mucor
1354:Molds
1259:poly-
1012:molds
795:wheat
659:grain
525:Nepal
521:India
509:Korea
505:nuruk
469:jiuqu
463:)
426:Jiuqu
422:paste
357:jiuqu
338:Jiuqu
320:jiǔmǔ
268:Jiumu
257:qūniè
191:Qunie
180:jiǔqū
112:jiuqu
95:Jiuqu
3799:ISBN
3769:PMID
3761:ISSN
3709:PMID
3691:ISSN
3608:ISSN
3569:PMID
3561:ISSN
3509:PMID
3501:ISSN
3445:PMID
3427:ISSN
3358:PMID
3350:ISSN
3308:PMID
3300:ISSN
3239:daqu
3221:ISSN
3050:link
3032:OCLC
3022:ISBN
2993:ISBN
2961:PMID
2943:ISSN
2904:ISSN
2808:PMID
2790:ISSN
2747:ISBN
2700:ISBN
2590:ISBN
2526:PMID
2508:ISSN
2446:ISBN
2384:ISBN
2352:2021
2228:bran
2220:Fuqu
2199:daqu
2173:hong
2169:xiao
2165:hong
2147:xiao
2145:and
2143:hong
2124:koji
2083:Qing
2066:Wuyi
2058:qumu
1953:daqu
1932:daqu
1925:daqu
1921:daqu
1917:daqu
1912:Daqu
1906:Daqu
1893:Daqu
1883:daqu
1879:xiao
1875:Daqu
1862:xiao
1835:Daqu
1831:daqu
1827:xiao
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